The reign of Ivan the Terrible. Ivan the Terrible - biography, information, personal life

And Elena Glinskaya. After the death of Ivan's father, his mother took over the reign, which lasted 5 years. After death Grand Duchess power passed into the hands of members of the Seven Boyars.

The childhood of the future tsar passed in an atmosphere of constant struggle for the main roles between the boyar families of the Shuiskys, Obolenskys, and Belskys. Scenes of boyar self-will and violence developed in Ivan suspicion and deep distrust of people. He marked his 15th birthday (the time of coming of age in the 16th century) only with disgraces and executions.

The beginning of the independent reign of Ivan IV was marked by an act political significance– On January 16, 1547, he assumed the title of king.

In 1549, a reform party was formed, headed by the Tsar’s favorite Alexei Adashev, and called the “Chosen Rada”. This included people close to the tsar - clerk Ivan Viskovaty, Metropolitan Macarius, priest Sylvester, A.M. Kurbsky. From this time begins the era of the reign of Ivan the Terrible, marked by successes in internal affairs and foreign policy.

Ivan IV, together with the Elected Rada, carried out a number of reforms aimed at centralizing the Russian state. The nature of the reforms was influenced by the Moscow uprising of 1547, which showed the tsar that his power was not autocratic.

The first step was the convening of the Zemsky Sobor, or Great Zemstvo Duma, in 1550. Ivan IV made it clear that the time of boyar autocracy was over, and he was taking the reins of government in own hands. The fruit of the meeting was a new edition of the judicial code, which repeated the Code of Laws of 1497, but corrected and supplemented by various decrees and letters related to the improvement of judicial procedures.

In 1551, a Church Council was convened, where the “Royal Questions” were read. All these questions, along with the answers, were divided into one hundred chapters, why cathedral code was named Stoglava. Stoglav has the same national significance as the Code of Laws. Church reform Ivan the Terrible concerned monastic land ownership. In May 1551, a decree was issued on the confiscation of all lands and lands transferred by the Boyar Duma to bishops and monasteries after death Vasily III. This law prohibited the church from acquiring new lands without reporting to the government.

Simultaneously with the judicial reform, the Elected Rada began to streamline localism.

In 1553, Ivan the Terrible introduced printing in Rus'. Printing became a new craft, headed by Ivan Fedorov.

In order to strengthen the armed forces, Adashev's government began organizing a permanent Streltsy army and formed a three-thousand-strong Streltsy detachment for the personal protection of the Tsar.

The central point of Ivan the Terrible's foreign policy was the final destruction of the Tatar power. In 1552 Kazan was taken, and in 1556 the tsarist troops captured Astrakhan. The defeat of the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates put an end to the three-century reign of the Tatars in the Volga region. Following this, the Bashkirs announced their voluntary accession to Russia, the rulers of the Great Nogai Horde and the Siberian Khanate, the princes of Pyatigorsk and Kabarda in the North Caucasus recognized themselves as vassals of the tsar.

But on the other hand, the conquest of Kazan and Astrakhan strengthened the hostile attitude of the Crimean Horde towards us. At that time, Ivan IV was busy with the Livonian War that began in 1556, so he abandoned the idea of ​​attacking Crimea.

At the second stage of reforms, a unified order system emerged. Foreign relations were concentrated in Ambassadorial order, military affairs - in Razryadny, land affairs - in Pomestny, complaints addressed to the tsar were accepted by the Petition Order. The Boyar Duma controlled the activities of the orders. Adoption order system led to the abolition of “feedings” in 1556.

With the coming to power of the Chosen Rada, Ivan the Terrible's reforms acquired a pronounced anti-boyar orientation.

Soon, Ivan IV began to become more and more burdened by his advisers, he was worried by the thought that they were leading him and did not give him free rein in anything. Therefore, in 1560, the king dispersed the Rada. This was followed by the era of executions and oprichnina.

In 1564 all royal family left the capital, taking with her the treasury and church treasures, and stopped in Alexandrovskaya Sloboda. Ivan the Terrible announced his abdication of the throne, counting on persuasion to return. In February 1565, the tsar returned to Moscow and assumed power on the terms he put forward.

Ivan the Terrible established the oprichnina with its own system of government, army and territory, and transferred the Moscow state (zemshchina) to the management of the Boyar Duma. The Tsar assumed unlimited powers to deal with “disobedient” boyars without consulting the Duma.

The oprichnina included the most economically profitable counties in the country, which served as the main source of income for the oprichnina treasury.

The Tsar insisted that the creation of the oprichnina was necessary to combat the abuse of power of the boyars and their treason. A period of bloody executions began, the beating of citizens in droves, and the barbaric destruction of cities. This period of the era of Ivan IV the Terrible was called the “Time of Troubles”.

Ivan Vasilyevich died on March 19, 1584. Russia in the era of Ivan the Terrible was first exalted, and then brought to great exhaustion and humiliation. The rise of industry and trade gave way to decline. A Russian enlightenment, which fell in the Tatar era, in Time of Troubles fell even lower.

Ivan IV Vasilievich (Grozny) – the first king of the Moscow Rurik dynasty, known for tough measures to strengthen his power and fight against the opposition boyars (oprichnina).

Also known as the “annexer” of the Astrakhan, Kazan and Siberian khanates to Moscow, as a ruler who tried to get for his state access to the Baltic. The article describes the biography of Ivan the Terrible: briefly, concisely and with the maximum number of historical facts.

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Biography and years of reign

The biography of Ivan Vasilyevich (the story of his life and even death) both as a king and as a person (husband and father) is full of various events. All these events had influence on the development of the state, some of them became the root cause of events called in historiography Time of Troubles.

Origin

Ivan IV Vasilyevich descended in a direct line from Moscow Rurikovich(by father, Vasily III) and from the Tatar Khan Mamai (by mother, Elena Glinskaya). He was also close relative of the Byzantine dynasty Paleologov (after grandmother Sophia Paleolog).

He was eldest son in the family(This was Vasily III’s second marriage, the first was childless). Born 08/25/1530 ( years of life: 1530-1584). Named after St. John the Baptist. The parents of Ivan the Terrible were very happy about the birth of their son.

Attention! It was in honor of the birth of his first son that Vasily III ordered the foundation of the famous Church of the Ascension near Moscow.

early years

Formally, Ivan became king at three years old. In 1533 his father fell ill and died.

Realizing that a young son might have problems with succession to the throne (at that time his uncles, the sons of Ivan III, were alive), Ivan the Terrible’s parents formed a regency council, the so-called Seven Boyars(not to be confused with the Seven Boyars of the Time of Troubles!).

It included the little king's closest relatives and the most influential boyars.

But the power of the council did not last long, soon many of its members either fled abroad, were killed (like Prince Yuri Dmitrovsky), or imprisoned (in 1537 Andrei Staritsky was imprisoned there, who tried to seize power in Moscow).

Ivan's mother came to power, Elena Glinskaya, which managed to carry out a number of domestic and foreign policy reforms. But in 1538 she died(possibly poisoned; who poisoned is unknown, presumably the Shuiskys), and power was seized boyars Shuisky(Vasily and Ivan).

Ivan Vasilyevich himself recalled the reign of the Shuisky brothers with a shudder. In his memoirs, he wrote that he and his younger brother Yuri were often left hungry and were not given clean clothes. Naturally, education the young king also no one was doing.

Beginning of independent rule

In 1546, the young ruler married Anastasia Romanova. It was at this time that Metropolitan Macarius, faithful to him, suggested royal wedding. Ivan agreed. After marriage and official crowning ( 1547) the need for the Shuisky regency disappeared (official years of reign: 1547-1584 ).

Attention! The crowning of the kingdom and the adoption of the official title of Tsar by Ivan IV was officially recognized by many countries: the Patriarchate of Constantinople, England, Spain, Florence, Denmark.

Family. Wives

There are a lot of rumors about Ivan the Terrible and his personal life. The king was officially married 6 times(although this figure is still not considered accurate):

1. Anastasia Romanova (wedding date - 1547) - first wife.
2. Maria Temryukovna (Cherkasy princess; wedding date - 1561) - second wife.
3. Marfa Sobakina (wedding date - 1571) - third wife.
4. Anna Koltovskaya (wedding date – 1572) is the fourth wife (a divorce was forcibly filed, the woman was tonsured into a monastery).
5. Anna Grigorievna Vasilchikova (wedding date - 1575) - fifth wife (divorced, tonsured a nun).
6. Maria Nagaya (wedding date - 1580) - sixth wife (survived her husband).

Historians know the names of at least 3 women, who could have been married to the tsar, but the fact is that in the Moscow state only first four marriages, all subsequent marriages of the king were rejected by the church (each time special permission was taken).

Ivan the Terrible with his wife.

Family. Children

From all the marriages the king had 5 sons and 3 daughters. Moreover, all the female children of Ivan the Terrible died in infancy. Two sons - the eldest Dmitry (from Anastasia) and the youngest Vasily (from Maria) also died before reaching the age of one year. Moreover, the eldest, Dmitry, did not die from illness. He drowned due to the carelessness (and possibly malice) of the nanny.

The second eldest son of Ivan IV - Ivan Ivanovich, according to historians, was killed by his father during a quarrel. He was married 3 times, but left no male heirs.

Two sons, the third Fedor (from Anastasia) and the youngest Dmitry (from Maria Nagoya) survived their father. But Dmitry died(or was killed) in Uglich in 1591, and Fedor was so weak in health that although he succeeded his father, he himself left no male heir.

Important! Thus, the Moscow dynasty was interrupted. This was the main reason for the Time of Troubles at the beginning of the 18th century.

Reforms of the Chosen Rada

In 1547, an uprising occurred in Moscow, which led to the fact that the Glinsky boyars, the tsar's closest relatives, were removed from power (many were killed). This uprising not only frightened Ivan IV, but also forced the young ruler to take a fresh look at the state of affairs in the state.

Ivan IV formed a small circle of close associates, called in historiography the Chosen Rada. Its members, under the leadership of the tsar, carried out a number of quite timely reforms in the state aimed at building state institutions.

Reforms of the elected council (table).

Oprichnina (1565-1572)

The reasons that Ivan IV took the path of tightening the regime of individual power in 1560:

• completion of the reform program of the 50s;
• differences of opinion with some members of the Chosen Rada;
• failures in foreign policy;
• the growth of boyar separatism.

The king was forced to resort to harsh measures immediately after boyar uprising of 1564. In 1565, through blackmail (flight to the Alexandrovskaya Sloboda), Ivan IV forced the Boyar Duma and the clergy to recognize the legitimacy division of the country into(royal possession) and zemshchina.

At the same time they began mass repression against the most prominent boyar families and the confiscation of their lands and property in favor of the oprichniki nobles, who formed the tsar’s personal army.

By the end of 1569, almost the entire boyar opposition in the country (including Metropolitan Philip and the Staritsky house) was completely destroyed.

The end of the oprichnina came only in 1572.

Foreign policy

The entire foreign policy of Ivan the Terrible can be briefly presented in the form of the following table:

The foreign policy of the first half of the reign was successful, but with the introduction of the oprichnina, the state no longer had enough strength and resources to conduct full-scale fighting. In the second half of the reign, only the annexation of the Siberian Khanate (1583) by Ermak’s forces can be considered a relative geopolitical success, such as the military campaign against Kazan and Astrakhan was at one time.

Death

The king died in March 1584 after a long illness.

Attention! Some researchers believe that the tsar could have been poisoned by the Belsky boyars close to him or Boris Godunov. The death of Ivan IV was especially beneficial for the latter, since the weak and weak-willed Fedor, who was his brother-in-law and was under his influence, “sat” on the throne.

Assessment of personality and activity

Cultural activities

It is known for certain that Ivan IV, possessing an explosive character, was one of the most educated people of their time. He was in constant correspondence with all the rulers of Europe, was author of numerous theological works and secular treatises on state structure.

It is also known that he favored the cause of education in every possible way (for which Ivan the Terrible became famous, except for the oprichnina):

• tried to open the first printing house in Moscow;
• established the Printing Yard;
• kept a whole unique library inherited from his grandmother Sofia Paleolog (currently considered lost).

About Ivan the Terrible responded with respect many of his contemporaries. Naturally, they accused him of excessive cruelty, but at the same time they said that he managed to create a strong state and strengthen your power.

Tsar Ivan the Terrible had an explosive character.

Relations with the church

Tsar was very pious, but this absolutely did not stop him from giving orders for executions and torturing people with his own hands. His relations with the church hierarchs (with the exception of Metropolitan Macarius) were very difficult.

Who is Ivan the Terrible (briefly)

Foreign policy of Ivan the Terrible. Russia in the XVI-XVII centuries.

Political results of the reign

Almost all historians of the 19th and 20th centuries admit that greatest number positive achievements occurred in the first half of the reign. The second half, directly related to the oprichnina, was extremely unsuccessful, although in this way the tsar managed to completely destroy the boyar opposition and create conditions for the promotion of a new, service class, on which the monarch could rely - the nobility.

There are a lot of rumors about Ivan the Terrible. It is they who do not make it possible to give an objective assessment of many of the king’s activities, or to correctly understand his actions or decisions. Perhaps his cruelty is a product of difficult childhood spent without parents, it is also possible that the death of his first wife Anastasia, who, according to some information, was poisoned by the boyars, led to his embitterment.

Fundamental changes in the system are associated with the name of Ivan IV government controlled, which were both constructive, progressive, and regressive in nature. These processes are visible in different periods of his reign, which makes it possible to identify and characterize them.

1533 - 1547 - the first period - childhood and adolescence - within which the rule took place with the participation regency council , created on the initiative of Elena Glinskaya (a council of guardians, which included representatives of noble boyar families, which operated until the tsar came of age).

The selected period took place against the backdrop of fierce hostility between the boyar families - the Belskys, Shuiskys, Obolenskys, Buturlins, Zakharyins, Penkovs, Kubenskys, Barbashins, Mikulskys, Vorontsovs, Morozovs, Glinskys - for the possession of the Moscow throne, which created an unfavorable atmosphere in terms of the personal formation of Ivan IV.

1547 - 1565 - an independent period of rule, marked by constructive reforms of Ivan IV and the “Chosen Rada” government he created.

The main events of this time included:

1547 - the crowning of Ivan IV, which was seen as an act of legal (legitimate) accession and official assignment of the title "Tsar and Grand Duke of All Rus'" on the one hand, and involving the church in terms of justification state power(from the position of the “Osifites” - “the king is God’s vicegerent on earth”), - on the other. The same time was marked by the creation of the “Chosen Rada” - a circle of close friends, which included A. M. Kurbsky, M. I. Vorotynsky, I. A. Viskovaty, A. Adashev, clergyman Sylvester, Metropolitan Macarius. The circle was assigned a legislative mission;

1549 - marked by the holding of the first Zemsky Sobor (Cathedral of Reconciliation) and the creation estate-representative monarchy (representatives of privileged classes - boyars, nobility, clergy);

1550 - associated with an appeal to To the Code of Law - a set of laws of state life (a revised version of the Code of Laws of Ivan III), which reflected steps to create a vertical power structure;

1551 - creation Stoglava- a set of canons of intra-church life;

1552 - organization of the system Orders - the prototype of the executive power in the country (Posolsky, Petition, Razryadny, Streletsky, etc.). It is noteworthy that individual Orders appeared under Ivan III, but during the reign of Ivan IV, the formation of executive power began to be systemic.

In fact, every year was marked by an internal state event aimed at strengthening the vertical of state power.

In the second half of the 1550s. happened:

Abolition of the system of localism and feeding (in connection with changes in Ivan IV’s views on the boyar environment), compilation of the “List of the Tsar’s Court,” which included a selected thousand children of noble boyar families;

Introduction of a unified taxation system - plow (share system) and the introduction of a single monetary unit - Moscow ruble, Novgorod kopeck - for the purpose of controlled formation and replenishment of the state treasury and as a sign of memory of his mother Elena Glinskaya, who began the monetary reform;

Introduction of a “local land use system” - instead of patrimonial ( in the central part of Russia ), which led to Ivan IV’s final break with the boyars.

Thus, the vertical of power created during this period, was represented by the following political institutions:

1. Tsar and Grand Duke all Rus';

2. The elected council, which developed the main reforms;

3. Zemsky Sobor (estate-representative monarchy);

4. Orders;

5. Zemstvos - lips and districts - local government bodies.

This model of the administrative hierarchy allows us to conclude that at this stage of the reign of Ivan IV, the idea of ​​separation of powers into legislative, executive and judicial was introduced (especially since in Western Europe it received conceptual design in the works of the French thinker S. L. Montesquieu), which anticipated the possible path of development of Russia in the direction of building a constitutional monarchy.

It was in these internal transformations that were very organic both for the state apparatus of that time and for Russian society, it seems constructive principle reign of Ivan IV.

Foreign policy during the selected period was aimed at annexing the territories captured by the assimilated Tatar-Mongols (Kazan Khanate, Astrakhan Khanate, Siberian Khanate, Crimean Khanate), in particular:

in 1552 - Kazan was captured;

in 1556 - Astrakhan was annexed;

1558 - associated with the beginning of the Livonian War for possession of the Baltic Sea coast, the territory of which was almost entirely captured by the Streltsy army of Ivan IV. It should be especially emphasized that by the time of Ivan IV, the princely squad, representing a large army, was a morally outdated form of strengthening the state by force. It was necessary to introduce a new model, on a fundamentally different basis (entirely on state subsidies). In this regard, the Streletsky army was created, in which they served "by fatherland" (noble children who received a salary and estate land), and "by instrument" (streltsy who received land for collective use). It was with this army that Ivan IV carried out victorious campaigns, expanding the territorial borders of Russia.

Cultural life developed in the aspect of “inheritance and renewal.” Following spiritual religious traditions was visible in architecture and painting (the construction of churches continued - the Church of the Ascension, cathedrals - St. Basil's Cathedral, in which architects, builders, and painters were involved). However, fundamentally new forms appeared that enriched Russian culture. In particular, the breakthrough was book printing, which developed in 1553, and in 1564 the first dated printed book by Ivan Fedorov, “The Apostle,” was published, ten years later a Russian primer was created. It is known that, possessing the gift of abstract thinking, endowed with musical talent, owning artistic words, Ivan IV himself composed hymns and composed canons.

The foreign policy line of Ivan IV, consistently aimed at expanding territorial borders Russian state, was also a reflection of internal political transformations that were rational and constructive in nature.

Hypothetically, if Russia had continued to develop along this path, then the position of a constitutional monarchy would have been strengthened in its state structure already in the 16th century.

However, this progressive path of development was interrupted by Ivan IV himself. In this regard, special mention should be made of the period 1565 - 1572, went down in history as oprichnina. It was there that constructive initiatives were curtailed and a course was taken towards the absolutization of power: personal motivation came to the fore in the implementation of government.

The reasons for Ivan IV the Terrible’s break with the boyars include:

1. The desire to concentrate power in one’s own hands;

2. To this end, he needed to bring the politically and economically powerful class of boyars (who became an economically powerful class thanks to the richest lands that were privately owned and generated income) beyond the limits of political influence;

3. To achieve this, Ivan the Terrible came up with a proposal to introduce a universal system of land ownership, which involved the establishment of state control over state land ( besides ), distribution of land plots for rent in order to replenish the state treasury;

4. The boyars were offered distant lands ( zemshchina) ;

5. The disagreement of the boyars led to the demonstrative abandonment of the throne by Ivan the Terrible, and most importantly, to the continuation Livonian War, in which the boyars saw an opportunity to compensate for the lost patrimonial lands.

Based on the above reasons, it is legal to give definitions of oprichnina:

· Oprich - state land;

· The policy of ousting the boyars from their patrimonial lands and annexing them to the state;

· A form of mass repression and terror established against the boyar opposition;

A form of genocide committed against one's own people by creating oprichnina army(and in fact, few punitive squad, which recruited people loyal to the king; Quite odious figures appeared in the circle of Ivan IV the Terrible himself - Malyuta Skuratov, the Basmanov brothers).

This form made it possible to eliminate all political opposition in the shortest possible time and rule the state with sole authority.

The consequences of the oprichnina were sharply negative for the entire population: increased absolute monarchy in its harshest form - terror and mass repression, actually reflecting genocide against its own people. However, one can also see a positive moment for the state: state control was established over all the land.

1572 - 1584 - last period of reign Ivan IV the Terrible, which outlines steps to stabilize domestic life, in particular:

in 1581 - “reserved summers” were introduced: “St. George’s Day” was abolished - a measure aimed at strictly attaching peasants to their owners due to “disorder and vacillation” among the masses after the oprichnina.

In addition, in 1583, the Livonian War ended, in which Russia lost (in fact, from the beginning of the oprichnina, the attention of Ivan IV was switched to resolving internal issues, and the Livonian War was sluggish in nature). In 1582, Ivan IV the Terrible, having signed a truce with Livonia, ceded all his conquests in Livonia and Lithuania; and in 1583, having made peace with Sweden, he ceded to her his lands along the southern coast of the Gulf of Finland.

We especially note that in 1582 - 1584. - the first campaigns of Ermak to Siberia were organized, with whose name the beginning of the development of Siberian lands is associated;

in 1584 - the largest sea trading port was founded in Arkhangelsk.

After the reign of Ivan IV the Terrible, his middle son ascended the throne - 1584 - 1598 - reign of Fyodor Ioannovich, which has rightly been described as “Fyodor reigned - Boris ruled.”

The main events of this period of reign may include:

The removal of Maria Nagoya and Tsarevich Dmitry (the last son of Ivan IV the Terrible) to Uglich and the exile of boyar Bogdan Belsky, which contributed to a further escalation of tensions in relations between Uglich and Moscow, intensifying the struggle political forces, focused on places;

1586 - 1589. - establishment of the institution of patriarchy in Russia;

1595- with the direct participation of Boris Godunov, the lands of the southern coast of the Gulf of Finland (which were ceded to Sweden as a result of the Livonian War) were returned to Moscow;

1597- “prescribed summers” - a five-year search for peasants, after which the person who fled was considered free.

Thus, the reign of Ivan the Terrible was associated with controversial processes. On the one hand, positive steps were taken towards the development of a constitutional monarchy (pre-oprichine stage), on the other - a clearly expressed absolutization of power in its most severe form of genocide against its own people. It was this form that led the state to the Great Troubles - popular protest against the arbitrariness of state power.

Literature:

1. Karamzin N. M. History of the Russian State: XII volumes in 4 books. / N. M. Karamzin. - M., 1998.

2. Klyuchevsky V. O. Selected lectures of the “Course of Russian History” / V. O. Klyuchevsky. - Rostov n/d: Phoenix, 2002. - 672 p.

3. Platonov S.F. Complete course of lectures on Russian history / S.F. Platonov. - St. Petersburg: Crystal, 2000. - 839 p.

4. History of Russia from ancient times to the end of the 17th century: Textbook. manual for universities / A. P. Novoseltsev, A. N. Sakharov, V. I. Buganov, V. D. Nazarov. - M.: AST, 2000. - 575 p.

5. Skrynnikov R. G. Ivan the Terrible and his time / R. G. Skrynnikov. - M., 1991.

6. History of Russia. Textbook / ed. A. S. Orlova, N. A. Georgieva. - M.: Prospekt, 2002. - 544 p.

Ivan IV the Terrible was the son of Elena Glinskaya and Grand Duke Vasily III. He went down in Russian history as a very controversial personality. On the one hand, he was a reformer and a talented publicist, the author of brilliant literary “messages” to various statesmen of that time, and on the other, a cruel tyrant and a person with a sick psyche. Historians are still wondering who Ivan the Terrible is - a genius or a villain?

Brief description of the board

Tsar Ivan the Terrible began to rule with the participation of the Chosen Rada from the late 1540s. Under him, Zemsky Sobors began to be convened, and the Law Code of 1550 was created. Reforms were carried out in the judicial and management systems- partial local self-government was introduced (zemstvo, provincial and other reforms). After the tsar suspected Prince Kurbsky of treason, the oprichnina was established (a set of administrative and military measures to strengthen tsarist power and destroy the opposition). Under Ivan IV, trade ties were established with Britain (1553), and a printing house was founded in Moscow. The Kazan (in 1552) and Astrakhan (in 1556) khanates were conquered.

In the period 1558-1583, the Livonian War was actively carried out. The Tsar wanted to gain access to the Baltic Sea. The stubborn struggle against the Crimean Khan Devlet-Girey did not subside. After the victory in the Battle of Molodin (1572), the Moscow state gained virtual independence and strengthened its rights to the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates, and also began to annex Siberia (1581). However domestic politics The tsar, after a series of failures during the Livonian War, acquired a strictly repressive character against the boyars and the trading elite. Many years of exhausting war on different fronts led to an increase and strengthening of the dependence of the peasantry. The king was remembered more by his contemporaries for his excessive cruelty. Based on the above, it is very difficult to unambiguously answer the question of who Ivan the Terrible was. Is this undoubtedly extraordinary ruler a genius or a villain?

Childhood

After the death of his father, the three-year-old boy was raised by his mother, who was his regent. But she died on the night of April 3-4, 1538. Until 1547, when the prince came of age, the country was ruled by boyars. The future monarch Ivan IV the Terrible grew up in the midst of palace coups due to the constant struggle for power between the warring boyar families of the Belsky and Shuisky. The boy saw murders, he was surrounded by intrigue and violence. All this left an indelible imprint on his personality and contributed to the development of such traits as suspicion, vindictiveness and cruelty.

Ivan showed a tendency to mock living beings already in childhood, and his inner circle approved of this. At the end of December 1543, the thirteen-year-old orphan prince showed his temper for the first time. He arrested one of the most influential boyars - Prince Andrei Shuisky - and “ordered him to be given to the hounds, and the hounds took him and killed him when they dragged him to prison.” “From that time (the chronicle notes) the boyars began to have great fear of the tsar.”

The Great Fire and the Moscow Uprising

One of the strongest youthful impressions of the tsar was the “great fire” and the Moscow uprising of 1547. 1,700 people died in the fire. Then the Kremlin, various churches and monasteries burned. By his seventeenth birthday, Ivan had already committed so many executions and other atrocities that he perceived the devastating fire in Moscow as retribution for his sins. In a letter to the church council of 1551, he recalled: “The Lord punished me for my sins, now with a flood, now with a pestilence, and I still did not repent. In the end, God sent great fires, and fear entered my soul, and trembling entered my bones, and my spirit is troubled." Rumors spread throughout the capital that the “villains” Glinsky were to blame for the fire. After the reprisal of one of them - a relative of the tsar - the rebellious people came to the village of Vorobyovo, where the Grand Duke was hiding, and demanded the extradition of other boyars from this family. With great difficulty it was possible to convince the angry crowd to disperse. As soon as the danger had passed, the king ordered the main conspirators to be captured and executed.

Royal wedding

The main goal of the tsar, outlined already in his youth, was unlimited autocratic power. It relied on the concept of “Moscow - the Third Rome” created under Vasily III, which became the ideological basis of the Moscow autocracy. Ivan, given that his paternal grandmother was the niece of the last Byzantine emperor Constantine, considered himself a descendant of the Roman rulers. Therefore, on January 16, 1547, the crowning of Grand Duke Ivan took place in the Assumption Cathedral. Symbols of royal dignity were placed on him: the Monomakh cap, the barma and the cross.

The royal title made it possible to take a more advantageous diplomatic position in relation to Western European countries. The title of Grand Duke among Europeans is the same as “Grand Duke” or “Prince”. “Tsar” was not interpreted at all or was translated as “emperor”. Thus, Ivan stood on a par with the ruler of the Holy Roman Empire. However, this information does not answer the question of what Ivan the Terrible was like. Was this man a genius or a villain?

Wars

In 1550-1551, the autocrat personally took part in the In 1552, Kazan fell, and then the Astrakhan Khanate (1556). They became dependent on the Khan of Siberia, Ediger, who also submitted to Moscow. In 1553, trade relations with Britain were established. In 1558, the monarch started the Livonian War for possession of the Baltic Sea coast. At first the battles went well for Moscow. In 1560, the Livonian army was completely defeated, and the Livonian Order ceased to exist.

Internal changes and the Livonian War

Serious changes began within the country. Around 1560, the tsar quarreled with the Chosen Rada and subjected its members to persecution. Ivan became especially cruel to the boyars after the unexpected death of Tsarina Anastasia, suspecting that she had been poisoned. Adashev and Sylvester unsuccessfully advised the Tsar to end the Livonian War. However, in 1563 troops took Polotsk. At that time it was a serious Lithuanian fortress. The autocrat was especially proud of this particular victory, which was won after the break with the Rada. But already in 1564 the army suffered a serious defeat. The king began to look for the “culprits”. Executions and other repressions began.

Oprichnina

The reign of Ivan the Terrible went on as usual. The autocrat became increasingly imbued with the idea of ​​establishing a personal dictatorship. In 1565, he announced the creation of the oprichnina. In essence, the state was divided into two parts: the zemshchina and the oprichnina. Each guardsman had to take an oath of allegiance to the autocrat and promised not to have contact with the zemstvo. They all wore black robes, like monastic robes.

Mounted guardsmen were marked with special insignia. They attached gloomy signs of the era to their saddles: brooms to drive away treason, and dog heads to gnaw it out. With the help of the oprichniki, who were exempted by the tsar from any kind of responsibility, Ivan the Terrible took away the boyar estates by force and transferred them to the oprichnina nobles. Executions and persecutions were accompanied by unprecedented terror and robbery of the population.

A significant event was the Novgorod pogrom of 1570. The reason for it was the suspicion of Novgorod's desire to secede into Lithuania. The monarch personally led the campaign. All the villages were plundered along the way. During this campaign, Malyuta Skuratov strangled Metropolitan Philip in the Tver monastery, who tried to admonish Grozny and then resist him. It is believed that the number of Novgorodians killed was about 10-15 thousand. At that time, no more than 30 thousand people lived in the city.

Abolition of the oprichnina

It is believed that the reasons for the oprichnina of Ivan the Terrible are personal in nature. A difficult childhood left its mark on his psyche. The fear of conspiracies and betrayals became paranoia. In 1572, the tsar abolished the oprichnina. He was persuaded to this decision by the unseemly role played by his oprichnina comrades during the attack on Moscow by the Crimean Khan in 1571. The army of the guardsmen could not do anything. Essentially, it ran away. The Tatars set Moscow on fire. The Kremlin was also damaged by the fire. It is very difficult to understand such a person as Ivan the Terrible. It is impossible to say for sure whether he was a genius or a villain.

Results of the oprichnina

Tsar Ivan the Terrible greatly undermined the economy of his state with the oprichnina. The separation had a very detrimental effect. A significant part of the land was destroyed and devastated. In 1581, in order to prevent desolation, Ivan instituted a ban on peasants changing owners, which took place on St. George’s Day. This contributed to even greater oppression and the establishment of serfdom.

The foreign policy of Ivan IV the Terrible was also not particularly successful. The Livonian War ended in complete failure with the loss of territories. The objective results of the reign of Ivan the Terrible were visible even during his lifetime. In fact, it was the failure of most endeavors. Since 1578, the king stopped carrying out executions. These times of Ivan the Terrible were also well remembered by his contemporaries. The king became even more pious. He ordered memorial lists of those killed on his orders to be made and sent to monasteries for commemoration. In his will of 1579, he repented of what he had done. The history of the oprichnina fully reveals

Murder of a son

Periods of repentance and prayer were followed by terrible fits of rage. It was during one of them in 1582 that the autocrat accidentally killed his son Ivan, hitting him in the temple with a staff with a metal tip. 11 days later he died. The personal murder of the heir horrified the tsar, since his other son Fedor was not able to rule, because he was weak in mind. The king sent a huge sum to the monastery for the remembrance of the soul of his child. He even thought about becoming a monk himself.

Wives

The reign of Tsar Ivan the Terrible was rich in royal marriages. The exact number of the autocrat’s wives is not known for certain, but most likely there were eight of them (including the one-day marriage). In addition to the children who died in childhood, the monarch had three sons. His first marriage to Anastasia Zakharyina-Koshkina brought him two descendants. The second wife of the autocrat was the daughter of a Kabardian nobleman - the third wife was Marfa Sobakina, who unexpectedly died three weeks after the wedding. According to church canons, it was impossible to marry more than three times. In May 1572, a church council was held. He allowed a fourth marriage. Anna Koltovskaya became the sovereign's wife. However, for treason, the king imprisoned her in a monastery that same year. The fifth wife was Anna Vasilchikova. She died in 1579. The sixth, most likely, was Vasilisa Melentyeva. The last wedding took place in 1580 with Maria Naga. In 1582, their son Dmitry was born, who was killed in Uglich after the death of the autocrat.

Results

Ivan 4 remained in history not only as a tyrant. The monarch was one of the most educated people of his era. He had a simply phenomenal memory and was distinguished by the erudition of a theologian. The king is the author of numerous messages that are of great interest from a creative point of view. Ivan wrote music and texts for divine services. Grozny contributed to the development of book printing. It was built under him. However, the reign of the king was essentially a war against his people. Under him, state terror reached simply unprecedented proportions. The autocrat strengthened his power in every possible way, not disdaining any methods. Ivan incomprehensibly combined talents with extreme cruelty, piety with sexual debauchery. Modern specialists in the field of psychology they believe that absolute power disfigures the personality. And only a few are able to cope with this burden and not lose any human traits. Nevertheless, the indisputable fact is that the personality of the king left a huge imprint on the entire subsequent history of the country.

In Russian history, a figure Ivan the Terrible is one of the brightest and most controversial. Before your eyes there appears the image of an elderly, gloomy man, suspecting everyone of treason, and without pity putting to death even the most faithful associates.

It cannot be said that this portrait is without foundation, but it certainly does not give a complete picture of the king. Ivan the Terrible was head of state longer than anyone in Russian history - 50 years and 105 days. This era can be divided into several periods, each of which had its own Tsar Ivan.

What was the monarch like in his youth?

Orphan on the throne

Royal descent was never a guarantee of a happy childhood - Ivan IV knew this own experience. He was only three years old when his father died, Grand Duke Vasily III. The principle of transferring power from father to son instead of the ancient “ladder” right “from older brother to younger brother” had not yet been established, so young Ivan could well have been pushed away from the throne by his uncles.

Vasily III blesses his son Ivan IV before his death. Photo: Commons.wikimedia.org

This was avoided by creating a guardian council, which included the brother of Vasily III, and the most noble boyars, and Ivan's mother Elena Glinskaya. And from the most dangerous contender, appanage prince Dmitrovsky Yuri Ivanovich, got rid of him by imprisoning him.

In 1538, at the age of 30, Elena Glinskaya dies. 8-year-old Ivan finds himself alone among adults who are tearing him apart in a struggle for power. All those nightmares that will haunt the adult king come from childhood.

Ivan himself recalled that he and his brother began to be raised as strangers or the last poor, even to the point of “deprivation of clothing and food.”

The Moscow fire shocked the Tsar and elevated Sylvester

Having suffered as a child, Ivan, having become a full-fledged ruler, intended to pursue a hard line based on his own opinion. But six months after the coronation, in the summer of 1547, a terrible fire occurred in Moscow, followed by an uprising of Muscovites. The rebels blamed everything on the Tsar's relatives, the Glinskys.

The houses of the monarch's relatives were looted and burned, and some representatives of the Glinsky family were killed. Ivan himself took refuge in the village of Vorobyovo, and watched the rebels under his windows.

At the moment of shock, the priest Sylvester appeared, who stated that everything that happened was God’s wrath for Ivan’s unrighteous actions. The king, essentially still a youth, was impressed by the monologue of Sylvester, an experienced and intelligent man, and fell under his influence. For years to come, the priest became one of the most influential people in Russia.

John I, not IV

Ivan Vasilyevich became the first head of state who was officially crowned king, and bore the title “tsar”. This step was made in order to equalize the status of the Russian ruler with the monarchs of other countries. Ivan's predecessors were simply "Grand Dukes". Ivan's royal title was not immediately recognized by Europeans, but was still recognized.

Moreover, during his lifetime, Ivan the Terrible was referred to exclusively as “Tsar Ivan Vasilyevich,” without indicating a serial number. For the first time such a thing appeared only with the accession to the throne in 1740 infant emperor Ivan Antonovich. Ioann Antonovich became known as John III Antonovich. This is evidenced by those that have reached us. rare coins with the inscription “John III, by the grace of God, Emperor and Autocrat of All Russia.” Ivan the Terrible became Ivan I, and his predecessors did not receive any serial numbers. And only in the 19th century Nikolai Karamzin in “History of the Russian State” began counting with Ivan Kalita, after which Ivan the Terrible became Ivan IV.

First wife, forever beloved

Immediately after his coronation in 1547, 16-year-old Ivan expressed his intention to get married. A brideshow was held, at which she was chosen Anastasia Romanovna Zakharyina-Yuryeva. The girl did not come from the most noble family, which caused discontent among the boyars. The young king, however, insisted on his choice. “This Queen was so wise, virtuous, pious and influential that she was revered and loved by all her subordinates. The Grand Duke was young and hot-tempered, but she controlled him with amazing meekness and intelligence,” he wrote about her English diplomat Jerome Horsey.

Of all the many women of Ivan the Terrible, Anastasia was the only one for whom the sincerity of the king’s feelings was beyond doubt. She knew how to soften Ivan’s character, like a woman, without getting into big politics. And this was enough for the monarch to be guided in state affairs by reason and not by anger.

Modern researchers believe that the illness and death of Queen Anastasia in 1560 was caused by poisoning. Ivan himself had the same suspicions. The death of his wife embittered him and pushed him to fight the boyar elites using the bloodiest methods.

Reforms of the “Elected Rada”

In the period 1549 - 1560, Ivan governed the state, relying on the informal government, which was one of its members and future oppositionist Prince Andrei Kurbsky called the “Chosen Rada”.

The composition of this government is still debated, but the three key figures in it were the priest Sylvester, Prince Kurbsky and okolnichy Alexey Adashev.

During the period of the “Elected Rada,” reforms were carried out aimed at creating a centralized state with developed legislation and public institutions.

In 1549, the first Zemsky Sobor was convened with representatives from all classes, except the peasantry. The Council approved the Code of Laws, which came into force in 1550 - the first legal act in Russian history proclaimed to be the only source of law.

In 1550, the “chosen thousand” of Moscow nobles received estates within 60-70 km from Moscow and a semi-regular infantry army armed with firearms was formed. In 1555, the “Code of Service” was approved, which determined the procedure for the formation and organization of the armed forces in the new conditions that arose after overcoming feudal fragmentation. Under Ivan the Terrible, a system of orders was formed: Petition, Ambassadorial, Local, Streletsky, Pushkarsky, Bronny, Robbery, Printed, Sokolnichiy, Zemsky orders. This was another step to streamline the state system.

Kazan took, Astrakhan took

The most successful military operations during the reign of Ivan the Terrible occurred in the first period of his reign. From 1547 to 1552, the tsar carried out three campaigns against Kazan. These campaigns were associated with the continuous raids of the Khanate's troops on Russian lands. During the third campaign, Kazan was taken, and the entire middle Volga region was annexed to Russia. At the same time, the Kazan nobility was actively invited to Russian service, which turned out to be a very reasonable policy that made it possible to build normal relations between different peoples.

In 1556, the much weaker Khanate of Astrakhan was successfully annexed to Russia.

Following the capture of Kazan, the process of Russian advance into Siberia began.

Under Ivan IV, the territory of Rus' increased from 2.8 million sq. km to 5.4 million sq. km. km, which made Russia territorially larger than the rest of Europe.

The end of a wonderful era

In 1558, the Livonian War began, which began successfully for Russia, thanks to which the country got a chance to gain a foothold on the shores of the Baltic. However, the war became protracted, and Russian troops began to suffer setbacks. The tsar was irritated by conflicts and quarrels between the governors, and besides, his views on the further development of the state began to differ from the opinions of his closest associates.

The strongest blow to Ivan’s trust in the “Elected Rada” was dealt by a story that happened in 1553. The king fell seriously ill, finding himself between life and death. Ivan insisted on the boyars' oath heir, Tsarevich Dmitry. However, Sylvester and Adashev unexpectedly spoke out against this idea, proposing to transfer the throne Ivan's brother Vladimir, Prince Staritsky. The king, however, recovered, but did not forget the behavior of those close to him, which he considered a betrayal of everything he fought for.

Death Queen Anastasia in 1560 became the last straw for Ivan. The king stopped trusting his immediate circle, which fell into disgrace. Alexei Adashev died in custody, Sylvester left the capital, living the rest of his life in the Solovetsky Monastery. Prince Kurbsky, being a governor, at the height of the Livonian War, fled to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, from where he wrote revealing letters to Ivan the Terrible, accusing the monarch of betraying his ideals.

Having crossed the threshold of his 30th birthday, the tsar decided that the path to strengthening the state lay through the extermination of the elite, which put spokes in his wheels. Completely different times were coming.