For a long time in the literature, the idea has been repeatedly expressed that democracy will naturally and inevitably become a consequence of the development of statehood. The concept was interpreted as a natural state that will occur immediately at a certain stage, regardless of the assistance or resistance of individual individuals or their associations. The very first to use the term ancient greek thinkers... Consider further in detail, (basic concepts).

Terminology

Democracy is a concept introduced into practice by the ancient Greeks. Literally it means Is a form of government, which involves the participation of citizens in it, their equality before the norms of the law, the provision of certain political freedoms and rights to the individual. In the classification proposed by Aristotle, this state of society expressed the "power of all", which differed from the aristocracy and monarchy.

Democracy: concept, types and forms

This state of society is considered in several ways. Thus, democracy is a concept that expresses the way of organizing and working of government agencies and non-governmental organizations. It is also called the established and type of state. When they say that they mean the presence of all these meanings. At the same time, the state has a number of distinctive features. These include:

1. Recognition of the people as the highest source of power.
2. Election of key government agencies.
3. Equality of citizens, first of all, in the process of exercising their electoral rights.
4. Submission of the minority to the majority in the course of decision-making.

Democracy (the concept, types and forms of this institution) have been studied by various scientists. As a result of the analysis of theoretical positions and practical experience, thinkers came to the conclusion that this state of society cannot exist without the state. In the literature, the concept of direct democracy is highlighted. It presupposes the exercise of the will by the people through elected bodies. They are, in particular, local power structures, parliaments, etc. The concept of direct democracy presupposes the realization of the will of the population or specific social associations through elections, referendums, meetings. In this case, citizens independently resolve certain issues. However, these are far from all the external manifestations that characterize democracy. The concept and types of an institution can be considered in the context of certain spheres of life: social, economic, cultural, and so on.

State character

Many authors, explaining what democracy is, the concept, signs of this institution are characterized according to a certain system. First of all, they indicate belonging to the state regime. This is manifested in the delegation by the population of their powers to government agencies. Citizens participate in the management of affairs directly or through elected structures. The population cannot exercise independently all the power that belongs to it. Therefore, it delegates part of its powers to government agencies. The election of authorized structures is another manifestation of the state character of democracy. In addition, it is expressed in the ability of the authorities to influence the activities and behavior of citizens, to subordinate them to control the social sphere.

Political democracy concept

This institution, like the market economy, cannot exist without competition. V this case it is about a pluralistic system and opposition. This is manifested in the fact that democracy, the concept and forms of the institution, in particular, form the basis of the programs of parties in their struggle for state power. In such a state of society, the diversity of existing opinions, ideological approaches to solving pressing issues is taken into account. In a democracy, state censorship and dictatorship are excluded. The legislation contains provisions that guarantee pluralism. These include the right to choose, secret ballot, etc. The concept and principles of democracy are based, first of all, on the equality of citizens. It gives you a choice between different options, directions of development.

Guarantee of realization of rights

The concept of democracy in society is associated with the legal capabilities of every citizen enshrined at the legislative level. different areas life. In particular, we are talking about economic, social, civil, cultural and other rights. At the same time, responsibilities for citizens are established. Legality acts as a regime of social political life... It manifests itself in the establishment of requirements for all subjects, first of all, for government agencies. The latter should be created and operate on the basis of the unswerving and strict implementation of existing norms. Each state body, official should have only the necessary amount of authority. Democracy is a concept that is associated with the mutual responsibility of citizens and the state. It involves the establishment of a requirement to refrain from actions that violate freedoms and rights, create obstacles for the performance of duties by the participants in the system.

Functions

Explaining the concept of democracy, it is necessary to say separately about the tasks that this institution implements. The functions are key areas of influence on social relations. Their goal is to increase the activity of the population in the management of state affairs. The concept of democracy is associated not with a static, but with a dynamic state of society. In this regard, the functions of the institution in certain periods of historical development have undergone certain changes. Researchers currently divide them into two groups. The first ones reveal the connection with social relations, the second ones - express the internal tasks of the state. Among the most significant functions of the institute, the following should be highlighted:

Social relationships

The relationship with them is reflected in the first three functions mentioned above. Political power in the state is organized on a democratic basis. Within the framework of this activity, self-organization of the population (self-government) is envisaged. It acts as a source of state power and is expressed in the presence of appropriate connections between the subjects. The regulatory and compromise function is to ensure the pluralism of the activities of the participants in relations within the framework of cooperation, consolidation and concentration of different forces around the interests of the population and the state. The regulation of the legal statuses of the subjects acts as a legal means of ensuring this function. In the process of developing and making decisions, only democracy can have a socially stimulating influence on the state. The concept and forms of this institution ensure the optimal service of the authorities to the population, the consideration and application of public opinion, the activity of citizens. This is manifested, in particular, in the ability of citizens to participate in referendums, send letters, statements, and so on.

State tasks

The concept of "representative democracy" is associated with the ability of the population to form bodies of state power and territorial self-government. This is done by voting. Elections in a democratic state are secret, universal, equal and direct. Ensuring the work of government agencies within their competence in accordance with the requirements of the legislation is carried out through the implementation of the control function. It also presupposes the accountability of all parts of the administration of the country. The protective function of democracy is considered one of the key ones. It involves the provision of security by state bodies, protection of dignity and honor, freedoms and rights of the individual, forms of ownership, suppression and prevention of violations of the law.

Initial Requirements

They represent the principles on which a democratic regime is based. Their recognition by the international community is conditioned by the desire to strengthen the anti-totalitarian position. The key principles are:

Ways of realizing the will of the population

The functions of democracy are carried out through its institutions and forms. There are quite a few of the latter. Forms of democracy are seen as its external expression. The key ones include:

1. Participation of citizens in the management of social and state affairs. It is realized through representative democracy. In this case, power is exercised by revealing the will of persons authorized by the people in elected bodies. Citizens can participate in government directly (through a referendum, for example).
2. Creation and operation of a system of state bodies based on publicity, legality, changeability, electivity, separation of powers. These principles prevent abuse of social authority and power.
3. Legal, first of all, constitutional consolidation of the system of freedoms, duties and rights of a citizen and a person, ensuring their protection in accordance with established international standards.

Institutions

They represent the legal and legitimate components of the system that directly shape the democratic regime through the implementation of the initial requirements. As a prerequisite for the legality of any institution is its legal registration. Legitimacy is ensured by public acceptance and organizational structure. Institutions may differ in their original purpose when addressing current state tasks... In particular, there are:

1. Structural institutions. These include deputy commissions, parliamentary sessions, etc.
2. Functional institutions. They are the orders of the voters, public opinion, etc.

Depending on the legal significance, the following institutions are distinguished:

Self management

It is based on the independent regulation, organization and activities of participants in civil relations. Population sets certain rules and norms of behavior, carries out organizational actions. The people have the right to make decisions and implement them. Within the framework of self-government, the subject and the object of activity coincide. This means that members only recognize the authority of their own association. Self-government is based on the principles of equality, freedom, participation in administration. This term is usually used to refer to several levels of human association:

1. To the whole society as a whole. In this case, they speak of public self-government.
2. To separate territories. In this case, local and regional self-government takes place.
3. For specific industries.
4. To public associations.

Power of the people as a social value

Democracy at all times has been understood and interpreted in various ways. However, there is no doubt that, as a legal and political value, it has become an integral component of the organization of the world. Meanwhile, there is no such final stage in which all its subjects would be satisfied. A person who is experiencing restrictions enters into a dispute with the state, not finding justice in the legislation. A conflict arises when the inequality of merit and natural abilities is not taken into account, there is no recognition depending on experience, skill, maturity, etc. The desire for justice cannot be fully satisfied. In society, there should be a constant awakening of will, the development of the desire to express one's opinion, views, to be active.

The intrinsic value of democracy is expressed through its social significance. It, in turn, consists in serving for the benefit of the individual, state, society. Democracy contributes to the establishment of correspondence between the actually operating and formally proclaimed principles of equality, freedom and justice. It ensures their implementation in state and social life. The system of democracy combines social and power principles. It contributes to the formation of an atmosphere of harmony between the interests of the state and the individual, the achievement of a compromise between the subjects. In a democratic regime, the participants in the relationship realize the benefits of partnership and solidarity, harmony and peace. The instrumental value of the institute is manifested through its functional purpose... Democracy is a way of solving state and public affairs. It allows you to participate in the creation of government agencies and local power structures, independently organize movements, trade unions, parties, and provide protection from illegal actions. Democracy presupposes control over the activities of elected institutions and other subjects of the system. The personal value of the institution is expressed through recognition individual rights... They are formally enshrined in normative acts, and are actually ensured through the formation of material, spiritual, legal and other guarantees.

Within the framework of a democratic regime, liability for failure to fulfill obligations is envisaged. Democracy does not act as a means of achieving personal ambitious goals by infringing on the freedoms, interests, and rights of others. For the people who are ready to recognize the autonomy of the individual and his responsibility, this institution forms the best opportunities for the implementation of existing humanistic values: social creativity, justice, equality and freedom. At the same time, the participation of the state in the process of ensuring guarantees and protecting the interests of the population is also of undoubted importance. This is its main function in a democratic society.

DEMOCRACY

DEMOCRACY

D. and state of not identities. concepts. State-va can be undemocratic and anti-democratic. Such are, for example, despotic. monarchy in the era of slavery, absolute monarchies during the disintegration of feudalism, fascist and semi-fascist states in the era of the general crisis of capitalism. D. is a kind of state (bourgeois-democratic republic, nar.-democratic republic, Soviet republic), which is characterized by an official. recognition of the principle of subordination of the minority to the majority (see V. I. Lenin, ibid., vol. 25, p. 428). But D. cannot be understood in isolation from the essence and role of the state, it should not be identified with the subordination of the minority to the majority. The recognition by the state of the principle of subordination of the minority to the majority has a different meaning in the antagonistic one. socio-economic formations and in the period of transition from capitalism to socialism. The will of the majority can act. state will only when determined. conditions associated with the nature of ownership of the means of production, with the class composition of society. For this it is necessary that the main. the tools and means of production were not in the hands of an insignificant minority of members of society, but in the hands of the majority or the entire people. In antagonistic. class formations - slaveholding, feudal and capitalist - dominated by private ownership of tools and means of production. This determines the nature of societies. and state. system and serves ch. the reason for the domination of the exploiting minority and the subordination of the majority to it. The experience of history shows that the people cannot rule if they are economical. or non-economical by coercion, or at the same time by both methods, they are forced to work for the exploitative.

Socialist. the revolution, which won in the USSR, and then in a number of other countries, turned the main. tools and means of production in societies. own. Thanks to this, true democracy became possible. D. depends on the form of ownership and production. relationships and, in turn, influences them. "Any democracy, like any political one in general (inevitable until the abolition of classes is completed, until a classless society has been created), ultimately serves production and is ultimately determined by the production relations of a given society" (V.I. Lenin, ibid, v. 32, p. 60).

For valid. domination of the will of the majority is necessary for the class, in fact, exercising state. leadership of society, alone (or together with his allies) constituted the majority of the country's population. This condition is noted in the capitalist. society, as it did not exist in the epochs preceding capitalism. This condition arises in the era of the dictatorship of the proletariat. For valid. identification and implementation of the will of the majority is necessary for the state to proclaim and guarantee the rights and freedoms of citizens, ensuring the implementation of this will in legislation, management and other forms of manifestation of state. authorities. This condition is not found in any antagonistic class. society. It is evident under the conditions of the dictatorship of the proletariat.

Bourges. the state recognizes the principle of subordination of the minority to the majority and establishes certain political. (parliaments, local governments, etc.) and legal. institutions (political freedom of citizens, equality of citizens under the law and before the law, etc.) in order to give their class will the appearance of the general public. will or will of the majority of the people. Any statements of the bourges. ideologues about abstract freedom and equality without taking into account the nature of production. relations, the class composition of the population and the real balance of forces in the class struggle are a deception of the working people. Bourges. state-in formal recognition of universal freedom and equality covers the fact. lack of freedom and economical. inequality of the vast majority of members of the capitalist. society and the dictatorship of the bourgeoisie.

The bourgeoisie divides the rights of the individual into human and civil rights. The individual considered in connection with the so-called. civil society, calls a person, and the same individual who lives and acts in a political. sphere, he calls a citizen. This division of individual rights is caused by antagonistic. nature is capitalistic. society and the nature of the bourgeois. state-va, a cut represents and protects the interests of not society as a whole, but only selfish. the interests of a minority of its members - the bourgeoisie. Modern bourgeois. politician leaders and theorists hypocritically speak of the sacredness and inviolability of human rights and freedoms. What is deliberately suppressed by the goal of the capitalist. production is not the satisfaction of the material and cultural needs of a person, but the extraction of capitalist. arrived. The campaign against the rights and freedoms won by the many years of struggle of the working people is being left in the shadows. The term "D." imperialists designate the domination of imperialism in the international. arena directed against peoples who are truly free or freed from social and colonial slavery.

Bourges. D. in different countries and in different historical. stages has a different degree of development. Free competition usually corresponds to D. in political. life of society, and capitalistic. monopolies - to political. reactions along all lines. During the monopolistic period. capitalism, class contradictions are aggravated (see Imperialism). The working class unites everything democratic. forces, to-rye oppose anti-democratic. tendencies of capitalism. "That stripped-down democracy and that limited social security that workers have under capitalism were achieved and maintained as a result of many years of sharp battles" (Foster W., The superiority of world socialism over world capitalism, see "To help political self-education", 1958, no. 8, p. 66). The bourgeoisie, seeing the danger for itself in the development of dialectics, is trying to reduce it to naught by planting and using facts. privileges of the minority and, above all, such as wealth, bourgeois. education, connections, as well as a direct rejection of D. The working class cannot be indifferent to the forms of domination of the bourgeoisie. The struggle for the establishment, preservation, and expansion of dialecticism in the capitalist. countries has tremendous for the course and outcome of the entire class struggle of the working masses. The outcome of the struggle in the present. era depends on the relationship of class forces in the capitalist. countries on a cut of creatures. influenced by the growth of the power of the world socialist. systems and the rise of the national-liberate. movement.

Bourges. D., being a great historian. progress compared to the feud. state, is nevertheless "a paradise for the rich, a trap and deception for the exploited, for the poor" (V. I. Lenin, Soch., 4th ed., vol. 28, p. 222). The socialist revolution radically changes the class essence and content of dialecticism, shifts the center of gravity from the formal recognition of rights and freedoms to the actual. their feasibility (guarantees D.) and extends democracy not only to the area of ​​political. life, but also for all other spheres of society. life. Under capitalism, dialectical activity is carried out exclusively in political terms. region and is reduced mainly to the democracy of elections to parliaments and local governments. Socialist. revolution establishes equality for all working people, destroys, nat. and racial oppression, proclaims the right to and rest, freedom of conscience in the sense of freedom of religion and anti-religion. propaganda, creates conditions for the free activity of numerous. societies. workers' organizations - parties, trade unions and other voluntary societies. All this means an unprecedented expansion of money for the working people. Under the dictatorship of the proletariat, democratic. rights and freedoms are real and guaranteed. The content is socialist. D. is characterized by the constant and decisive participation of the broadest masses of the country's population in political affairs. life, in the management of the state, the equality of citizens and their real opportunity to use democratic. rights and freedoms: freedom of speech, press, meetings and assemblies, processions and demonstrations, active and passive elect. right, regardless of gender, nat. and race.

Organization and activities of socialist. state-va, communist. parties and other associations of workers that make up the system of the dictatorship of the proletariat are based on the principles of democratic centralism.

The working class can exercise its dictatorship only by relying on the democratic. will present. institutions of a new, higher type. The classics of Marxism have given deep those present. institutions, to-rye were created by the Paris Commune of 1871. Lenin created the doctrine of Soviets, the fundamental feature of which he saw, in particular, in the fact that the deputies of the council, i.e. a kind of parliamentarians, "must work themselves, implement their own laws, themselves check what happens in life, themselves answer directly to their voters" (ibid., vol. 25, p. 396).

A necessary feature and obligatory. condition socialist. D. in the period of transition from capitalism to socialism is the suppression of the resistance of the exploiters, the degree and forms of which are different in different countries and at different stages of their development and depend on Ch. arr. from the force of resistance of the overthrown classes. Hence the variety of methods of suppression. Moreover, none of them can be absolutized. In the USSR, during the period of transition to socialism, the exploiters were deprived of their electorate. right. With the creation of socialist. societies. building Sov. the state passed to the universal elect. right. Lenin foresaw that in the future socialist. revolutions will not necessarily be used to deprive the bourgeoisie of political. right. In the PRC and other countries of the People. democracy, the matter did without depriving the bourgeoisie of the elect. rights, except for that part of it, edges put up armed resistance to the new government.

The man is socialistic. society has full rights in farms. life of society. He possesses in the sphere of production and distribution of material goods DOS. rights: the right to work, to rest, security in old age, in case of illness and disability, the right to personal property, the right to inherit it. Socialist. state, attaching great importance to these socio-economic. rights, in no way diminishes the role and importance of citizens' freedoms in other spheres of life. Bourges. and right-wing socialist. the authors contrast socio-economic. rights and material security of citizens of socialist. state of their political. freedom. Many of them consider the United States, England and some other capitalist. the country as a standard of political. D. For example, G. Stassen in the book. "Man was born to be free" (N. Stassen, Man was meant to be free, 1951) depicts the United States and England as bastions of political. freedom of citizens. However, speaking about freedom of speech, press, personality, bourgeois. politicians and scientists are silent about such freedoms as freedom of the people from exploitation, freedom of workers from economics. crises, unemployment and poverty. There are no such freedoms in the capitalist. countries. These freedoms are characteristic of the socialist. society.

Socialist. D., which is world-historical. progress compared to the bourgeois. state and bourgeois. D., represents the sovereignty and full rights of the working people, headed by the working class. It is distinguished by being consistent. peacefulness. She opposes the imperialist. wars, considers them as the gravest crime. "The imperialist war," wrote Lenin, "is a triple, one might say, democracy (a - every war replaces" rights "with violence; b - in general there is a denial of democracy; c - the imperialist war completely equates republics with monarchies), but the awakening and growth of the socialist uprising against imperialism is inextricably linked with the growth of democratic resistance and indignation "(Soch., 4th ed., vol. 23, p. 13).

Bourges. D., firstly, does not exclude international. capitalist policy. monopolies, which are characterized by the "cold war", preparation for a world war, military. adventures, unheard-of national-colonial oppression, strangulation and robbery of weak countries by the "advanced" capitalist. powers; secondly, capitalistic is used. monopolies against the toiling masses fighting for. Under the cover of the protection of D. bourgeois. states carry out legislative, administrative, police and judicial measures directed against the movement of supporters of peace, progressive organizations that expose preparations for a new world war, advocating the prohibition of atomic and hydrogen weapons. Wrestling bunks. masses for democracy, rights and freedoms are inextricably intertwined with the struggle for peace.

Socialist. In its development, Denmark goes through a period of transition from capitalism to socialism, a period of socialism and the gradual transition from socialism to communism. The regularity of its development is the expansion and strengthening, the increase in material opportunities and guarantees of democracy and those freedoms and rights that flow from the power of the people.

The XXI Congress of the CPSU (1959) noted that the period of the extensive construction of communism in the USSR is characterized by the all-round deployment of socialist. By the involvement of the broadest strata of the population in all societies. deeds, increasing the role of societies. org-tions in all regions of states., farms. and the cultural life of the country, the gradual transfer of societies. org-tions of a number of state. functions, strengthening the guarantees of democratic. freedoms and human rights.

Marxism-Leninism proceeds from the fact that D. as a politician. the institution will die out under communism with the same inevitability as the state, "the functions of public administration will lose their political character and turn into direct people's management of the affairs of society" (Khrushchev N.S., On the control figures of the development of the national economy of the USSR for 1959-1965 years, 1959, p. 119), but the principles of dialecticism will not disappear, but are transformed. Performing societies. functions that will remain under communism (planned and organized distribution of labor, regulation of working hours, etc.) will be carried out on the basis of self-government of the working masses. In societies. In organizations of working people, complete dialecticism will be the main principle of their initiative. Lenin wrote that in the communist. society will be "democracy is really complete, becoming a habit and therefore dying out ... Full democracy is equal to no democracy. This is not, but the truth!" ("Marxism about the State", 1958, p. 55).

Lit .: K. Marx, Critique of the Gotha Program, M., 1953; Engels F., The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State, M., 1953; Lenin V.I., State and Revolution, Works, 4th ed., Vol. 25; his own, Theses and report on bourgeois democracy and the dictatorship of the proletariat on March 4 [at the First Congress of the Communist International on March 2-6, 1919], ibid., vol. 28; his, the Proletarian Revolution and the renegade Kautsky, in the same place; his, Speech on deceiving the people with slogans of freedom and equality on May 19 [at the I All-Russian Congress on Extracurricular Education on May 6-19, 1919], ibid., v. 29; his, Marxism about the state, M., 1958; Khrushchev NS, On the control figures for the development of the national economy of the USSR for 1959-1965. Report at the extraordinary XXI Congress of the CPSU on January 27, 1959, Moscow, 1959; Declaration of the Meeting of Representatives of the Communist and Workers' Parties of the Socialist Countries, held in Moscow on November 14-16, 1957, Moscow, 1957; Mao Tse-tung, On the Dictatorship of People's Democracy, 1949; About people's democracy in European countries. Sat. articles, M., 1956; Peskov EB and Shabad V. Α., Socialist democracy and its "critics", M., 1957; Shkadarevich I.I., Democracy of millions, M., 1958; Kadlecová E., Socialisticke vlastenectví, 1957; Bystřina I., Lidová demokracie, Praha, 1957; Flegle Α., Geschichte der Democratie, Bd l - Altertums, Nürnberg, 1880; Glover T. R., Democracy in the Ancient World, Camb., 1927; Сroiset Α., Les démocraties antiques, P., 1909; Lesku W. Ε. Η., Democracy and Liberty, v. 1-2, L., 1908; Ruggiero G. de, Storia del liberalismo europeo, Bari, 1925; Vorgeaud S., The rise oi Modern Democracy in Old and New England, L., 1894; Hattersley, Alan F., A short History of Democracy, Camb., 1930, containing bibliography; Allen J. W., A history of Political Thought in the Sixteenth Century, L., 1928; Figgis J. N., Studies of Political Thought from Gerson to Grotius, 2 éd., L.-Edin., 1916; Gooch G. P., English Democratic Ideas in the Seventeenth century, 2 éd., Camb., 1927.

A. Denisov. Moscow.

Philosophical Encyclopedia. In 5 volumes - M .: Soviet encyclopedia. Edited by F. V. Konstantinov. 1960-1970 .

DEMOCRACY

DEMOCRACY (from the Greek δημοκρατία-power of the people) is a form of government in which the popular rule of the majority of the population is carried out in the interests of the majority and with the help of the majority. For the first time, a democratic state system was implemented in Ancient Greece in Athens under Solon (7th century BC) and developed by Cleisthenes (6th century BC) in his “representative government” - the Council of Five Hundred. “Democracy” itself began to be used to denote the form of the state system that existed in Athens later, from about mid-century. 5 c. Originally used was “isonomia” (Ισονομία - equality of all before the law) and related “isegoria” (? Σηγορία-the same right for all citizens to speak in the assembly and cast a vote), “isokratia” (? Σοκρατία-sovereignty). Ancient authors(Plato, Aristotle, Herodotus) considered this form of government as a polis system, in which only free citizens-natives have full and equal rights. Meteki (immigrants, semi-citizens) were significantly limited in their rights, and the slaves had no rights at all.

The democratic freedoms of the modern era are significantly broader than the freedoms of the ancient republic based on slavery, since they become a formal right of everyone, and not the privilege of a few. The special development of the rule of law for all citizens, state and public organizations received in the concept of democracy A. de Tocqueville, the most influential in modern socio-political research. Tocqueville understood by "democracy" not only a certain form of organization of society. In his opinion, this is also a process taking place in society. Tocqueville was the first to warn about the dangers of combining formal equality and absolute power - “democratic despotism”.

The philosophical basis of democracy is the relationship between freedom and equality, as socio-political values, the real embodiment of which takes place in the corresponding state institutions of democracy, direct or representative. The latter is now most common in the form of a rule of law with its supreme power, which, however, does not apply to the inalienable and inalienable rights of the individual. The guarantee of individual rights in such a state is the separation of powers - legislative, executive and judicial, decentralization of power in the socio-economic and cultural spheres (the theory of "institutional infrastructure" of the authorities). At the same time, the protection of the rights of citizens is undertaken by democratic associations - civil and political. They become intermediaries between the central government and various strata of society, representing the interests of the latter, defending the inalienable right of citizens to independence and free initiative, which is subordinate to the law. Freedom of the press and trial by jury also serve the real implementation of human rights in society.

According to the theorists of democracy of the 20th century. (for example, I. Schumpeter and W. Rostow), liberal ones, such as respect for the individual and equality of all people, freedom of speech and press, freedom of conscience, etc., are best ensured precisely by expanding the participation of the masses in political life. R. Dahl and C. Lindblom with the help of "polyarchy" carry out a more realistic analysis of existing democratic systems, leaving aside abstract democratic ideals. The real embodiment of democracy is significantly hampered by the progressive concentration of economic power in modern society in the hands of the “ruling elite,” creating oligarchic power and politics, often turning from democracy into kleptocracy.

Lit .: Dal R. Introduction to the theory of democracy. M., 1991; Leipmrt A. Democracy in multi-component societies. M „1997; Novgorodtsev P.I.The crisis of modern legal consciousness. M., 1909; Political Science: new directions. M., 1999; Tocqueville A. De. Democracy in America. M „1992; Schumpeter I. Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy. M "1995; Halt P. R. Governing the Economy: The Politics of Stale Intervention in Britain and France. Cambr., 1986: Huffman G. State, Power and Democracy. Brighton, 1988; f / ordlmser E. n the Autonomy of the Democratic State. Cambr., 1981. Consolidated Encyclopedia of Aphorisms

Democracy cannot be defined at all - everything is so confused here. The very belief in the good of a democratic order cannot be considered a delusion. The latter is blind faith in democracy as the only possible form of social order; it does not take into account different meanings this word, and there are at least six of them: democracy as social order, a certain type of this device, free organization, legal order, social democracy and, finally, the dictatorship of the party.

1. So, democracy, first and foremost, is a social structure under which the people rule, choosing their rulers, or power. If so, the expression "people's democracy" sounds very strange, because it is the same as "people's democracy", that is, "butter oil". "Democracy" comes from the Greek demos - people and kratein - to rule.

2. Democracy often means not democracy in general, but a certain type, form of a democratic system. There are many forms of democracy. One of them is direct democracy, which existed before in some Swiss cantons, when all the people gathered at the so-called Landesgemeinde (general land meetings) and solved the most important state problems; to some extent, direct democracy also exists in the Swiss confederation. Another form of democracy is parliamentary democracy, when the people elect their representatives (parliamentarians). It can also take various forms: for example, there is presidential democracy (the people elect a president, to whom the ministers are accountable) and party democracy (ministers are responsible to the Diet). It is sometimes argued that the only "true" is some form of democracy. This is sheer superstition.

3. From democracy as a system should be distinguished free social order That is, one in which, for example, freedom of the press, assembly, etc. flourishes. Under a democratic system, such freedoms are limited (for example, during a war), and vice versa, under a non-democratic system, people sometimes enjoy many freedoms.

4. Sometimes by democracy they mean legality, although legality is something else. Legal is the social order in which the law is respected. In many states with a democratic system, the law is not respected, and vice versa, there are states that are not democratic, but legal. The picture of the state of the latter type is drawn by a well-known anecdote from the time of Frederick the Great, in whose state there was no smell of democracy. Royal officials took away his mill from the miller. The miller announced that he would reach Berlin, for, he said, "there are still judges in Berlin." This means that this miller believed in the legal nature of his undemocratic state.

5. You should also not confuse a democratic system, relatively free and legal, with the so-called "social democracy". The latter is a society in which there are no psychological barriers between different social strata. The fact that social democracy and a democratic system are different things is evidenced by the existence of countries with a democratic system, in which, however, such partitions are too large, and vice versa, there are countries with an undemocratic system in which people belonging to different social strata do not not separated from each other. Such social democracy often exists even in countries ruled by a tyrant who seeks to turn all his citizens into slaves.

6. Finally, the dictatorship of the party is called democracy; for example, Marxist-Leninists are accustomed to this; tyrants in backward countries, where there is often only one party, use a similar terminology. To call such a system democracy is a gross delusion, because there is no democracy here in any of the above meanings: both in the meaning of a democratic system, and in freedom, etc.

Along with the confusion over the question of democracy and the claims of the existence of some kind of only "true" democracy, there is another very common misconception. Some people are convinced that democracy or one of the forms of a democratic system that has justified itself in a given country or region should be introduced all over the world - in China, Ethiopia, and Brazil. However, out of 160 states existing in the world, only 21 states have a democratic system. This superstition is one of the worst and most shameful signs of inertia.

D. as a form of state-political. device arose along with the emergence of the state-va, replacing the primitive clan and tribal self-government. Unlike other forms of state. devices, under D., the rule of the majority is officially recognized, the equality of citizens, the rule of law, the election is carried out DOS. organs of the state, etc. Distinguish between spontaneous. and will present. D. In the first case, DOS. decisions are made directly by the voters (for example, at popular meetings, through referendums), in the second

elected institutions (e.g. parliaments). But in the conditions of an exploitative society, democratic.

forms and institutions inevitably remain limited and formal, and through D. as a form of state, the domination of that class is carried out, in whose hands are the means of production and political. power. The most developed historian, the type of D. in an exploitative society, is the bourgeois. D. is a form of the dictatorship of the bourgeoisie.

Genuinely scientific. understanding of dialecticism was first developed by the classics of Marxism-Leninism. Analyzing the essence of the bourgeois. D., Marxism-Leninism first of all reveals its class content, emphasizing that no matter what development the democratic. institutions and citizens. rights, as long as there is private ownership of the means of production and the exploitation of labor, while political. power is in the hands of the bourgeoisie; dialectic is inevitably limited and hypocritical. It is limited because it does not apply to the most important thing - to the conditions of material life of people, where blatant inequality and exploitation of some social classes and groups by others continue to exist; hypocritical because it retains all the contradictions between the proclaimed slogans and reality.

Revealing the essence of the bourgeois. D. as a form of class domination of the capitalists, Marxism-Leninism singles out Ch. a feature that distinguishes it from other forms of exploitative states: in the bourgeois-democratic. In the republic, the power of capital is exercised not directly, but indirectly. The presence of a general elect. law, parliament and the government responsible to it, the jury, the system of local self-government bodies, the officially proclaimed inviolability of the person and home, freedom of the press and assembly - all this creates the appearance of the "autocracy of the people." In fact, for a democratic. the power of big capital is hidden in a shell.

But the limited class character of the bourgeois. D. does not mean that its institutions cannot be used by the working class. Democratic. principles, rights, institutions - the result of the struggle of the people. masses. However limited and formal they may be under capitalism, the working class uses them to defend their economists. and polit. interests, for self-organization and education of the working people. Although with a democratic. In the republic, the state remains a machine for the oppression of one class by another, an instrument of the dictatorship of the bourgeoisie, this does not mean. that the form of oppression is indifferent to the working class. The more rights and freedoms the proletariat gains, the more better conditions for its organization in the revolution. party, to promote the ideas of scientific. communism and the inclusion of broad bunks. the masses in the struggle against the power of capital, the wider the possibilities of using democratic. institutions are capitalistic. states, have their own press, seek the election of their representatives to local government bodies, send deputies to parliament. Therefore, the working class is fighting for the preservation and development of D. In the conditions of modern. revolutionary. the era of transition from capitalism to socialism, the struggle for dialectic becomes part of struggle for socialism.

Bourges. D. -huge progress in comparison with the state. -Political. organization mid-century. society. But it was and remains a form of class rule by the bourgeoisie, which K. Kautsky and other leaders of the Second International, who defended the idea of ​​the so-called. pure dialectic and who believed that on the basis of such a dialectic, irrespective of its class content, the proletariat is capable of solving the revolutionaries facing it. tasks. But history has refuted these concepts. If the use of workers is democratic. rights and institutions do threaten to affect DOS. economical interests and polit. the rule of the bourgeoisie, the last from

seems to be from the legality it has created, grossly tramples on D. and resorts to direct violence.

With the emergence of the Sov. state-va a new historian has appeared. For the first time socialism returns the concept of dialectic to its true meaning, fills democracy and principles with real content. But this happens but as a result of only one revolution. the transfer of power to the working class and its allies. The formation and development of socialist. D. is long enough. process. Main principles of socialist. democracy were formulated by K. Marx and F. Engels and entered the theory of scientific. communism as part of the doctrine of socialist. state-ve. VI Lenin not only comprehensively developed this teaching, but also directly directed the construction of socialist. E. The principles of a new type of dialectic have become a reality in many. countries. Socialist. D. has become an established phenomenon. The development of socialist. D. found a detailed embodiment in the Constitution of the USSR.

For socialist. D. are characterized by a trace. peculiarities. Being qualitatively new in its class content, political. phenomenon, it inherits all the best from the democratic. gains of the working people, adapts them to new conditions, significantly renews and enriches them.

Along with the creative. using the heritage of the past, socialism creates completely new, previously unknown principles and forms of D. The possibilities for this are inherent in the very nature of socialism. building. So, the domination of societies. ownership of the means of production means that the object is democratic. management and control are the economy and culture, to-rye in the conditions of modern. state-monopoly capitalism is only partially regulated by the bourgeois. state-wom.

The fundamental feature of the socialist. D. also consists in the fact that it is constantly developing and improving. With the construction of a developed socialist. society, and with the further advancement to communism, new means and methods for the participation of workers in the affairs of society are being born. The steady growth of societies. wealth expands the social rights of workers, and the development of culture, ideological and morality. consciousness of the people creates the preconditions for the ever wider use of political. freedoms.

Democracy in political. system of socialism is ensured by a combination of methods will represent. and direct. D. In the USSR, the principle of plank beds. representation embodied in the Councils of Nar. deputies, to-rye make up, from top to bottom, a single system of government bodies, managing the affairs of the state. Direct methods D. are used under socialism on a scale that was unthinkable in the past. This is vsenar. discussion of drafts of the most important laws, activity of party, trade union, Komsomol and other societies. org-tions, bunk system. control, farms. cooperatives, creative. unions, various societies (by profession, by interests, by place of residence, by department. Affiliation, etc.), through which citizens are widely involved in the decision of political., productions. and household issues.

The guiding force of these organizations is socialist. society is communist. the consignment. The leadership of society by the communist. party provides Ch. condition of true democracy of the state. power - the compliance of its policy with the interests of the entire people. In a developed socialist. society in the USSR has developed a socio-political. and the ideological unity of the entire people. Identity of fundamental interests of owls. people does not deny, however, the diversity is specific. interests of various social, national, age, prof. and other groups of the population. Acting as a spokesman for the common interests of all Sov. people, the party at the same time takes into account and coordinates the specific. interests of various groups of the population, ensures their satisfaction in line with a single policy. Party leadership guarantees, etc., in principle important condition democracy of the state. power - the compliance of its policy with the interests of the progressive development of society. Building its activities on the basis of Marxist-Leninist theory, the CPSU is seeking not only max. satisfaction of the material and spiritual needs of the working people, but also the constant movement towards the goals indicated by the scientific. communism.

One of the fundamental principles of democracy is equality. Under capitalism, the implementation of this principle was limited only by the formal equality of citizens before the law. Transfer of production funds to companies. property caused a radical revolution in the entire system of societies. relationships. The conditions for the exploitation of man by man were eliminated and thus the only reliable and real foundation for equality was created. Political equality of citizens of the socialist. society is clearly manifested in the fact that all citizens can participate in the affairs of the state, regardless of racial and nat. affiliation, gender, religion, education, settledness, social origin, property. position and past performance. Gigantic progress has been made in overcoming different types social inequality, the affirmation of the equality of nations, equality of men and women.

Socialist. D. creates conditions for personal freedom. Socialist constitutions. countries, other laws along with broad socio-economic. rights proclaimed freedom of speech, press, assembly, freedom of conscience, inviolability of home, privacy of correspondence and other citizens. freedom. Moreover, these inalienable elements of dialectic are not simply declared, but are actually guaranteed by the transfer into the hands of the people of the means of production, of all societies. wealth, the very way of life under socialism. In socialist. countries, the rights and freedoms of citizens are inseparable from their responsibilities.

Socialist. Under communism, democracy will develop into a system of communist social self-government, which, however, does not mean the abolition of democratic. principles and institutions. On the contrary, in the communist. society, they should receive further development, and only the state will die out as a political instrument. power and that form of D., edges connected with him.

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Democracy is direct and indirect. In the first case, the government is governed directly by its citizens. In the second, the country is governed by deputies to whom the population delegates these powers. In this case, the government takes place on behalf of the people.

Democracy has its own defining characteristics. Basic characteristic feature a democratic system is human freedom, which is elevated to the rank of law. That is, the action of any normative act and document adopted by state authorities should not limit this freedom, infringe on it.

Democracy implies that power should not be concentrated in one hand. Therefore, the government has different levels - regional and local. It is they who directly interact with the population and are called upon to take into account their wishes and aspirations in their activities, to be guided by them. Any citizen living in this territory has the right to directly interact with government officials.

The completeness of interaction between citizens and authorities is not limited to either religious or ideological views, or nationality. A democratic society and state assumes that all its members and citizens are equal. In such a country and society, everyone is given freedom of speech and the opportunity to create and participate in any religious, social or political organization.

The people have the right to express their opinion through referendums and to freely choose the authorities and the head of state. This is not only a right, but also a civic duty. The participation of the population, which is a conglomeration of people with different religious views and different mentalities, in elections allows all groups of the population to realize their ability to govern the country. This allows the views and needs of all citizens to be taken into account.

Democracy is that version of the state structure in which it is possible to achieve a consensus between all strata and public associations representing the state.

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Totalitarian democracy is also called imitation democracy, since in this political regime the power of the people is only declared, but in reality ordinary citizens do not take part in governing the state or participate minimally.

Totalitarianism and its signs

Totalitarian democracy is one of the forms of totalitarianism, but at the same time, outwardly, it retains the features of a democratic system: the replacement of the head of state, the election of government bodies, universal suffrage, etc.

Totalitarianism is a system of government that presupposes the establishment of total control of all aspects of the life of society in general and each person in particular. At the same time, the state forcibly regulates the life of all members of society, completely depriving them of the right to independence not only in actions, but also in thoughts.

The main signs of totalitarianism: the existence of a single state ideology, which must be supported by all residents of the country; tough censorship; state control over the mass media; relations in the country are based on the following position: “only what is recognized by the authorities is allowed, everything else is prohibited”; police control of the entire society is conducted in order to identify dissidents; bureaucracy in all spheres of life.

Under totalitarianism, the border between the state and society has actually been erased, since everything is controlled and strictly regulated. The area of ​​a person's personal life is very limited.

Totalitarian democracy in history

The reasons for the formation of a totalitarian democracy are still controversial. Such systems are formed, as a rule, after the abrupt establishment of democracy in countries with an authoritarian or totalitarian regime: a political coup, revolution, etc. Usually, in these cases, the population is still not politically competent enough, which is often abused by people who have come to power. Despite the fact that the authorities elect by popular vote, the results of these elections are always predictable in advance. Moreover, such stability is largely ensured not through direct manipulation. Administrative resources, control of the media, public organizations, the economy and investments - these are the tools that the ruling elite uses under such a system as totalitarian democracy.

A striking example of such a political system in history is the state structure of the USSR. Despite the proclamation of the constitution and the declaration of universal equality, in fact the country was ruled by the highest ranks of the Communist Party. The political system in the Soviet Union is examined in detail in the book "Democracy and Totalitarianism" by the famous French philosopher-humanist Raymond Aron.

Democracy concept.

In translation from the Greek "democracy" means "the power of the people" (demos - people, cratos - power). A more detailed definition of democracy, which has become classic, was given by the American President A. Lincoln in his famous Gettysburg speech (1863): rule of the people, elected by the people and for the people. But, despite the obviousness of the interpretation of democracy as democracy by the people, there are a number of problems related to the content and functioning of democracy. These issues cause serious controversy, which is reflected in the emergence of various theories of democracy. The emphasis is on its various properties: freedom (liberalism), equality (Marxism), people's participation in decision-making (participatory theory, or participatory democracy), competition for votes between elites (elite theories).

The first idea of ​​democracy as a form of government emerged in antique greece... Aristotle defined democracy as "the rule of all". But when examining the history of the formation of democracy, it turns out that the concepts of "everyone" and "people" did not always coincide. Of all the examples in the past, the most democratic was "primitive democracy" where decisions were made by all adult members of the clan or tribe.

During the period of decomposition of primitive society, military democracy where the people, in other words, having the right to participate in government and to administer justice, were limited only to armed men. In ancient Athens, which gave the world the experience of the first direct political democracy, under the people were understood only free adult men. It was they who had the right to personally participate in the work of the people's assembly and vote. Women, slaves, meteki (personally free migrants) had no political rights. Thus, in Athens, democracy extended to only a few thousand people. This power was far from perfect also because it suppressed dissent, taking the form of the tyranny of the "majority." So, the Athenian democracy sentenced Socrates to death, and could also betray any unpopular citizen to ostracism (exile from the city for a period of 10 years). It is known that the commander and politician Themistocles was expelled from Athens with the words: "You are better than us, but we do not need the best." Pericles, a well-known supporter of Athenian democracy, narrowly escaped this fate. Finally, we note that the democracy of antiquity existed at the expense of the institution of slavery. The category of citizens-people was equally narrowed in medieval municipal democracies - in feudal city-republics.
The largest events that laid the foundations for the democratic trend were the English Revolution (1688), the War of Independence North America(1775-1783) and the French Revolution (1789). In the documents adopted during this period: the Bill of Rights (England), the Declaration of Independence and the Bill of Rights (USA), the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen (France, 1791), democratic values ​​and principles were put forward, which are also seen in the modern practice of the functioning of the system representation, the relationship between the branches of government and human rights law.
But democracy reached more mature forms in the middle of the twentieth century, when civil and political rights, equal for all strata of society, became a reality. Note that modern democracy differs from previous historical models and other essential features: protection of human rights, recognition of the right opposition(those who are currently in the minority) defend their opinions and criticize the government.
Contemporary politicians sometimes the word democracy is abused. Most modern parties contain the term "democratic" in their names. Almost all modern political regimes, even authoritarian, claim to be democratic. Such an arbitrariness in the use of the concept of "democracy" and the very variety of interpretations of its essence prompts some authoritative scholars to conclude that democracy is "a concept that is decidedly defy definition." Nevertheless, political scientists and various international organizations use this concept, agreeing on the criteria for classifying a particular regime as a democratic one.
What is modern political democracy ? In the very general plan it can be determined as a regime in which the people have the opportunity to realize their will directly or through their representatives, and the authorities are responsible to citizens for their actions.
The essence of democracy is concretized in a certain set of values, institutions and procedures. Let's consider the main ones.
1. Sovereignty of the people. Recognition of this principle means that the people are the source of power, it is they who elect their representatives of power and periodically replace them. The recognition of this principle means that the constitution, the form of government can be changed with the general consent of the people and according to the established procedures enshrined in the law.
2. Periodic election of the main authorities allows you to provide a clear legitimate mechanism for the succession of power. Government is born from fair elections, not through military coups and conspiracies. Power is elected for a specific and limited period.
3. Universal, equal suffrage and secret ballot. Democratic elections presuppose real competition among various candidates, alternative choice. The implementation of the principle "one citizen - one vote" reveals the meaning of political equality.

· 4. Guarantee of fundamental human rights. Human rights characterize the principles of relations between the state and citizens and are defined as freedoms. freedom - this is the protection of the individual from the arbitrariness of other people and the authorities, protection from poverty and hunger. The preamble to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, adopted by the UN General Assembly in 1948, describes four freedoms: freedom of speech, freedom of opinion, freedom from fear, and freedom from want. These and other freedoms are associated with several categories of rights.
5. Civil rights. People use these rights as private individuals, and they protect citizens from the arbitrariness of the authorities. These include the equality of all citizens before the law, the right to privacy, the right not to be tortured, punished without trial, freedom of religion, etc.
6. Political rights give a citizen the opportunity to participate in the management process and influence decision-making by legislative and executive bodies: the right to elect and be elected, freedom of expression of political opinions, freedom to vote, the right to demonstrate, the right to create political and public organizations, the right to petition the authorities.
7. Social and economic rights. The realization of these rights is a necessary condition for ensuring political equality. This is due to the fact that the proclamation of political equality does not eliminate the established practice when individual citizens, due to their social status and well-being, have great opportunities to influence the government, using the media for this, direct contacts with government officials, and friendly relations. The implementation of socio-economic rights is designed to smooth out the existing social inequality and thereby increase the activity of ordinary citizens in political life. Finally, these rights reinforce living conditions that act as a kind of immunity against the fear of want, for example, the fear of unemployment, poverty. They include the right to a decent standard of living, guarantees of social protection, the right to education and participation in cultural life, and access to health care. The content of economic rights is enshrined in the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (1966). They include the right of everyone to earn a living in the work of their choice and the right to just and favorable living conditions. The realization of these rights requires backing up guarantees against discrimination in employment, wages based on gender, religion, race or language. The provision of social and economic rights presupposes the activity of the state in the development and implementation of social programs.
Considering the prospects for the development of democracy, a number of authors point to the actualization in the future of the requirements for guarantees of equality in the field of ecology 2.
It should be noted that freedom of speech, freedom of the press, and access to the media are considered by the democratic community as necessary conditions for the realization of other rights. These freedoms allow citizens to criticize the government, to protest against the violation of any individual and collective rights, to participate in debates on major public issues.
The democratic practice of recent decades has been characterized by the recognition of the need to guarantee the collective rights of religious, ethnic and linguistic minorities. These include guarantees against any form of discrimination, as well as the right to preserve identity. The UN General Assembly Declaration (1992) refers to these rights as follows: develop their culture, profess their religion and rituals, use their language for communication, take part in the decision-making process concerning this minority, etc.
Constitution - a document that enshrines the rights and freedoms of citizens, the obligations of the state to protect these rights and provides for a mechanism for resolving disputes between an individual and the state.
The principle of separation of powers on the legislative, executive and judicial in the construction of the state apparatus avoids the possibility of abuse by any of the branches of government.
The presence of a developed system of representation(parliamentarism).
Political pluralism... It makes it possible to legally act not only for political and social movements that support government policy, but also for opposition parties and organizations.
Democratic decision-making procedure: elections, referendums, parliamentary voting and etc.
Majority principle involves making decisions by a majority vote while recognizing the right of a minority to disagree... The minority (opposition) has the right to criticize the ruling authorities and put forward alternative programs, create their own associations.

Direct and representative democracy is distinguished depending on the forms of people's participation in the exercise of power.

1. Direct democracy. In direct democracy, there are no intermediary links between the will of the people and its embodiment in decisions - the people themselves participate in the discussion and decision-making. In a similar form, democracy was implemented in the Athenian polis. It is known that the National Assembly usually met every nine days to make major decisions. A similar version of self-government is used today in organizations and small territorial communities (cities, communities) in the form of meetings, during which citizens discuss problems of management, financing of public projects, social programs. The prevalence of this practice is limited by the territorial factor and depends on how decentralized the decision-making process is. Another form of direct democracy is the very process of elections, during which the will of the people in relation to their representatives to government bodies is carried out.

The legislation of many countries also provides for direct forms of citizens' participation in lawmaking - referendums and initiative movements.
Referendum , sometimes called a plebiscite (literally translated as a popular decision), is a direct vote of the people on the most important government issues... There are two types of referendums. Some of them represent a kind of opinion poll, according to the results of which laws are not adopted, but the authorities must take into account its results. For example, in March 1991, an All-Union referendum was held on the preservation of the USSR in an updated form; in April 1992 - the Russian referendum, during which the voters supported the policy of President B.N. Yeltsin. The results of referendums of a different kind have the meaning of law. With their help, the constitution or amendments to it, draft laws are approved. Thus, in December 1993, through a referendum, the draft of the new Constitution of Russia was approved, which ensured its legitimacy. World experience shows that the issues submitted to the referendum can be very diverse: the replacement of the monarchy with a republic (Greece, 1974), the independence of any territory (the province of Quebec of Canada, 1995), the resolution of divorces and abortions (Italy) ...
Initiative is a procedure by which citizens propose to discuss any issue directly in a referendum or by legislative bodies. The initiative is implemented through the collection of a certain number of signatures of citizens in support of the referendum.
Other forms of democratic participation that allow citizens to influence government include demonstrations, rallies, processions, appeals to authorities at all levels and in the media.

2. Representative (representative) democracy. In representative (representative) democracy, the will of the people is expressed not directly, but through the institution of intermediaries, therefore it is also called delegated democracy. Deputies, political leaders, having received a "mandate of trust" from the people through the voting procedure, must embody this will in the adopted laws and decisions. Relations are established between the representatives of the people and those whom they represent, based on the authority and responsibility of the authorities to the people.