Caucasus languages. On autochthonal linguistic families, kinship and general traits of the Caucasus languages

Multilingual Caucasus has long attracted close attention of linguists. However, not all the languages \u200b\u200bpresented in its territory are customary to call Caucasian: the last term unites only indigenous, i.e. not Indo-European and not Turkic, Caucasian languages. Nevertheless, approximately 40 Caucasian languages \u200b\u200bare numbering. They disintegrate into three groups: Abkhaz-Adygh (Western Caucasian), Carvela (South Caucasian) and Nakh-Dagestan (Eastern Caucasian) (see scheme).

Twelve Caucasian languages \u200b\u200bare written: Georgian, Abkhaz, Abazinsky, Adygei, Kabardino-Cherkessky, Chechen, Ingush, Avar, Laki, Darginsky, Lezgius, Tabasaransky. Only one of them is Georgian - there is a centuries-old. Literature tradition (its most ancient monuments go to the V century. N E) established that one of the Lezghian languages \u200b\u200bof the Dagestan group had once had its writing (see Agvan Letter). The rest of the languages \u200b\u200bare youngsters, since they received a stable writing only in anxious time, although episodic experiments of the written fixation of such languages \u200b\u200bas Avarian, Laki, Darginsky and Lezgius are still to the XIV-XVI centuries.

The differences between the groups of Caucasian languages \u200b\u200bare very large. Thus, the bright feature of Abkhaz-Adyg's languages \u200b\u200bconstitutes their exceptional wealth of consonant sounds with the extreme poverty of vowels, complex leasing of the verb with a weak development of nominal splieiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii. Carewelle languages \u200b\u200bare highlighted by the high saturation of the text by consonants, the presence of a deposit category, the development of complex proposals. For nuclear-dage-station languages \u200b\u200btypical of rich systems of consonants, the world's richest in the world (sometimes more than 40 cases), registered classes systems.

The genetic relationships of individual groups of Caucasian languages \u200b\u200bstill remain unexplained. Some scientists believe that they are relative to each other, and consider them, therefore, as a single language seven. Others consider such a relationship likely, but unproved and therefore talking about three different families. The difficulties of evidence of the mutual kinship of these groups are associated with large differences in their lies in their grammatical system and especially in vocabulary due to the lagging of etymological studies, most noticeable in the field of Nakh-Dagestan languages, it is still impossible to proceed to the search for natural sound-associated sounds in Pravian The material of all three groups that would show objectively their relationship. Negatively affects this plan that only Georgian has a centuries-old written fixation here. Finally, the Caucasians are not always possible to separate the original facts of these languages \u200b\u200bfrom their contacts that have arisen during their processes.

As for the external genetic relations of Caucasian languages, they are even less definitely. Already in the old orientalistic there was no lack of fantastic hypotheses, told these languages \u200b\u200bwith many language families and did not have the test of time. Of the modern hypotheses of the latter plan, in essence, only one is the so-called Euscaro-Caucasian (involving the kinship of Caucasian languages \u200b\u200bwith the Basque language of Spain) - still operates, like many old buildings, the entire combination of these languages. Other hypotheses usually associate with an external world any one of these groups. Compare the Nostratic hypothesis (see Pri-language), bringing closer languages \u200b\u200bwith several other families of old world, as well as hypotheses about the relationship of Abkhaz-Adyghe languages \u200b\u200bwith the Hett language of ancient Anatolia and about the kinship of Nakh-Dagestan with the Hurritsky-Uranty languages \u200b\u200bof ancient ancient Ance. The weaknesses of these constructions follow from the circumstance that they are developed, as a rule, not by Caucasian.

Although science is known for a number of examples of long and intensive language contacts in the Caucasus (comparable, in particular, the strong impact of the Georgian language to the remaining carpenter), the results of intergroup interaction are very modest. In general, the most weakest of the specific historical living conditions of these languages \u200b\u200bshould be their interaction in the distant past. Not surprisingly, therefore, that advanced in XIX century The concept of the so-called Caucasian language union remains actually not justified.

Based on the comparison of a number of the features of the phonetic and grammatical system of the Cartewelle and Indo-European languages, it was suggested that in antiquity they could enter the unified language union.

Semitic family

Turkic Group

Altai family

Finno-Ugric family

1. UGKSKY Group: Hungarian, Khanty and Mansiysk (Khanty-Mansiysk). The territorial remoteness of these languages \u200b\u200bis explained by the history. Hungars (Magyars) lived in the Ural region, where Khanty and Mansi live. At the end of the first millennium, in the era of the great relocation of peoples, Magyars moved to the territory of the current Hungary.

2. Finnish group: Finnish, Karelian, Estonian, Mordovsky, Mari, as well as Permian languages.

The Finno-Ugric family also includes self-identified languages: Nenets, Nganasan and Selkup (Ural district).

but) Bulgarian subgroup: Chuvashsky, as well as dead languages: Bulgarian and Khazar.

b) Ogzovskaya subgroup: Turkmen, Trukhmensky (Sev. Cava), Gagauz (Moldova, North of the Odessa region), Azerbaijani, Turkish. Dead languages: Oguz and Seljuk.

in) Cypchak subgroup: Tatar, Bashkir, Kazakh, Karakalpatsky, Kyrgyz. This includes: Altai (Gorno-Altai region), Nogai (Kazakhstan), Karaites (Crimea), Kumyksky (Dagestan). Dead tongue Here is Polovtsy.

d) Chagatai subgroup: Uzbek and Uygur (Sinjiang Province, China) languages.

e) Northeast subgroup: Yakutsky, Tuvinsky, Shorsky (South Kuzbass), Khakassium. Dead, but written languages \u200b\u200bon which there is an extensive writing - Yeniseiso-Aarhon.

2. Mongolian group: Buryat Mongolian, Mongolian, Kalmyk.

3. Tunguso Manchur Group: Evenkiy, Nanaay, Udahesky (Far East), Ulch and Orochsky (the lower course of Amur) languages.

Arabic, Amharic (Ethiopia), Berber Languages \u200b\u200bof North Africa and Sugar, Kushitsky Languages \u200b\u200bof East Africa, Chadian Languages \u200b\u200b(Lake Chad). The largest among the latter (about 15 million people) is the House of Haus.

The Semitian family refers Hebrew (state language of Israel). In the semitic family, many ancient, but dead languages: Akkadian (language of Assyria and Babylon; monuments are related to the Millennium BC), Phoenician, Aramaic, Ancient Egyptian.

Alive Semitic languages, ancient in origin (monuments from the IX century BC) belongs to Aisa (Caucasus, Turkey, Iran).

Comparatively in the small area of \u200b\u200bthe Caucasus there are about 50 languages, and the classification of them to one family (if strictly follow the principles of the genealogical classification of languages) may be conditionally and explained by the community of relatively small territory. There are very small languages, the so-called one-one, which speaks 300-400 people of residents of one aul. There is a legend that God scored a bag of languages \u200b\u200band flew over the ground, throwing one or another language on it. The last place over which he flew was the Caucasus. And all that remained in his bag, God poured there. That is why there are so many languages \u200b\u200bin the Caucasus and often different.

In the Caucasian family there are several groups of languages.

1. Carvela Group: Georgian, Mengrelsky, Svansky (district of Megrelia and Svanetia in Georgia).

2. Dagestan group: Avar, Darginsky, Laksky, Lezgius, Tabasaransky and others. Of the fifty Caucasian languages, thirty falls on Dagestan.

3. Vainakh group: Chechen and Ingush.

4. Abkhazo Adygeyskaya Group: Adygei, Abkhaz, Balkarian languages.

Caucasian languages

Geographical and historical conditions made the Caucasian region a curious ethnographic museum. No other terrain on globe , where, on a relatively small space, it would be bored by such a lot of different and variety of peoples. For centuries, Caucasian stake served as a shelter for tribes pushed by others from North. Claudkasy steppes - the main, in the ancient and middle ages, paths from Central Asia to Europe. Once upon a time on from the Caucasus, the tribes, close to others, were, so to speak, pressed against the wall and did not have the exit, being locked from all sides: with it was stopped by the path of the sea Azov and Black, from B - Caspian, with Yu - solid high Mountain ridge. Such conditions existed for South. The slope of the Caucasus. And here, from the side of Collichides, Ieria, Armenia was driven into the mountains defeated tribes, without having an exit on nor on Z. Thus, the Caucasian ridge became the "mountain of languages", and if currently languages \u200b\u200band adverbs are considered dozens in it, In deep antiquity there were even more, as many people dressed in the fight against harsh natural conditions and with other tribes, and there were no trace from their languages. Caucasian lingopology concluded that between the main ancient groups of languages. and South. The slope of the Caucasus has no kinship. This indicates that the Caucasian ridge was really a wall, separated by peoples, and that natural bars in it were rarely open to move the tribes. Only strong, numerous and militant peoples managed to invade sv. Caucasus in South and from time to time to produce. Rare on fertile countries adjacent to the Caucasus ridge. The beginning of the study of the Caucasus in linguistic terms was laid back in the XVIII century, IMP expeditions. Acad. Sciences: Academicians Guldenshtedt, Gmelin and Pallas amounted to the collections of words in the Caucasian Mountain languages. At the beginning of the XIX century, the orientalist Julius Und Nach Georgien ("Reise In Den Kaukasus und Nach Georgien" was studying and the classification of Caucasian languages \u200b\u200b("Reise in Den Kaukasus und Nach Georgien", with an application for Caucasian languages, 1812-1814; "Tableau Historique, Géograph., ™NOGR. ETC. DU CAUCASE", 1827); But the materials he had was scarce, not enough, and led him to some erroneous conclusions. The era in the study of K. Languages \u200b\u200bis the works of Academician Shegren, who made the first scientific grammar of the Ossetian language ("Ossetische Sprachlehre Nebst Kurzem Osset. Deutschen U. Deutsch. Ossetich. Wörterbuche", SPb., 1844), Academician A. Sifunner, who issued several monographs by Eastern Polish Languages \u200b\u200b(Tushinsky, Avar, Udinsky) and especially Baron P. K. Uslar, who from 1861 to 1875 he explored a number of mountain, dotol almost unknown yaz.: Abkhaz, Chechen, Avarian, Lakskiy, Hurkilinsky, Curim and Tabasaran. With lithographic works of Baron Uslar introduced the European Science Academy. Cipherner, giving about them a detailed reports ("Ausführliche Berichte") in German. In recent time (1887-92), the monographs of Uslar (except for his study of the Tabasaran language) were published in Tiflis by the Office of the Caucasus Educational District (see acc. Article).

Caucasus population languages \u200b\u200bbelong to various linguistic families. The middle part of the Caucasian Territory is generally zap. Part of the Transcaucasia occupy groups of peoples whose languages \u200b\u200brepresent individual families who do not find in their structure and lexical composition of affinity with some other linguistic families. Such are the groups: Carvela (otherwise Iverskaya, or Georgian), Zap.-Gorskaya and Breedry. Other languages \u200b\u200bknown in the Caucasus belong to the families of Indo-European and Ural-Altai.

I. CARTNEL'S GROUP. It belongs to it four languages: Georgian with his podnacias, Mingral, Laz and Swankian. Linguistic studies found the relationship of these languages \u200b\u200bamong themselves, but all attempts to find the rhodations of this family of languages \u200b\u200bturned out to be unsuccessful. Georgian language (see Georgia) They say: a) Georgians who are living in the Tiflis lips. and inhabiting brandy and Kakheti, as well as inhiloymen - Georgians-Muslims living in the Swaytal district; b) Georgians-mountaineers, living too in Typhleans Lip.: Hebusura, Pzhava and most of the inhabitants of the Tushetia; c) Imeretins and Greei (in the Kutais lips.); d) Adjarts, coblls and generally Georgians living in the former Batuman region. Benefits for studying the Georgian language - see prof. A. Tsagarel, "On the Grammar Literature of the Georgian Language" (SPb., 1873). Mingrelian language speaks mainly the Carvetle population of the Kutais lips. Grammar literature: A. Tsagareli, "Mingrelskie etudes: I. Mingrelian texts with translation and explanations. II. Fonetics experience of the Mingrelsky language" (SPB., 1880); See also: "Mingral Texts" (in the "Collection of Materials for Description of Locality and the Caucasus Tribes", Vol. II, Dep. II, 1890, and Vol. XVIII, 1894, Dep. I). Laz language - Advanced Lases, which occupy a part of the Black Sea Primder and the left bank of the lower course of Choroha in the Batumi district of the Kutais lips. The main mass of Lases lives in Turkey, in so calling. Lasistan. Adcharations of Lases and Mingrels are closer between themselves than with other languages \u200b\u200bof the Cartewelle family. Schoban language says a small mountain tribe living in the upper longitudinal valleys of PP. Invera and Tskhenis Tshali. Attempts to the grammatical study of the Swanki language were made by P. K. Uslar (see his article in I vol. Op. Uslar: "Ethnography of the Caucasus", Dep. II) and A. Grenom (see "Collection of materials for describing localities and tribes Caucasus ", no. X, 1890).

II. The Eastern Gorsk Group is classified with the languages \u200b\u200bof numerous tribes living in Dagestan, on the Southern slope adjacent to it, the main ridge and on the Northern Skate of the Andiy Water Separation. This group belongs to the languages \u200b\u200bof Chechens, Highlanders of Dagestan (Lezgin) and Urine. Chechen language is distributed within the Terch region. Different adventures of this language are spoken by plane checks (in the Grozny district), mountain Chechens (in Argunsky), Aukhovtsy (in Khasav-Yurtovsky) and Ichkerintsy (in Vedeno district). Close in the language to the Chechens Ingush, living in the Vladikavkaz district, and so called. Paint brushes living in a small number in the north of Tionette and dush counties of the Tiflis lips. Chechen language was explored by delirium and ak. Sixner (see Usar, "Caucasus Ethnography. Linguistics. II", Tiflis, 1883; There are also placed in Russian. Translation "Tchetschenzische Studien", Academician of Chipner). In the nearest relationship with Chechensky, the language is incorrectly called Tushinsky, or Tusk. Actually Tushkina is called mountain Georgians living in the upper reaches of Andiy Koisu (Tushinsky Alazani) and partly on the southern slope of the main ridge, in the Upper Valley of the Kakhetian Alazani. Among Tushin in ancient times, a small Chechen society was settled, calling himself Bazbi (most of these Chechens, who had previously established the Central Committee, became more recently on the Alazan Plain and settled near the village. Ahmet). The language of these Chechens, called academician chipner, following the example of Acad. Guldenshtedt, incorrectly, Tuskiy, comes from Chechen, but during the time and under the influence of Georgian, it was so divided with him grammatically, which can no longer be reached by Chechen, but a separate language, closely related to the last (see Schifner, "Ueber Die Thusch-Sprache ", SPb., 1856). Numerous languages \u200b\u200bof Dagestan, so called. Lezghinsky, detect linguistic relationship between them. Some of them are more common, as, for example, Avar, Curin, others - less (Kazikumukh, Tabasaransky); There are those who speak two or three villages. All these languages \u200b\u200bare a lot of talks. Despite the capital works in the East-Polsky Languages \u200b\u200bof Barona P. K. Uslar, there are no accurate information about many adverbs of this group, just as the mutual relationships of some languages \u200b\u200branged to it are not cleared. The most common language of Dagestan may be considered anvarian, used with mutual relations with almost all multilingual lezgin tribes and societies. The area extends him in the meridian direction through the entire Dagestan, occupying the lower course of Andiy Kois, the Avarian and Kara-Kois pools and the southern slope of the main ridge almost all throughout the Zubatal OKR. In total, the auto population is thicker in the Gunib's district (in average Dagestan) and in Avar (in Zap. Dagestan). Materials for studying the Avar Language: Schiefner, "Versuch über Das Awarische" (SPB., 1862); His, "AWARISCBE TEXTE" (in "Mémoires De L" ACAD. I. des sciencees de St. -P. ", VII S. T. XIX, № 6, 1873g.); its same , "AUSFÜHR. BERICHT ÜBER BAR. P. V. USLARS AWARISCHE STUDIEN" (St. Petersburg, 1872); P. K. Uslar, "The Ethnography of the Caucasus. Linguistics. III. Avarian Yaz." (Tiflis, 1889; Grammar, language education and word collection); "Avar fairy tales and songs", collected by Aytendent Chirkeevsky (Lithographer., Temir-Khan-Shura, 1867); "Avarian fairy tales", recorded and translated Biacay Abdulaev, in the "Mater Collection." (XIV, Dep. II, p. 73-134). - Lakski, or Kazikumukhsky, language is distributed within Kazy-Kumukhsky district, although there are also aules inhabited by representatives of other languages: Avarian, Turkic-Azerbaijani and others. Residents of one village Archi speak a special language approaching Avar. Laki or Kazikumukh language was investigated by P. K. Uslar ("Ethnography of the Caucasus. IV. Laki language", Tiflis, 1890) and Acad. Sifner ("AUSF. BERICHT ÜBER BAR. P. V. USLARS KASIKUMÜIKISCHE STUDIEN" SPb., 1866). - Curinsky is distributed on both shores r. Samura in South. Dagestan, as well as in Cuban. Baku lips. And in some villages of Nukhinsky, Elisavetspol lips. With Curin's language, according to the natives, the suggestion of the orders of the rudals and Tsakhur residents living in the upper part of the Samura basin. For Curin, see Schiefner ("Ausf. Bericht Über Bar. P. v. USLARS Kürinische Studien" SPb., 1873); L. P. Zagory, "Notes on Curin" (in the VIII Issue "" Collection of information about K. Gordsekh ", Tiflis, 1875); kn. Lionidze and S. Sultanov, "Curin texts" ("Collection of materials for the description, etc." XIV, Dep. 2nd). The neglects of the east part of Dagestan, which live mainly in the Darginsky district and in the border parts of Temir-Khan-Schurinsky, Kaitago-Tabasaransky and Kazi-Kumukhsky, are presented by the adverbs of one language that does not have general name. In view of the largest density of the population, speaking this language in the Darginsky district, it can be called Darginsky (or, on Waydenbuum, Dargin-Kaitagsky). Adcharations of this anonymous language are connected (Zagur) in three groups: Akushinskaya (common in the Darginsky district), Kaitagskaya (occupying part of the Kaitago-Tabasaran district) and Vurkun (on average Dagestan). Of all these adventures, Usre explored only one belonging to the Kaitagskaya group and called Hurkilinsky. Cipherner has changed this name to Hurkan. See P. Uslar, "Ethnography of the Caucasus. Linguistics. V. Hurkilinsky" (Tiflis, 1892); Schiefner, "AUSF. BERICHT ÜBER BAR. P. V. USLARS HÜRKAMSCHE STUDIEN" (SPB., 1871). The songs of the inhabitants of the Central Tsudar village near Guniba, speaking in Hurkilinsky, printed by B. Dalgatom in "The Materials. Materials for Description, etc." (Vol. XIX, separate 2). Yaz. Residents of Aul Kubachi (in the Upper Kaitag), belonging, according to L. P. Zagory, to the Vurkun Group of Darginian languages, was not yet sufficiently studied. The same low-investigated languages \u200b\u200bof the Vost.-Gorskaya Group belongs to Tabasaransky, common in South. Dagestan, in the pool r. Rubas. This in with the language, this comes with Kaitagsky adverbs, on Yu - with Curinsky, with Z to Him, the Agulsky language is adjacent (whiterly, according to one, with Tabasaransky, according to the testimony of others - with Curin), and it is separated from the Caspian Sea to the region A strip busy by the Turkic tribes. Due to the close neighborhood and permanent relations with the latter, the Tabasarans awarded their Azerbaijani adverb and forget his gram native language. The study of Tabasaran language was the last work of the bar. P. K. Uslar, who did not have time to finally treat him grammatically. The work of Uslar continued L. P. Zagger, but also did not have time to bring it to the end. To the category of nations, the nearest linguistic relationship of which with other East-Gorish peoples is unknown, belongs: Kapuchintsy in average Dagestan; The rats, Jacks, Bouges and Hanulugz (named so by the names of the Ayov). Jacks, rats and buddies (in the Baku lips.), According to the testimony of the natives, they say the adverbs of the Curin language; Hanulugza, according to Currian reviews, they say special, incomprehensible to them. Finally, the East Gorsk Group is rated by the Urika, preserved in two villages of Nukhinsky. - Wartashen and below. Language, or satisfied, on the study of Acad. Encinner comes closest to Curin, but underwent strong the influence of TatarAnd also borrowed a lot of Armenian words, under the influence of the Armenian-Gregorian Church, to which part of the urine belongs (others - Orthodox). On Urday language, see A. Schiefner, "Versuch über Die Sprache der Uden" (SPB., 1863).

III. The Western Glasses belongs to the languages \u200b\u200bof the Abkhazians and Circassians. Abkhaz language, decaying several adventures, is distributed, according to Waydenbaum, on the lowland band between the foothills of the main ridge and the Black Sea, on the space approximately, from p. Ohuri to Gagrinskaya tested. Another branch of the Abkhaz, known as Abazyntsev (Abaza), lives, under different names, in the south-east. Parts of the Kuban region, most of all in Batalpashini. One Bzybskoy, bar was investigated from the adverbs of the Abkhaz language. P. K. Uslar. See His: "Ethnography of the Caucasus. Linguistics. I. Abkhaz language" (TIFL., 1887); Also A. Schiefner, "AUSF. BERICHT ÜBER BAR. P. V. USLARS ABCBASISCHE STUDIEN" (SPB., 1863). Circassian Yaz., Or Adygh Yaz., - Yaz. Kabardians living in the Teresk region. (in big and small cabarda), on the plains of the pool of the Malki and on the right bank of the Terek to the river. Coup. Other societies belonging to the Adygin tribes live, under different names, scattered, in the southern part of the Kuban region, to North. from Abazinians. Numerous other abadzhai, bzheduhi; It is extremely small, due to the evictions to Turkey, there are devils and chapsugs. According to the compiler of the Kabardian grammar, L. G. Lopatinsky, Adygh language is divided into three adverbs: 1) Nizhneadyg (Kyakhskoe). Representatives of this adverb remained in Circassian villages, a stretched long strip in the Kuban, quite a bit; 2) Midneadygskoe, or Beslenyevskoe, which is a transitional stage between Nizhneadyg and Kabardian; 3) Verkhneadygskoe, or Kabardian, on which the Kabardians say, the only Circassian tribe, which remained safe and after mass evictions to Turkey caused by the end caucasian Wars. See lulie, "Dictionary of the Russian-Circassian, with a brief grammar" (Odessa, 1846); "Russian-Kabardinsky dictionary with a pointer and a brief grammar", composition. L. Lopatinsky (Tiflis, 1890); Kabardian texts with Russian translation, published L. Lopatinsky, in "Collected. mat." etc. "(Vol. XII, 1891); P. K. Uslar," Black Notes about Circassian. The ethnography of the Caucasus "(Tiflis 1887, I, Dep. II). To the West Glasses belongs to the language of the slaughters, which previously held part of the coast of the Black Sea, approximately between the Khosta and Shahe rivers, but then almost the polls who went to Turkey. On the head of the slaughters, see . "Short notes" Uslar, in "Ethnography of the Caucasus. Linguistics. I "(1887, separate II). In general, mutual relationships of languages \u200b\u200bthat are part of the East Gorskaya and Zap. Groups are still not understood by science. The study of these languages \u200b\u200bis hampered by their sounds that articulation is difficult to achieve nonuseum, and peculiar The grammatical system, different from the system of Indo-European languages. Moreover, the Morski languages \u200b\u200bare disintegrated into a plurality of shortcoming and dialects. The famous Linguist Friedrich Muller, who studied the structure of some Caucasian languages \u200b\u200bfor the writings of the Encinner, offers the following classification: a) North Caucasian languages: 1) Abkhaz and Circassian, 2) Avar, Kazikumukh Argersky, Hurkan (Hurkilinsky), Curinsky, Urika, Chechen. B) South Caucasian languages: Georgian, Mingral, Lazsk, Svostansky. South Caucasian languages \u200b\u200brepresent a group that can be called linguistic family; but North Caucasian cannot be called one family, due to significant differences between them and in the formal, and in lexical relations, x There are large similarities between them between them, for example. In the designation of childbirth, cases, in some features of the hide and so on. The ratio of north-caucasian languages \u200b\u200bto South Caucasian remains an open question (see Fr. Müller, "Grundriss Der Sprachwissenschaft", IIIt., II Dep., V., 1887). Caucasus languages \u200b\u200bthat are not part of the Karvela family and both groups of East Gorso and West Gorskaya, belong to the families of Indo-European and Ural-Altai. To the Indo-European family, it was to the Iranian branch that belongs: a) the language of Ossetian, who are spoken by Ossetians living in the Teresk region, in the central part of the Caucasian Range, in the valleys, irrigated in part by the average flow of Terek and its tributaries on the left side. Part of this nation lives on the other side of the ridge, in the upper reaches of Liahva, Xanka, Riona, in Tiflis and Kutaisa. From modern living Iranian languages \u200b\u200bOssetian retained the most antiquities in its phonetics and morphology. Ossetians on the northern side of the ridge speak two adverbs: Iron (Tagahno) and Digorsk. Speaking of Transcaucasian Ossetians represents the support of Ironsky (see Sun. Miller, "Ossetian Etudes", M., 1881-1887, where all literature on the study of this language is also given), b) Tatsky language - adverb, close to Novoperside; Tats live mainly in the Baku lips., especially in the counties of Baku and Cuban. And also in South Dagestan - in the Kaitago-Tabasaran district. See E. Veg eZINE, "KECBERCHES SUR LES DIALECTES PERSANS"; Dorn U. Mirza-Schafy, "Beitr. Zur Kenntniss Der Iranischen Sprachen" ( h. I, spb., 1860). Adolescent Tatsky Yaz. Presents Caucasian language. Jews of the Highlanders (see Gorski Jews). Materials for the study of the Jewish-Tat language (texts and dictionary) were published by V. F. Miller (St. Petersburg, 1892); c) Persian who speak Perszyne, living in the Baku Province, in Tiflis and in the cities of the Teresk region. d) Talyshinsky, representing one of the Persian laws, is common in Lankaran. (See Riss, "On Talyushki, their lifestyle and language", in "Caucasian Notes. Rem. I. R. Geogr. commonly.", 1855, KN. III). e) Kurdish, although close to Novoperside, but having the right to the name of an independent language. Kurds live in the south of Transcaucasia, mainly in the Erivan lips., Karsian region. And some counties Elisavetpolskaya. In Kurdish language, two adverbs are distinguished: Kormanjian and ZAZ. The first nashier belongs to the Kurds living within Russia. For the language of the Kurds, see P. Lerh, "Studies on Iranian Kurds" (SPB., 1857); A. Chodzko, "Etudes Philologiques Sur La Langue Kurde" (Par., 1857); A, SABA, "DICTIONNAIRE KURDE-FRANçAIS" (SPB., 1879); F. Justi, "Kurdische Grammatik" (1880); S. Egiazarov, "Kormandzhi texts" (in the XIII century. "Zap. Caucasus. Dep. I. R. Geogr. Commonly.", 2 Vol., Tiflis, 1884); L. P. Zagursky (together with S. Egyazarov), "Kormandzhi-Russian and Russian-Kormandzhiy Dictionaries" (in the XII KN. "Zap. Kavk. Dep. Imp. Russian. Geogr. Commonly.", Vol. 2). - To the Indo-European family, but the Armenian language belongs to a separate branch, on different dialects of which Armenians are taught. Erivan, Elisavetspol, Baku, region Karsian and many cities of the Caucasian Territory. Not all podnacias and dialects of the Alive Armenian language in the Caucasus are sufficiently studied. See K. Paukanov, "Studies on Armenian Diages" (SPB., 1869); A. Thomson, "Linguistic studies. Essay in the Akhaltsih dialect" (I, 1887); His, "the historical grammar of the modern Armenian language Tiflis" (SPB., 1890). The Greeks, living with individual villages in the Typhleans lips, are spoken by the newgin language., In the Black Sea region and the Kars region. On sowing The Caucasus is Greek settlements in the Kuban region. and Stavropol lips. In addition to the languages \u200b\u200blisted, the Indo-European family in the Caucasus is represented by languages \u200b\u200bby Russian, Polish, Czech (in the Black Sea), Lithuanian, German and Moldavan (in the Black Sea). The peoples of the Mongol race in the Caucasus belong to the two branches of the Ural-Altai family of languages: Mongolian and Turko Tatar. Representatives of the first are Kalmyks that are wiser in the steppes of the Stavropol lips. to Yu from V. Manica (Tomerbetovsky Ulus). Part of Kalmykov cares at times in the steppes on the lion. Terek's bank, in Grozny OKR. Peoples talking languages The Turkic Tatar family in the Caucasus can be divided into 2 groups: a) Turkic peoples living on sowing. Caucasus, and b) Transcaucasian Turkic peoples. To the first group, belongs to the languages: a) Nogai who says Nogai, living between PP. Kuma and Terek and at the mouth of the Sulac; In addition, small settlements are located near Pyatigorsk and during the merger of Zelenchuk with Kuban; b) Trukhmensky - Truchman language (Truchmian, Turkmen), wigging in the Stavropol lips. at the lower flow of Calaus and Kuma; c) Karachai, very close to Nogai, is the language of the Turkic Highlanders living at the Kuban and River's Rukovyev and Riverkow in Kuban; d) language so called. Mountain, or Kabardian, Tatars close to Karachai and Nogai. Gorish societies, speaking this language: Balcarians (or Malcarians), businessings and huvelaces (in the upper flow of Cherk), Chegemtsy (in the gorge of the district of Chegema) and Ursubiyevtsy (in the gorge of R. Bacsan); e) Kumyksky - the language of Kumykov, occupying the northern part of the Dagestan coastal of the Caspian Sea approximately from the mouth of Terek to Derbent. The language of Kumykov, close to the Nogai language, can be judged by Kumyk texts, ed. in "Collected. mat. etc." (Vol. XVII, Dep. III, 1893; ibora - "Russian-Kumyk dictionary" M. G. Afanasyev and "Kumyk-Russian Dictionary" M. V. Mojira). To the Transcaucasian Turkic languages \u200b\u200bbelong: a) the language is so called. Aderbojan Tatars, which constitute the main mass of the population of the Eastern Half of the Transcaucasus. This is the Turkic adverb, which was caused by the strong influence of the Persian language, is called Aderbage by the name of the Persian province, border with conquer. Simplicity and accessibility made this adverbly international language for all Eastern Transcaucasia: b) the language of the Turks (Osmanla), living in the southwestern part of the Transcaucasia, it is in the Karsian region, the Artvin and Batumian OKR., Akhaltsih and Akhalkadakski UU.; c) language Turkmen (Tarakamantsev); This Turkic people, differing from Turkish Osmanlis, came out of Turkey and lives in several villages in the Kars region. and Akhaltsikh y.; d) Karapapakhov language, as the Transcaucasian Tatars who have passed into the Kars region. From the border provinces of Transcaucasia. Scientific, studies of most Turkic Tatar languages \u200b\u200bof the Caucasus still do not exist. The only representative of the Finnish branch serves in the Caucasus, the language of Esthers, which only recently settled in Alexandrovsky in the minor. Stavropol lips. and in the Black Sea OCD. The Indian branch of the Indo-European family includes adverbs K. Gypsy, settled and stray, known in the region under the names of Bosch and Karachi. For the language of them, see K. P. Paukanov, "Gypsies. A few words about the adverbs of the Transcaucasian Gypsy: Bosch and Karachi" (SPb., 1887). On the classification of Caucasian peoples in the language, except for the writings mentioned above, see more: L. P. Zagger, "Ethnological Classification of K. Narodov" (Annex to the Caucasian Calendar at 1888); E. G. Vydenbaum. "Caucasus Guide". Departure I: "Essay of Ethnography" (Tiflis, 1888).

Great ridge Caucasian Gor. extends from the Black Sea to Caspian. To the north of them is the western part of the Eurasian steppe; To the south - hilly terrain, called the Northern Twire. As a steppe and the northern two-frequenses were the centers of economic and political power, starting with the era of Neolith. All this time they were channels for which people and languages \u200b\u200bwere moving between Asia and Europe . The Caucasus itself was the main channel through which the Neolithic revolution, agriculture, cattle breeding and subsequent technological innovations were distributed from two-frequencies to Eastern Europe. The Caucasus is a zone of "biological refuge", where you can meet species that are not found anywhere else, and where there is a unique flora and fauna. Since ancient times, the Caucasus is also known for its linguistic diversity. It can be called the "Linguistic Asylum Zone" in the sense that there are as many as three separate language families, which are invalid Caucasian, who do not have related languages \u200b\u200belsewhere.

Study of languages

Indigenous Language Families of the Caucasus:

• The Carvela or South Caucasian family, which is about 4500 years old. This family includes the Georgian and three kindred language. The languages \u200b\u200bof this family are common near Central and Eastern Georgia, at the foot of the mountains or in the southern valleys. The history of Georgian writing originates from creating a specially developed alphabet in the 4th century after Christianity was introduced in Georgia. This alphabet is still used. Most Georgians and other cartswaders are Christians, but some, especially those who live south, belong to Muslims.
• North-West Caucasian or Abkhaz-Adygei (or Abkhaz-Cherkessian) family having an indefinite age (obviously, she is older than Romanesque or Slavic families of languages \u200b\u200band younger than Indo-European, which has about 6,000 years old), includes three or four related languages. The structural type of this family is not characteristic of Eurasian languages. This family spread near the Black Sea coast. The carriers of North-Western Caucasian languages \u200b\u200bare mainly Muslims. In Turkey and some areas in the Middle East, there are diasporas of these languages, consisting of the ancestors of immigrants who have left the Caucasus after its conquest to Russia in 19V. To varying degrees, they retain these languages.
• The Northeast Caucasian or North-Dagestan family is extremely diverse and has about 6,000 years. The related languages \u200b\u200bof this family are talking in the Central and Eastern Region of the Caucasus. Perhaps the division occurred at the foot of the mountains southeast Region Caucasus, near the Caspian Sea and in Azerbaijan. Islam penetrated Azerbaijan very early, and from there already spread to the North Caucasus, reaching Chechnya and Ingushetia in the 17-18th centuries. Despite the fact that most North Caucasian languages \u200b\u200bare Muslims, the people will love (which now lives in the three villages of Azerbaijan and Georgia and are the descendants of another major people, who gave the Georgian people) is Christian monophysites. In Turkey and Jordan, significant Chechen-Ingush diasporas live, descendants of immigrants and expelled after the conquest of Russia of the Caucasus in the 19th century. Persons. Here they managed to save their language.

In the Caucasus there are also not indigenous languages:

• Ossetian language It belongs to the northeastern branch of the Iranian group of the Indo-European family of languages. Ossetian language is the descendant of the Alan Sarmatian language group, which was the language of the Scythian state located in the territory of the current Ukraine, Southern Russia, Moldova, South Urals. Sarmatian language was distributed in the central part of the Caucasus and probably appeared here in the first millennium BC.
• Karachay-BalkarTwo closely related dialects of the North-West Group turkic languages. Currently, it is spoken in the Western central highlands of the northern slope. Most likely that these languages \u200b\u200bhave penetrated the Caucasus after the spread of the Kipchak-Turkic language in the Western steppes in early Middle Ages.
• Kumyksky - another turkic Northeast Plain, which also appeared in this region in the early Middle Ages. Perhaps the Kumik people occurred from the Khazarov, whose empire extended from the Volga to the foot of the Dagestan Mountains, but the Kumyk language goes back to the Kipchak Turkic language, which appeared in the North Caucasian steppes in the Middle Ages.
• Azerbaijani language (Azeri) refers to the southwest group turkic languageswhich in the ninth century spread from central Asia to Iranian-speaking Azerbaijan. Azerbaijani acquired cultural meaning Since the time of the Persian Empire, Islam appeared early here. Writing in Azerbaijani appeared in the 14th century on the basis.
• Tatsky- This is the language of the south-western group of Iranian languages, which is spoken in Azerbaijan and along the coast of the Caspian Sea. He is the descendant of the language of the Iranian-speaking population that prevailed once in the territory of Azerbaijan until the Turkic tribes arrive here. Now the enclaves of Jews, Muslims and Christians speak this language.
• Talysh Refers to the North-West group of Iranian languages, which is spoken in Azerbaijan today. This language is a descendant of languages \u200b\u200bpresent in this region before the appearance here. turkic tribes.
• It is a separate branch of the Indo-European family of languages. Armenian has spread to the territory of the former kingdom of Urart in the seventh century BC Armenia adopted Christianity in 300 g. After the Nativity of Christ, and some time the Armenian alphabet was created later as a means for disseminating Christianity. The earliest preserved documents in classical Armenian refer to the ninth and tenth centuries. It should be noted that the alphabet is preserved in its original form.
• Ancient Urarti And his descendant of Hurritsky used the Assyrian letter (cylinder). The distribution region of the URART language is the territory of medieval Armenia.

Structural Types Languages

Indigenous Caucasian languages \u200b\u200bare known for its complex system of consonant sounds (including glottalized and pharyngal consonants), complex morphology and ergativeness (identical case or other labeling of subjects unterprising verbs and direct transition add-ons; Special marking of the subjects of transition verbs). For three thousand years of their existence in the Caucasus, the Ossetian language borrowed many words, a number of glottalized consonants and properties of West Caucasian vowels to centralization. Nevertheless, there are no traces of pharyngal consonants, pharyngalization or ergativeness.

All three indigenous Caucasian languages \u200b\u200bhave ergative designs, but use completely different morphology: Georgian language indicates its syntactic connections using a combination of cases and verb coordination, mainly prefixing; Chechen language - with the help of case; And the Abkhaz is completely complicated by the verb prefixation. Abkhaz language also changes its postposition and dependent nouns, while Georgian and Chechensky uses a genitive case to indicate possessions.

Language contacts, bilingualism and verticality

It turned out that traditionally in the Caucasus did not exist any single language (Lingua Franca). On the contrary, bilingualism and multilingualism were observed between neighboring communities. On the modern stage Before the conquest of the Caucasus, Russia in the middle of the 19th century, a steady scheme was vertical: many people knew the tongue (s) in the Nagorn villages in the slope, but not vice versa. It was caused by the fact that the markets and winter pastures were in the valleys, while the highlands promised smaller economic advantages.

The male population of Nagorny villages was nomadic, and perhaps most of their time they spent in the valleys. It is natural to assume that in such conditions, the languages \u200b\u200bof the valleys had a tendency to spread in high mountainous areas, thereby reducing the territory of the distribution of high-altitude languages \u200b\u200bor fully replacing them. Currently, and for all the well-known history and history, languages \u200b\u200bwith a large number of carriers were distributed both in lowlands and in highlands, continuing to spread in highlands, expanded vertically; These economically prestigious and / or culturally significant languages \u200b\u200bspread vertically up. Languages \u200b\u200bwith fewer carriers, including several languages \u200b\u200bthat are common only in one village, are mainly present in the highlands. Such a picture was observed in the small glacial period (later the Middle Ages and until the mid-19th century), the period of global cooling, in which high-altitude farms and pastures were unreliable, while the valleys were more favorable.

But, there is evidence that before the Nagorn communities were more and more attractive, and their languages \u200b\u200bwere distributed in the valleys, and that nagorn communities formed and contained colonies in the valleys. Chechen-Ingush isogloss and the continuous distribution of such language families as Chechen-Ingush, Avar and Lakskaya indicate this phenomenon. Basically, geography is compared, the scale of distribution of communities speech, and this is explained by vertical, economy and climate change.

Caucasian languagesmany languages, not related Indo-European, Altai, Ural or Semitic families, on which OK speak. 7 million people. Intensive field research in the first decades of the 20th century. They allowed to allocate about 40 individual languages. Of these, only more than 3 million people speak Georgian; In Megrelsky, Avar, Adygei, Kabardino-Cherkess, Chechen, Ingush, Darginsky and Lezgin, are spoken by more than 100 thousand people. There are languages \u200b\u200bthat are used in total in several villages.

Caucasian languages \u200b\u200bare divided into three large groups with many subgroups and branches. Approximate estimates of the number of speakers based on the 1979 census are further provided in brackets.

Carvela (South) Group is divided into three branches: Georgian, which includes the Georgian language (approx. 4 million); Megrelo-Chanager, which includes Megrelsky language (approx. 500 thousand), used in Western Georgia, and Laz language (about 30 thousand, mainly in Turkey); And the Svan, consisting of Svan, or Svobansky (approx. 35 thousand), common in the mountain valleys north of Kutaisi in Western Georgia.

Abkhazo-Adygh (North-West) Group (about 900 thousand) includes Abkhaz, Abazinsky, Adygei, Kabardino-Circassian and Ubyssky. Abkhaz language (about 100 thousand) is used in Abkhazia, on the Black Sea coast in the north-west of Georgia. At the Abazyn language (about 35 thousand) they speak in the Karachay-Cherkess Autonomous Republic in the south of Russia. Adygei language (104 thousand) is distributed in the south of Russia in the Adygea Autonomous Republic and in adjacent areas Krasnodar Region. In Kabardino-Cherkess language (about 650 thousand), they speak the central regions of the South of Russia itself, especially in the Kabardino-Balkarian and Karachay-Circassian autonomous republics, as well as in Turkey. Ubyadsky language (25 thousand) is no longer used in the Caucasus as a result of large-scale emigration of Caucasian Muslims in Western Turkey in the second half of 19 V.

Nakh-Dagestan (Northeast) The Group is divided into the nuclear branch (more than 1.1 million to the 1990s) and the Dagestan branch (approx. 1.75 million). The nuclear branch includes three languages: Chechen, Ingush and Bazbi. In Chechensky (approx. 940 thousand to Wars) and Ingush (230 thousand), respectively, in the Chechen Republic and in the Republic of Ingushetia. Batzby language is used only in one isolated village in the west of Georgia.

The Dagestan branch of the Nakho-Dagestan group includes about 30 languages, which are spoken in the south of Russia, along the coast of the Caspian Sea, in the Autonomous Republic of Dagestan and the areas of Georgia and Azerbaijan adjacent to it. It consists of three subgroups and three languages \u200b\u200bthat are not incoming in any subgroups. The most important language is Avar (approx. 600 thousand), used mainly in South and West Dagestan and Northern Azerbaijan; This language is also used as a publicity. Dargian language (365 thousand) is used in the south of Central Dagestan. In Laki language (112 thousand), they speak North of Central and in South-West Dagestan. All these three languages \u200b\u200bare written. Languages \u200b\u200bof the Lezghin subgroup (more than 550 thousand) are common in the R. Samur basin in South Dagestan and Northern Azerbaijan. It includes Lezgin (approx. 460 thousand) and Tabasaran language (95 thousand), both written, as well as: Rutulsky, Agul, Tsakhur, Urika, Kryuksky, Buduki, Archinsky and Hinalugian languages. The languages \u200b\u200bof the Andiy subgroup (15 thousand) are used in the valleys of the Andyskaya Koisu rivers and Avar Koisu in the south-west of Dagestan. These include Andean, Botlikh, Godoberinsky, Bagvalinsky (or Kvaadadinsky), Tindinsky, Karta and Avashak language. The languages \u200b\u200bof the cesk subgroup (13 thousand) are common in the mountains of South-West Dagestan. This is Cesky (or Didoysky, or Tsntinsky), Hwarsky, Ginukhsky, Bezhtinsky (or Cappuccini) and Gunzibian (or Hunzakh, or Nakhadinsky) languages. Most Lezghin and Cesse languages \u200b\u200bare used in small insulated communities and have various dialects that differ sometimes so strongly that scientists consider them as separate languages.

Caucasian languages \u200b\u200bare very different in their structure from all other languages \u200b\u200bof this part of the world. The phonetic system is characterized by the relative simplicity of vowels and the extraordinary diversity of consonants, which can be shown on the example of the Abasinsky language, where the number of consonants is approximately 70. In addition to bell and deaf or intricate, furnace and affrust, in all these languages \u200b\u200bthere is a gustral bow. Northern languages \u200b\u200bhave a huge amount of consonants, such as compound labiodal-dental, latheral and label, labialized s. and š As well as many whistling sounds. In the field of morphology in some Caucasian languages, the number of cases in names reaches an extraordinary number that does not have parallels in other well-known languages; Thus, in Tabasaran language, more than 50 cases differ (cf. 6 podges in classical Latin or 21 in Hungarian). In most northeastern and northwestern languages, the names are divided into classes corresponding to grammatical gods in Indo-European languages. In these languages, distinctions are quite common in the signs of "animated - inanimate", "man is not a man", "female - male sex", "reached puberty - who has not achieved puberty" and complex combinations of these categories. However, the most difficult part of the grammar of these languages \u200b\u200bis the verb, in which not only the face, time, view, and modality, but also the agreed classes of the subject, direct and indirect add-ons are often expressed.

Only one Caucasian language has the status of the literary for many centuries - Georgian, the official language of Georgia, the continuous literary tradition of which goes back to 5 V. AD

Attempts to prove the relationship of all Caucasian languages \u200b\u200bdid not have success. The relationship of the North Caucasian (Abkhazo-Adygh and Nakho-Dagestan) was supposed already N.S. Trubetsky and was proved by S.L. Nikolaev and S.A.Starostin (in 1994). The external relationships of Caucasian languages \u200b\u200bremain the subject of disputes. The most developed is the most developed hypothesis, connecting the Carvelas with other families of Eurasia, and the Sino-Caucasian hypothesis of S.A. Starostina, involving the relationship between the North Caucasian, Yenisei and Sino-Tibetan languages. The relationship of North Caucasian languages \u200b\u200bwith Basque and Etruscan is not excluded.