Hmm, yoda_daro claims that this is a test to determine their sexuality...
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Text content of presentation slides: TAMED FIRE BY A HUMAN Prepared by: Student 4 "A" class Shcherbakov Sergey Fire, you have become a matter of habit for us. We call you by striking matches, You have been curbed, you have been tamed, You have been captured in lighters and stoves. You were a master, and you became a servant, But still we do not own you. The fire started to sprout primitive people several thousand years ago. So, in the caves of Europe, where people used to live, anthropologists in South Africa coals were found, which indicated that it was in this place that people made a fire. How did people learn to light fires anyway? The "taming" of fire dates back to the late Paleolithic period. Approximately two hundred thousand years ago, primitive man first learned to preserve, and later to make fire. In Africa, where primitive people lived, thunderstorms and lightning were a common occurrence. They constantly set fire to the forest. And no one could resist the fire. However, after the fire, there were still smoking embers on the ground, thanks to which fire could be made. It's hard to imagine, but storing hot coals for several tens of thousands of years was the only way to get fire. After the fire died out, people were left without fire, and then they again had to look for the next fire in order to collect the smoldering coals and get the fire again. Later people learned how to make fire on their own. The fire was made by rubbing a stick against a dry tree. With the rapid scrolling of the stick, the wood was heated to a temperature that could ignite some dry grass. In a similar way, the early settlers of Australia and the Pacific islands receive fire to this day. And in Europe, North Africa and in some parts of America, people used flint and flint to make a fire. These tools were hard rocks that contained a large number of silicon. Sparks carved by pebbles ignited tinder, which was later used as an oiled piece of rope. used until the twentieth century. In addition, flint and flint are used to this day. For example, a lighter, which consists of a metal wheel and magnesium alloy silicon. However, in the lighter, instead of tinder, either a cotton cord moistened with kerosene or a small-sized gas burner is used. With the evolution of civilization, the problem of obtaining fire was solved different ways. Initially, fire was simply kept in the form of red-hot coals in clay pots or in bonfires. Then ways were found to get a fire with the help of flint and flint. A little later, when people learned how to produce and process glass, fire could be obtained with glass - a magnifying glass, a guide Sun rays on the surface of the dried tinder. Before matches appeared, a very large amount of time passed. Matches were first invented in the 30s of the nineteenth century. They were carved wooden sticks, on which the composition of the mixture was applied, which included white phosphorus. During the friction of a match on any rough surface, the head flared up and ignited the wooden base of the match. Matches were made from aspen, which is the most plastic wood and does not give chips and cracks in the case of production processing. Later, matches began to be made from cardboard, which made it possible to facilitate and reduce the cost of their production. The first matches were endowed with good consumer qualities, but they were not safe. A phosphorus match could catch fire from light friction on a hard surface, which led to sad consequences. But still more dangerous was the mixture with which the match head was covered, since it included white phosphorus, which is very poisonous. Safety matches were invented in Sweden in 1855. They were called "Swedish" and very quickly spread throughout the world. Today they are known as ordinary matches that people use daily. The use of fire not only brought about changes in the life of primitive man, it had a most direct impact on his thinking. The first tools of labor are an attempt by ancient people to adapt to the environment, get food, protect themselves from various predators and the elements. The use of fire is an initial attempt to change environment, adapt it to your needs. Fire gave man protection from winds and frosts. He allowed food to be prepared and thus abstained from eating raw meat. The fire opened ancient man useful crafts such as the creation of dishes from clay and baked bricks. In the end, the use of fire made it possible for people to group themselves into communities that stood out from the primitive gang with a high organization. What served as fuel for ancient man? Initially, wood served as fuel. After some time, as a fuel, people began to use coal and peat. Fire was also used in agricultural production. Learning to grow useful plants, people prepared the field for sowing, incinerating the grass. The ashes of the fires became the first fertilizer that people used for their own purposes. Fire was also used to build houses. People mixed clay with sand, burned it, and this is how bricks turned out. Then they started mining granite. Granite does not need to be fired, it is already hard. But in order to get granite, people built a large fire on a huge stone or on a rock, the rock was heated, then poured on it cold water and the rock cracked into small pieces. From the caves where the ancestors lived modern man, the fire was moved to the houses. Ultimately, the hearth, and then the stove, were the foundation around which the roof and walls were built. Fire was given a sacred meaning. It is no coincidence that the ancient Greeks believed that fire was presented as a gift to mankind by Prometheus, who for such a gift was severely punished by the Gods. And in modern religions a candle is an essential attribute of worship. Fire gave us everything, but we never learned how to handle it correctly. In inept hands, the flame can turn into a fire, bring material damage and in some cases take a human life. Let's be careful not to play with fire. Our lives depend on it.
The history of mankind is full of various mysteries, and how ancient date, the more mysterious the event and its circumstances, as regards both the acquisition of articulate speech and the transition to upright walking, and the question of when people learned to make fire. There is no doubt that this skill has dramatically changed the lives of the distant ancestors of modern people. The quality of food has improved, which could not but affect life expectancy. Under conditions of glaciation, which falls precisely on initial stages existence of man, the fire helped to keep warm. It was also indispensable for hunting.
Primitive man and fire
So many natural phenomena, one way or another, are connected with fire. More than a million years ago, volcanic eruptions occurred more often than now, and posed a serious danger to all animals, including humans. Another option for a collision with fire is no less frequent forest and
However, if you take a closer look at the mythology, it turns out that the first fire received by man was of heavenly origin. The most famous Greek myth is that Prometheus stole a spark from the forge of Hephaestus and brought it to people, hiding it in an empty reed. Other peoples had similar traditions, including various Indian tribes, who could not contact the Greeks. In view of this, the assumption that primitive people first used fire from the ignition of something after a lightning strike is considered by scientists as the most probable.
artificial fire
The most important and difficult thing for primitive man was to overcome the natural fear of fire. When this happened, he could not help but discover that it was not at all necessary to wait for a strong thunderstorm or a volcanic eruption: when creating stone tools, sparks flared up as a result of the impact of one stone on another. However, this method was very laborious and took at least an hour. In the areas of human settlement, where there was high humidity, it was completely impossible.
Another physical process that gives an idea of how ancient people learned to make fire is friction. Over time, a person made sure that not just friction, but drilling, simplifies the procedure even more. For this, a dry tree was used. Putting a dry stick against him, the man quickly rotated it between his palms. A depression formed in the tree, in which wood powder accumulated. With a high intensity of movements, it flared up, and it was already possible to build a fire.
Keeping up the fire
If we turn again to mythology, it becomes clear that when people learned how to make fire, they were very concerned about maintaining it. For example, even Roman customs required that priestesses be present in the temple of the goddess Vesta, busy keeping the unquenchable fire on her altar. Even lighting candles Christian churches many scientists consider it a relic of the primitive need to keep fire.
Ethnographic data show that although people learned how to make fire and simplified this process as much as possible, preserving what they already had was a priority. This is understandable: it was not always possible to find suitable stones or dry wood. Meanwhile, without fire, the tribe was in danger of death. The Indians not only maintained unquenchable fires near their huts, but also carried smoldering tinder with them. Most likely, primitive man behaved the same way.
Dating problem
It is impossible to finally put an end to the dispute about the period in which people learned to make fire. The researcher can only rely on archeological data, and there are very few left of million-year-old human sites. That is why scientists prefer to use broad dates. Agreeing that people learned to make fire in the Paleolithic era, specialists in the history of primitive society indicate that this could have happened between 1.4 million and 780 thousand years ago.
Findings in the Vonderwerk cave on the territory of the Republic of South Africa helped to make this event 300 thousand years older. A team of archaeologists led by Peter Beaumont managed to find in which the remains of wood ash and charred animal bones were preserved. Further studies showed that their burning took place directly in the cave, that is, the possibility of their accidental entry there is excluded. Traces of soot were found on the walls of the cave.
Discoverer man
Thanks to these discoveries, the question of what kind of person learned to make fire was again raised. A million years ago, the genus Homo was introduced various types, of which only one survived - Homo sapiens (reasonable man). The reconstruction of anthropogenesis is complicated by a small amount of material evidence of the existence of one species or another, that is, skeletal remains. In view of this, the existence of species such as Homo rudolfensis is a debatable issue.
If we place on the same scale the stages of anthropogenesis and evidence of when people learned to make fire, then the earliest point falls on the existence of the species Homo erectus (Human erectus). But whether the ability to make fire was already habitual, or whether it happened from time to time, it is still impossible to find out.
The Significance of Mastering Fire
When people learned to artificially make fire, their evolution accelerated significantly. Changes have even affected them appearance. The use of fire in cooking has significantly increased energy consumption. If an ordinary animal consumes about 125 kcal per kilogram of weight during its life, then a person consumes six times more.
The mastery of fire sharply singled out man from a number of other animals. Thanks to the fire, it became possible to more effectively pursue large predators and drive them into traps, protect your parking lot from intrusion. Fire was also used to process wooden tools, which made them stronger and harder.
This event also affected the mental sphere. When people learned how to make fire, he immediately became an object of worship. Various religious cults began to take shape, in which the god of fire occupied a central position. Therefore, it is hardly a stretch to suggest that it was the mastery of fire that allowed a person to reach today's heights.
Has anyone thought about how ancient people conquered fire? How did they find it, how did they learn to manage it and keep the elements in check? Who could make such a discovery and why is fire considered the most important element for life? It is not known when the domestication of fire first occurred, scientists still argue: either this discovery was made even before the appearance of man by monkeys who did not understand much about scientific breakthroughs, or it was made by ancient people who realized that fire warms, fire is a terrible force.
The official date for the domestication of fire is one and a half million years ago. That is how much time a person uses the opportunities given by the elements. Now, without a scorching flame, one cannot forge household items, one cannot cook food. For the ancients, fire was the only salvation from cold, hunger and death. Since it was the lit branches that drove away wild animals and made food tastier. This does not mean that people immediately understood the purpose of the fire, at first they were also frightened and ran away when the tree caught fire from a lightning strike.
Reasons why man subjugated the elements
One can argue and think for a long time about how our descendants guessed to use fire. But the only thing is clear right away - a person would not approach the fire if he did not know how to think like a person, but was guided only by instincts, like in animals. The man knew that a sharp cobblestone could be used as a tool, a stick - a weapon and material for building a dwelling, skins - clothes, and with fire. Therefore, the first reason for the domestication of fire was the human mind. The ability of human individuals to adapt to the conditions of life and use every opportunity to survive are the main factors that gave food to the new discovery.We cannot say with accuracy that a reasonable person could immediately understand the purpose and nature of the flame, and, perhaps, this would not have happened if there had not been such a belief as anemism. Anemism is a belief that has been preserved only in tribes and a multi-million-year history, it implies faith in the animation of each object, especially they believed in nature and its soul. That is why, probably, at first the ancient people worshiped fire, like everything around, they were afraid of its hot tongues, they thought that this was a deity that could warm or kill. Only then the leaders began to gradually get used to the fire, and the thought crept into their ancient brain: “What if nature does not have a soul?” After the first attempts to tame fire, a large amount of time could pass, but decades later the tribes began to feel equal to nature, ceased to deify it. Therefore, the second reason is ancient beliefs and human insight.
The role of the flame in the life of primitive man
As historians guess, at first a person began to use heavenly fire, that is, the resulting fire natural phenomena. Numerous myths and legends can testify to this. For example, in ancient myths, we see how important Zeus was for the Olympian gods, and Zeus is the god of thunder, which means that already in later civilizations it was preserved and even clothed in new form the idea of an animated element. The presence of the god Agni among the Hindus, Perun among the Slavs also tells us that people carried the idea of the power of fire from ancient times.After a person got acquainted with fire, he had no equal, he could easily frighten a wild animal, help in hunting and save the whole tribe. Probably, after that, fire began to be worshiped even more as a helper and protector. Where can you get fire, because even in ancient eras, not every day a thunderstorm hit a tree. There were entire volcanic systems for this. People could simply touch the lava with a wand and, lo and behold, the torch is ready. And, as far as we know, volcanoes were on the ground at every turn at that time, so there will be no problems with fire.
Forest or steppe fires could serve as other sources of flame for ancient people, but at the same time, entire massifs burned down, burned fruit trees, giving food to people, but even then people were not afraid of fire. All of them dumped on the fact that the God of Fire is angry with them and in this way teaches them.
Fire not only gave people warmth, comfort, food and light, it could also unite the people. His taming was another reason for the unification of different tribes and the cessation of constant disagreements and battles. by the most in a simple way the extraction of fire was its passing from hand to hand. Let people not immediately understand how to make a flame, but immediately a logical chain formed in their head: if a burning tree fell on another, and then, in turn, threw branches onto the grass and it caught fire, therefore, fire can be transmitted, just enough touch his tongues with a well-burning object.
The need for fire pushed several people to get together and go in search, which allowed them to "make friends" and unite entire nations.
Thus, the taming of the flame was carried out according to different reasons, they could depend on the location of the tribe, leaders, etc. To date, many researchers believe that the taming of fire is one of the major discoveries humanity.
Such a paradoxical conclusion was reached by archaeologists, whose article was published on the website of the journal PNAS on March 14.
One of two black resin-coated flint wafers from the Campitello Quarry locality, Italy, over 200,000 years old. Illustration for the article under discussion
The "taming" of fire is certainly one of the most important innovations in the history of ancient mankind. It was fire (seemingly) that allowed people to master northern regions our planet (how else could one survive in latitudes where the temperature in winter fell below zero?). According to the hypothesis Richard Wrangham(Harvard University, USA), it was the transition to heat treatment of food that contributed accelerated growth brains in hominids (cooking food on fire made it easier to digest, which contributed to the release of energy needed to feed large brains).
When did it appear this technology, and when did the use of fire become commonplace for people? The first (but not indisputable) evidence of the use of fire is 1.6 million years old (we will talk about this evidence later). It is also believed that much later, especially advanced technologies for using fire allowed African sapiens to conquer the Old World, displacing the Neanderthals ...
The problem is that, unlike weaponry, "controlled fire" technologies are much more difficult to recognize from archaeological evidence.
What do archaeologists usually find at ancient sites? Stone tools or their fragments, and sometimes remnants of meals. If there was a hearth here, little remains of it. If the parking lot was open area- then wind or water could easily erase all traces of the use of fire. In a cave, the likelihood that something will be preserved is greater. Most often, such traces can be deposits on which the focus was located (they can be identified by color and structural changes); stone tools with traces of heating; charred bones and charcoal.
However, not only a person could leave such traces.
And if there was volcanic eruption? Lightning strike, forest fire? The charred bones could have entered the cave along with the water stream. You never know what could happen in tens of thousands of years! Now, if there are many such finds in the cave, if they are concentrated in one place, in combination with obvious traces of a long stay of a person, if all this, judging by the geological context, was not mixed, but lies "in its place" - only in this case it is possible consider that the fire here was probably built by a person.
Authors of the publication - Paola Villa from the University of Colorado at Boulder (USA) and Wil Rubrux from the University of Leiden (Netherlands), in search of such reliable evidence, conducted a detailed analysis of 141 Paleolithic sites. The authors of the study focused on Europe, where there are a large number of well-studied archaeological sites of different ages.
It is known that people appeared in the south of Europe more than a million years ago (the oldest location is in Spain). And people moved to the north of Europe more than 800 thousand years ago (this age dates back to the English location happypiesburg/ Happisburgh 3).
It is amazing, but with all this, clear evidence of the use of fire by man is no more than 300-400 thousand years old! Such dates were obtained for two localities - Beaches Pete(Beeches Pit) in England and Schöningen(Schöningen) in Germany.
Older evidence of the friendship of Europeans with fire is extremely scarce and unreliable. If we talk about open locations, the absence of traces of fire can be attributed to the short duration of people's stay on them, or geological processes. But a similar picture is observed in the caves. The authors consider 6 famous caves: Triangular (Russia), Kozamika (Bulgaria), (Italy), (Spain), (France), (Spain).
Particularly surprising is the absence of traces of the use of fire in sites rich in archaeological materials, such as. A large number of stone tools and bone remains have been found in Arago. Traces of fire were found in Arago only in upper layers, younger than 350 thousand years. In the lower levels (starting from about 550 thousand years ago) - no coal, no burnt bones ... Despite the fact that people have constantly lived here for several hundred thousand years! In Gran Dolina, the situation is the same, with the exception of a few coals that obviously came here from the outside. "It's amazing," write the authors of the article. It turns out that people lived in Europe, where it was not hot at all in winter, for 700,000 years, without knowing fire!
And only in later eras the use of fire, judging by the archaeological data, becomes commonplace. In particular, a large number of combustion products have been found at Neanderthal sites. Both wood and bones were used as fuel. And apparently, Neanderthals were by no means waiting for a lightning strike or a meteorite fall, they themselves knew how to produce and store fire.
Of particular interest are the finds, which show that already 200 thousand years ago Neanderthals not only “warmed themselves by the primitive fire”, but also extracted resin from tree bark with the help of fire, which was used to attach stone tips to wooden handles (see photo).
Similar technologies are also known among African ancient sapiens (parking Pinnacle Point / Pinnacle Point in South Africa, 164 thousand years old). It turns out that the Neanderthals were able to think of this before the sapiens. Therefore, there is no reason to talk about the technological superiority of the ancient sapiens, at least in the field of "pyrotechnics".
And outside of Europe?
The authors also consider the sites of ancient people in Asia and Africa. In Asia, apparently, the use of fire - just as in Europe - becomes commonplace between 400 and 200 thousand years ago. For example, in the Kesem cave in Israel () wood ash is main part cave deposits associated with traces of human activity, i.e. fire was constantly used here.
The authors cite, however, one exception - the location in Israel, age 780 thousand years. Here, charred wood and many small fragments of tools (up to 2 cm in size) with obvious traces of heating were found. Such fragments usually remain if the tool-making took place near a fire. Archaeologists believe that such micro-artifacts with traces of burning are the best indicators that there was once a hearth here.
We can conclude: already 780 thousand years ago some populations people used fire, but this technology became universal much later.
This hearth is not a hearth at all? ...
Now - about the oldest traces of the use of fire in Africa. These include numerous burnt bones in , a number of finds in and , aged 1.5 – 1.6 Ma.
According to the authors of the article, although these finds were made in places where hominids lived, "there is no evidence that it was hominids who used this fire." Perhaps it is a fire of natural origin. Thunderstorms with lightning in Africa, by the way, happen much more often than in Europe, the authors write.
Very strange. In Chesovanie, it seems, even a whole one was found ... Did it also appear from a lightning strike?
So, at least in Europe, people began to regularly use fire quite late, not earlier than the second half of the Middle Pleistocene. "This certainly does not rule out the possibility of the occasional and episodic use of fire by humans in earlier eras."
But how to live without fire in Europe?
But like this. "We believe that early hominids did NOT need fire to colonize the northern regions," the authors write. An active lifestyle and protein-rich foods helped people survive the cold. They ate raw meat and fish (like some modern hunter-gatherers), and apparently this did not stop their brains from growing.
After all, what do we know about the endurance of our distant ancestors? Maybe they could sleep in the snow in winter? After all modern people is “the product of long-term adaptation to changes in their diet and lifestyle,” and very little is known about how our body has changed as a result of such adaptation ...
