Heroic and tragic as types of pathos. Heroic

Before proceeding with the consideration of the issue of the main aesthetic categories, one should decide on the concept of what aesthetics is in general. But first you also need to indicate that this topic is very extensive. Aesthetics is a science that has many categories, including the tragic and heroic, it should also be categorized as aesthetics, it is a very difficult task to consider this topic within the framework of one abstract, therefore, after we define the concepts of what aesthetics is, we must determine the framework that should considered in this work.

absolute personal freedom and fullness of being, accompanied by spiritual enjoyment. This definition may mean that aesthetics can be associated with other sciences, history, philosophy, art, culture, in modern conditions. Today, aesthetics is a science about the nature of the aesthetic and its functions, about the laws of aesthetic activity and perception, about the aesthetic development (cognition and transformation) of nature and social life. The main fundamental problem of modern aesthetics is the relationship between the artistic image and its object, the issue of artistic reflection of reality. The study of this issue involves the analysis of works of art and the process artistic creativity, but is not limited to this. Recently, not only the methods of philosophy, but also psychology, cybernetics, semiotics and many other sciences and areas of theoretical activity have been increasingly used.

1. Tragic and heroic: concept, essence, features

One of the traditionally (at least in the 19th-20th centuries) categories related to aesthetics is the tragic. However, there is fundamental confusion regarding this category. Quite often, when discussing this category, they speak on the same plane about the tragic in art and in life. Meanwhile, aesthetics is related only and exclusively to the tragic in art, which is most fully realized in a specific genre of dramatic art - tragedy. Tragic as an aesthetic category refers only to art, unlike other aesthetic categories- beautiful, sublime, comic, having their own subject both in art and in life.

Tragic is an aesthetic category that characterizes the intense experience of a conflict associated with spiritual overcoming, transformation (catharsis), suffering or affects of the hero. Within the framework of philosophical analysis, the tragic is a form of dramatic awareness and experience by a person of a conflict with forces that threaten his existence and lead to the death of a person or important spiritual values.

a person reveals himself at a turning point, a tense moment of his existence.

The sphere of the tragic is located in that area of ​​reality where a person in his activity encounters phenomena that are not yet known to him and are not subject to his will.

in aesthetics in the works of Aristotle, G. Lessing, F. Schiller, A. Schlegel, G. Hegel, N. Chernyshevsky and others.

a gleam of death, icy breath blows from it. This is explained by the fact that we call a certain event “tragic” when we experience feelings of compassion, grief, mental pain, that is, such feelings that are our emotional reaction to the death and suffering of loved ones and neighbors.

different aesthetics offered a collision with fate, fate, fatal historical necessity. Criticizing this position, Chernyshevsky argued that the death and suffering of a person are tragic in themselves, because human life is an absolute value, and therefore the suffering of a person, especially his death, always and unconditionally turns out to be tragic. The concept of "tragic" thus became, for Chernyshevsky, a synonym for the concept of "terrible."

The humanism of such a conception of the tragic is obvious, but the abstractness of this humanism is also obvious. This is not surprising - after all, the anthropological materialism of the general philosophical concept of Chernyshevsky was just as abstract. Not every death of a person is perceived by us as tragic. This happens only when people we love die, those who deserve our respect, admiration, those who embodied our ideal and died fighting for it. If a person dies or suffers, whose actions contradict our ideal of life, threaten him, are dangerous to him, then no tragedy arises for us - on the contrary, in this case we experience satisfaction, relief, and sometimes joy. This is the basic meaning of the tragic both in life and in art.

Precisely because the tragic is a kind of correlation between the real and the ideal, it, like all other aesthetic categories, always has a historical character. It is precisely by participation in a specific socio-historical ideal that the aesthetic meaning of the tragic is determined. But this involvement can manifest itself in different ways. If we like a person or a hero, if we understand him and sympathize with him, but he dies as a result of an activity contrary to our ideal, we tend to consider him to be honestly mistaken, and his death tragic.

A description of the aesthetic feelings evoked by tragic works is impossible without characterizing their property, which Aristotle characterized as "catharsis" or "tragic purification". Catharsis (from the Greek Katharsis - purification) is a term of ancient aesthetics, which served to designate one of the essential moments of the aesthetic impact on a person. Now it rises as the final stage of the psychophysiological process underlying the aesthetic perception of a tragic work of art. Reality, which is the prototype of a work of art, is given by the artist to the reader, the viewer only in the imagination, indirectly. This reality, imagined at the level of representation, evokes “removed”, “neutralized” negative emotions. Negative emotions in aesthetic experience are most likely in the nature of memories of events real life. Positive emotions caused by aesthetically processed reality are real at the level of sensation, that is, their irritability acts directly on our senses and has the character of a “tangible” reality.

In aesthetic feelings, real positive emotions collide with negative emotions removed, left in the past, behind the context of aesthetic perception. At the same time, the dynamics of aesthetic emotional reactions in time unfolds from “imaginary” negative to positive emotions.

complexes with similar affects generated by real life. Therefore, the aesthetic feeling, bringing any holistic mental activity to a positive finish, together with “imaginary” aesthetic negative emotions, brings out, cleanses the human soul from such affects caused by real life.

The tragic is closely related to the sublime and heroic, since it implies a heroic personality striving to achieve lofty goals.

What is the nature and essence of the heroic? Usually, the origins of heroism are seen in fidelity to public duty. Indeed, heroism is essentially the opposite of individualism. A heroic feat presupposes the accomplishment of deeds outstanding in their social and historical significance in the name of the interests of the people, society and all mankind. Heroism is a struggle not for personal, but for public interests.

Only that public duty, which embodies the advanced ideals of society and the highest goals of the struggle for its progressive development, for the happiness and freedom of man, becomes the basis of true heroism. The high consciousness of such a social duty and the desire to fulfill it inspires a person to heroic deeds, to self-sacrifice and self-denial.

But even in itself a high consciousness of social duty and the desire to fulfill it does not automatically lead to a feat that requires the exertion of all the moral and physical forces of a person. The accomplishment of a heroic deed requires philanthropy, the spirit of collectivism, the ability to find one's personal happiness in the happiness of one's people, one's class, the ability to devote all one's spiritual, moral and physical strength to the disinterested struggle for lofty historical goals.

personal qualities, such as activity, efficiency, determination and purposefulness, for the heroic does not exist outside of struggle, outside of activity ...

Consequently, the heroic presupposes a certain assessment of a person's behavior and his character from the standpoint of advanced social ideals. And this allows us to consider it not only as an ethical, but also as an aesthetic category: after all, an active ethical assessment cannot be aesthetically neutral.

Meanwhile, the heroic is usually given over to the exclusive possession of ethics, and there is no place for it in the system of aesthetic categories. Of course, the heroic belongs to a very large extent to the sphere of morality. But is it not possible to say the same about other categories, which are considered to be properly aesthetic? After all, ideas about perfection, harmony, beauty, ugliness, sublime are determined by nothing more than the morality of a particular class, which is an indirect expression of the dominant in society. economic relations. Just as there is no abstract morality, there is no abstract understanding of the beautiful, sublime, heroic, ugly, etc.

In addition, the heroic is the most complete embodiment of the perfect behavior of the individual. The most difficult thing is to establish the relationship between the heroic and the beautiful. This difficulty lies in the fact that if the heroic is a completely social phenomenon, social in its origin, then the beautiful has a dual basis: it is a phenomenon both natural and social. The perfect behavior of a person from an aesthetic point of view can be assessed as beautiful and as heroic. But the beautiful behavior of a person can manifest itself in heroic and non-heroic actions. That is, the heroic and the beautiful, as well as the heroic and other categories, come into contact with each other, interpenetrate each other. However, it cannot be said that they are the same. They are not identical either in volume, or in content, or in aesthetic impact. The beautiful can cause a desire to become better, imitate the beautiful and fight the ugly. But not every struggle is heroic. The beautiful is thus broader in scope, but consequently also more abstract. It is not necessarily associated with significant content. The beautiful purifies a person, the heroic elevates him, arouses in him a thirst for action. The heroic is distinguished by activity, efficiency and passion, it causes solemn joy, actively affects the will. A wonderful deed of a person does not require such a strain of moral and physical strength as a heroic deed.

“Thus, in order to experience the feeling of the sublime, it is absolutely necessary that we seem to ourselves to be deprived of all means of physical resistance and seek self-defense in our non-physical self. The object must appear terrible to our sensuous nature, but it cannot be so, since, thanks to natural forces, we feel ourselves equivalent to it. According to Hegel, the most mature expression of the sublime is God, and man before God is nothing. Therefore, "the art of sublimity must be called holy art as such, exclusively holy art, because it gives honor only to God." He denied the heroic in contemporary society.

wrote: “We feel, contemplating the great, or fear, or surprise, or a proud consciousness of our own strength and human dignity, or we fall before it in the consciousness of our own pettiness, weakness.”

forces of nature, inspires him to fight causes a desire to be active strong. These feelings express the aesthetic evaluation of the heroic deed. In the heroic, the feeling of fear is overcome. Schiller correctly said that "great is he who conquers the terrible." The hero is not the one who does not know fear, but the one who knows how to overcome it in himself. A hero who overcomes fear and conquers the terrible evokes a feeling of admiration and admiration for the power of man.

fills a person with optimism and leads not to abstract, but to real freedom, since in a conscious heroic action a person realizes the need for the struggle he is embarking on, the need for the unity of his personal interests with the interests of the public.

2 The place of the heroic in the daily activities of an internal affairs officer Thetic tragic heroic moral

Considering the question of the heroic Everyday life an employee of the Ministry of Internal Affairs, one should, first of all, turn to the question of how this term should be understood, an employee of the Ministry of Internal Affairs, from the point of view of aesthetics. Every person's perception of heroism is different. For an employee of the Ministry of Internal Affairs, it should be clearly expressed, since he encounters this concept in aesthetics every day and perceives it as a common thing. The ideas of an employee of the Ministry of Internal Affairs about the heroic in everyday life should be inextricably linked with his moral ideas, that is, in other words, in order for an employee of the Ministry of Internal Affairs to perceive everyday life and work as heroic, he must be morally educated. Aesthetics is also engaged in this moral education.

On the other hand, the moral in a person is not reduced only to the internal, but is also expressed outside - in actions perceived by the senses. Ethics, morality, morality are, first of all, the principles and norms of people's behavior in relation to each other and to society. In other words, any act of an employee of the Ministry of Internal Affairs tells a lot about his moral education, about how he perceives the heroic in everyday life. In aesthetics, there is also such a thing as a culture of behavior. A culture of behavior is a set of formed, socially significant qualities personality, everyday actions of a person in society, based on the norms of morality, ethics, aesthetic culture.

On the issue of moral education. should stop in more detail, because in the code professional ethics police officer said: “1. Compliance with the principles, norms and rules of conduct established by the Code is the moral duty of every employee of the internal affairs bodies, regardless of their position and special rank.

The culture of behavior expresses, on the one hand, the moral requirements of society, on the other hand, the assimilation of provisions that guide, regulate and control the actions and actions of an employee of the Ministry of Internal Affairs. The rules learned by a person turn into a person's upbringing.

Each generation has its own educators, the child has a teaching staff, and the employee of the Ministry of Internal Affairs, this is, first of all, after the education laid down by him in educational institution and in the family of common human values, first of all, the charter, having mastered the most significant aspects of morality, the employee of the Ministry of Internal Affairs, in our opinion, must act in accordance with the charter. The charter, in our opinion, should take the place of the heroic employee of the Ministry of Internal Affairs in the daily life. Let's address this issue in more detail. If we turn to the code of moral ethics of employees of the Ministry of Internal Affairs, we will find in it a lot of associations with the heroic and tragic other main categories of aesthetics, including the comic.

This Code serves the purposes of: establishing the moral and ethical foundations of the performance and professional behavior of an employee; If we recall how the categories of aesthetics were formed, how the views of philosophers on the idea of ​​the tragic changed, how philosophers tried to explain how the theatrical tragedy differs from the tragedy of life, and we concluded that the perception of life should be like a struggle of opposites. This concept is very suitable for the field of activity of an employee of the Ministry of Internal Affairs, since he fights crime in direct opposition to himself.

The conscience of an employee cannot be determined by the code; it must be laid down in advance, through the moral education of the future of the current internal affairs officer. This code is intended for an employee who is ready to fulfill it, and not everyone is capable of this. The police officer is obliged to be guided by the Code, every day, being in the service. And this means that an internal affairs officer who follows this code and performs everyday work does something heroic, filling his service and life with everyday exploits. However, much of the work of an internal affairs officer can be an investigative secret. Theater, literature, cinema - these are the means that reveal to people some of the secrets of the "heroic everyday life of employees of the Ministry of Internal Affairs."

A well-trained employee should be imbued with the spirit of the tragic, since he should be understood in everyday life and follow the charter on the machine, it will be possible to say about such an employee that he is morally educated and prepared and that the population he is called upon to protect can trust him.

The meaning of life is only a human phenomenon. None of the living beings, except for man, thinks about the meaning of being, does not rise above his physical capabilities.

The problem of the meaning of life is real only where the question is raised about the whole, the integrity of life, about the relationship between its beginning and end, and therefore about what is after life. As a problem, the meaning of life exists only for those who have set themselves the goal of fully understanding their behavior, their life trajectory. In other words, the “why” of life appears there and then, where and when a person begins to conjugate its “from where” and “where”.

The meaning of life is not only its understanding, but also self-justification: existence itself is not self-sufficient, it does not satisfy a person. Beneath the meaning of life lies the belief that life is worth living.

Ethics is concerned with the meaning of life. This problem has been studied for many years. This topic is studied by sociologists, psychologists, ethics, aesthetics and philosophers. But there is still no clear answer to this question. Hence, the conclusion that it is impossible to give a speculative answer to the question of the meaning of life is quite legitimate, since this is not so much a theoretical question as a practical one.

The problem of the meaning of life in science. Reflections on the problems of the meaning of life, one cannot ignore that initial sphere in which life as a problem may not be recognized, but in which it is brewing precisely as a problem. This area is everyday life. A person and only he himself determines his purpose and meaning of life. The search for the purpose of life is based on the idea of ​​the value of human life, and the value not only for the person himself, but also for society, for other people.

the existing system of social relations.

Personal understanding of the meaning of life.

A true understanding of the meaning of life is the result of a high development and maturity of self-consciousness. Here people not only understand their subjective world and not only and not so much learn their relative independence, autonomy, personality, but also learn objective social relations.

Genuine understanding of the meaning of life presupposes foresight; anticipation of life events. It has a direct impact on the whole course of life. In the activities of the bearers of a true understanding of the meaning of life, there is an inextricable connection of times. For them, the past is not the past, irretrievably gone into oblivion, but their own experience, which continues to influence the course of their entire life.

All this suggests that people become carriers of a true understanding of the meaning of life as a result of understanding their social existence and reality.

The role of man in the formation of value orientations.

A person pursuing high ideals and goals energetically intervenes in life processes, speeding them up, consciously brings beauty, harmony of goodness into reality, becoming, at the same time, morally beautiful. The scientific understanding of the meaning of life preserves the direct visibility of life phenomena, becoming akin to a sense of beauty.

The meaning of human life (in the broadest sense) consists, therefore, in social activities, in which the objectification of the active essence of man takes place and which is aimed not at consumption, but at transformation. Satisfying his needs, a person thereby develops them, which underlies the development of the content of life. However, goals by themselves cannot fill a person's life with meaning and happiness, because doing is not yet a reality, but only a possibility.

It has an objective significance, meaning only insofar as it expresses the laws of real life, it must be turned into something real, material, i.e., be embodied in the process of activity in a certain result. As long as the goal is not realized in the concrete life of people, it will remain only a possibility, a goal-dream, far from objective reality.

processes. Each person must determine the purpose of his life and determine his own, and only his value orientations. In today's world it is difficult to survive, and even more difficult to live with dignity. And not to become consumable in the “machine” of social transformations, you need to find your place in life and society, having determined the meaning of your life. For the absence of this meaning or its loss is tantamount to death.

The twentieth century was a turning point and a transitional stage in all spheres of human existence. Much has been written about it, is being written and will continue to be written. A serious understanding of this global turning point in man, his being, mentality, in the civilizational process, culture and all its spheres is actually just beginning, because the process itself has not yet reached its climax, and we are all included in it as more or less active participants. The big one, according to the poet, is “seen at a distance”, which is not yet available. Fortunately, it is not for us (because the responsibility is great) to make significant generalizations, therefore today in the field of mental practices the most extreme marginalism and passion for the smallest, sweetest and most pleasing to the heart of any marginalist particulars and crumbs from the table of technogenic civilization are more in fashion. To start preparing the ground for such future generalizations is still within the power of those who today have not completely lost their taste for traditional, classical thinking.

The main paradox of the aesthetic sphere lies in the fact that if the science of aesthetics itself is an extremely elite discipline, accessible in its foundations to the understanding of far from many, then elementary aesthetic experience from ancient times is organically inherent in almost every normal person and reaches (often without special training) a high level. among the creators of artistic culture (all types of art), although most of them do not even suspect this, and many have never heard the word "aesthetics". However, almost everyone, also from ancient times, knows and uses the words “beauty”, “beautiful”, “skillful”, “perfect” and some others that directly relate to the subject of aesthetics, and even believe that they have an idea of ​​what it is. The problem is that, having an elementary and sometimes relatively high aesthetic taste, almost every such owner for some reason believes that this is quite enough to authoritatively and categorically judge any form of manifestation of beauty, all phenomena of art and other artistic activity. , without special philosophical, aesthetic and art history training.

Each employee of the internal affairs bodies must develop a correct understanding of the meaning of life from the point of view of aesthetics, a competent employee must understand the meaning of life, and including the meaning of the heroic in his daily life correctly, and not distorted, in other words, he must clearly distinguish the stage tragedy from the tragedy of life and react quickly as required by duty and the code.

Conclusion

Modern aesthetics is the science of personality, its formation by actions, views, and beliefs. With regard to an employee of the internal affairs bodies, who, of course, must be a person, this is the fight against crime, that is, the struggle of two opposites, like in the tragedian Shakespeare. As for the question whether an ordinary person can become a hero, a positive answer should be given: a morally educated person is always a hero.

The activity of people involves the surrounding world in the sphere of their interests and puts its phenomena in a certain relation to humanity. In relation to the phenomena of the world, man has the degree of freedom in which he has mastered these phenomena. All this creates the aesthetic richness of the world: its objects have diverse aesthetic properties. The beautiful, the sublime, the ugly, the base, the tragic, the comic, the terrible, the charming, the miraculous appear as different forms manifestations of the aesthetic.

Known "written" and "unwritten" norms of behavior in a given situation of official contact. The accepted order and form of treatment in the service is called business etiquette. Its main function is the formation of rules that promote mutual understanding of people. The second most important is the function of convenience, i.e., expediency and practicality. Modern domestic office etiquette has international features. For today's police officer, it is very important to have business communication skills. including the statute.

In order for communication as an interaction to occur without problems, it should consist of the following steps:

Setting up a contact (acquaintance). It involves understanding another person, presenting oneself to another person;

Orientation in a communication situation, understanding what is happening, holding a pause;

Ending a contact (leaving it).

Service contacts should be based on moral principles, proceed from mutual requests and needs, from the interests of the cause. Undoubtedly, such cooperation increases labor and creative activity, is an important factor in the work of an employee of the internal affairs bodies.

These, in our opinion, should be the priorities of a modern employee of the internal affairs bodies.

Bibliography

2. Code of professional ethics for an employee of internal bodies. ATS. M.: Shield-M., 2009. - 317 p.

4. Lyubimova T. B. Tragic as an aesthetic category. M.: Knowledge 1989. - 64 p.

5. Movchan M. V. Heroic in the system of aesthetic categories Lvov.: c. sh. 1986. - 150 p.

6. aesthetic culture police officers: a course of lectures. M., 2003. - 356 p.

7. Yakovlev E. G. Aesthetics: Tutorial. M., 2006. - 392 p.

Practical task

What, in your opinion, sciences are closest in their educational function to aesthetics? (ethics, philosophy, art history, cultural studies)

To answer this question, you need to analyze all the sciences presented in this issue. First we will try to give them our own definition, and then give the main answer to the main question. Ethics is a science very similar to aesthetics, but this, we believe, is still a philosophical science; the object of its study is good and evil, as well as morality. Philosophy itself is a science that helps to form a complete picture of the world. Art science - is defined as a complex of sciences that study art - literature, theater, cinema and more. Culturology studies a person, society, culture. Based on the above, we can conclude that all sciences are somehow connected with aesthetics, since aesthetics studies both art and culture and society and a person and his life position, but most of all, we believe, philosophy, which studies and what importantly represents a complete picture of the world and is the origin of all the above sciences. Because - one of the main tasks in the work of an internal affairs officer is to obtain and collect complete and reliable information for its further use in their official activities.

Yakovlev E. G. Aesthetics: Textbook. M., 2006. S. 54.

Lyubimova T. B. Tragic as an aesthetic category. M.: Knowledge 1989. S. 15.

Komarova AI Aesthetic culture of personality. M.: Knowledge, 2004. S. 128.

Movchan M. V. Heroic in the system of aesthetic categories Lvov.: c. sh. 1986. S. 179.

Code of professional ethics for an employee of internal bodies. ATS. M.: Shield-M., 2009.

Aesthetic culture of police officers: a course of lectures. M., 2003. S. 93.

Grishin A. A., Pylev S. S., Rumyantsev N. V., Shcheglov A. V. Aesthetic culture of employees of internal affairs bodies: Textbook - M., 2007. P. 174.

What comes to mind when we talk about heroes, heroic deeds? In our usual understanding, heroism is a quality, a trait of character, thanks to which a person can accomplish a feat. In different historical periods, conditions, there may be an unexpected interpretation of this concept.

Heroism - what is it? Definitions from explanatory dictionaries

Insofar as this concept is extensive, then there are several interpretations of heroism.

According to Ushakov's explanatory dictionary:

Heroism is the ability to accomplish a feat. Examples: During the disaster, he showed true heroism. He is not heroic.

In the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, "heroism" is:

The heroic accomplishment of actions of outstanding social significance, meeting the interests of the masses of the people, the advanced classes and requiring personal courage, steadfastness, readiness for self-sacrifice from a person. (adsbygoogle = window.adsbygoogle || ).push(());

Ozhegov gives the following definition:

Heroism - courage, determination and self-sacrifice in a critical situation.

Thus, compiling the definitions, we can say that heroism is the actions performed by people of their own free will to comply with the interests of people and humanity.

Types of heroism

Depending on the act performed and the surrounding conditions, several types can be distinguished.

Of course, this division is very conditional. If we consider each individual case of heroism, then we can determine what a person sacrificed to a greater extent in the name of an idea, to save human lives, overcoming himself.

So, physical heroism. It's primarily a risk. own life, health for lofty goals.

moral heroism

Of course, high moral qualities are the basis of any heroic deed. However, this division refers to heroism in relation to oneself, for example, the struggle with one's own phobias or contrary to established norms (a fighter for justice).

In scale interpersonal relationships, and one person in particular, overcoming oneself is a very important, and perhaps a turning point that can completely change a person's life.

Since "heroism" is a word that can be applied both in global and local, and in moral aspects, the actions that are assigned the glory of "heroic" are not only combat.

Duality of the concept

The nature of heroism is actually complex and contradictory: what may be a heroic deed for one person may become a tragedy for another. How to evaluate the actions of a person who courageously and masterfully performs a task, shooting down a dozen enemy aircraft and constantly being at gunpoint, risking his life? At first glance, this is heroism. And if you add that this man is a Luftwaffe pilot?

It is necessary to separate the right goals from the wrong ones: the exploits of Hercules were also once perceived as heroic deeds. It is likely that saving human lives is a universal value. It is important to be able to determine the goal - for the sake of which a heroic deed is performed.

It is worth distinguishing imaginary heroism - a relatively new concept, which means an action that for one of the warring parties is regarded as a feat, and for the other, it may turn into death and destruction.

Examples of heroism in history

A large number of heroic deeds have been preserved in the history of mankind. There have always been people who were willing to sacrifice themselves to save children/women/animals/the wounded and anyone else who can't take care of themselves. In any military operations or emergency situations there is a place for a feat. That is why so many heroes are awarded posthumously.

The heroism of people knows no bounds. Often this manifested itself during the years of the Great Patriotic War: countless people showed heroism, defending the Russian land. So, everyone knows the heroic deed of 28 Panfilov’s men: on the eve of the new 1942 german army hoped to conquer Moscow victoriously. However, 28 people under the command of Vasily Klochkov stood in their way.

Four hours of fierce battle ended with the fact that the soldiers fought back: they destroyed 18 tanks and repelled several German attacks. Almost everyone died. Heroes were awarded: posthumously awarded the title of Hero of the Soviet Union.

A vivid manifestation of heroism is the act of the pilot Gastello: having the opportunity to eject, he preferred to die, while inflicting serious damage on the enemy.

The partisans, actually being in the rear, denounced a lot important information. Unfortunately, many died: everyone knows the stories about Lenya Golikov, Zoya Kosmodemyanskaya and Matvey Kuzmin. Neither age nor gender affect a person's decision about behavior in a critical situation - only moral qualities.

And there are a lot of similar examples: more than eleven thousand people received the title of Heroes.

Examples in literature

In works of art there are many examples of heroes who have accomplished a feat. A separate layer is occupied by military stories, stories, novels: "The Tale of a Real Man", "The Fate of a Man", "Vasily Terkin", " Matrenin yard" and much more.

The true heroism of the central figures is able to convey all the tragedy of the situation, the complexity of the choice and the courage of the person.

Gorky Danko is traditionally remembered, tearing out his own heart, trying to light the way. As well as "Taras Bulba", "Ilya Muromets" and Stirlitz.

Heroic deeds of ordinary people

Do not forget that catastrophes and critical situations occur every day in the world. And the most ordinary people are ready to help their neighbor, sacrifice themselves for the sake of another person.

For example, Dr. Liza, well-known in narrow circles, organized assistance to those most in need. And even after her death, this business continues to live.

Swimming champion - Karapetyan Shavarsh, who saved 20 bangs from a sinking trolleybus. Sergey Sotnikov, whose preventive actions saved the lives of people flying in the plane.

As we can see, heroism is a complex term that implies an ambiguous interpretation.

"the tragedy of fate", Sophocles emphasizes not so much the inevitability of fate as the variability of happiness and the insufficiency of human wisdom. The tragedies of Sophocles are distinguished by the clarity of their dramatic composition. They usually begin with expositional scenes in which the starting position is explained and a plan is worked out; . the behavior of the characters. In the process of carrying out this plan, which encounters various obstacles, the dramatic action either builds up or slows down until it reaches a turning point, after which, after a slight delay, a catastrophe sets in, rapidly leading to the final denouement. In the natural course of events, strictly motivated and arising from the nature of the characters, Sophocles sees the hidden action of the divine forces that rule the world. The choir plays only an auxiliary role in Sophocles. His songs are, as it were, lyrical accompaniment to the action of the drama, in which he himself no longer takes a significant part. This tragedy depicted mainly clashes over significant issues of social life and human behavior. The conflict between paternal and maternal law, the state and the clan, freedom and despotism, the unwritten and the written law, the opposition of straightforwardness and cunning, suffering in the name of duty, the relationship between the subjective intentions of a person and the objective meaning of his actions. The essence of the tragedy of the work: In the tragedy of Sophocles "Oedipus Rex", the image of the main character obscures the entire fatal history of the misfortunes of the Labdakid family, and since it is based on an analysis of the hero's past, it belongs to the type of analytical tragedies. Events in it gradually build up to a climax, and then the denouement quickly comes. The tragedy opens with the appearance on the orchestra of a procession of Lebanese citizens who came to the house of Oedipus with a plea for help and protection. They call their king "glorified", "savior" and believe that only he alone can turn away the pestilence raging in Thebes from them. Oedipus comforts them; it turns out that he sent his brother-in-law Creon to Delphi a long time ago so that the god Apollo would discover the cause of the epidemic. A new episody begins with the arrival of Creon. He brought the oracle (answer) of God: an epidemic was sent to Thebes because the murderer of King Lai, the former ruler of Thebes, remains unpunished in the country. Oedipus vows to find the culprit, "whoever the murderer is." Oedipus calls on the soothsayer Tiresias, whom the choir calls the second seer of the future after Apollo. The old man, wise over the years, pities Oedipus and does not want to name the criminal. But when the angry king throws in his face the accusation of complicity with the murderer, Tiresias, also beside himself with anger, declares: "The godless defiler of the country is you!" But Oedipus, and after him the choir, cannot believe in the truth of divination. A new assumption arises in the king's brain, logically well-founded. Indeed, after the Thebans lost their king, who was killed somewhere during the pilgrimage, the brother of the widowed queen, Creon, should have become his legitimate successor. But then Oedipus, unknown to anyone, came, solved the riddle of the Sphinx and saved Thebes from a bloodthirsty monster. The grateful Thebans offered their savior the queen's hand and proclaimed him king. Did Creon hold a grudge, did he decide to use the oracle, overthrow Oedipus and take the throne, choosing Tiresias as an instrument of his actions? Oedipus accuses Creon of treason, threatening him with death or exile for life. And he, feeling innocently suspect, is ready to throw himself with a weapon at Oedipus. The chorus, in fear, does not know what to do, and then the wife of Oedipus and the sister of Creon, Queen Jocasta, appear. The audience knew about her only as a member of an incestuous union. But Sophocles portrayed her as a strong-willed woman, whose authority in the house was recognized by everyone, not excluding her brother and husband. Both are looking for support in her, and she hurries to reconcile the quarreling men and, having learned about the reason for the quarrel, ridicules belief in predictions. Wanting to back up her words with reference to convincing examples, Jocasta says that a fruitless faith in them distorted her youth, took her firstborn away from her, and her first husband, Laius, instead of the death predicted to him at the hands of his son, became a victim of a robber attack. Jocasta's story, designed to calm Oedipus, actually causes him anxiety. Oedipus recalls that the oracle, which foretold him parricide and marriage to his mother, forced him many years ago to leave his parents and Corinth and go wandering. And the circumstances of the death of Laius in the story of Jocasta remind him of one unpleasant adventure during his wanderings: at the crossroads, he accidentally killed a driver and some old man, Jocasta's signature similar to Laius. If the slain one was really Laius, then he, Oedipus, who had just cursed himself, must flee from Thebes, but who will accept him, the exile, even if he cannot return to his homeland without the risk of becoming a parricide and mother's husband. Only one person can resolve doubts, the old slave who accompanied Lai and fled from death. Oedipus orders to bring the old man, but he has long been asked to go to distant pastures and left the city. While the messengers are looking for this only witness, a new character appears who calls himself a messenger from Corinth, who has arrived with the news of the death of the Corinthian king and the election of Oedipus as his successor. But Oedipus is afraid to accept the Corinthian throne. He is frightened by the second part of the oracle, which predicts marriage with his mother. The messenger naively and wholeheartedly hurries to dissuade Oedipus and reveals to him the secret of his origin. The Corinthian royal couple adopted a baby whom he, a former shepherd, found in the mountains and brought to Corinth. The sign of the child was pierced and bound legs, because of which he received the name Oedipus, that is, "having swollen legs." Aristotle considered this scene of "recognition" the pinnacle of the tragic skill of Sophocles and the culmination of the whole tragedy, and he especially singled out the artistic device he calls peripetia, thanks to which the climax is carried out and the denouement is prepared. 45 Jocasta is the first to understand the meaning of what happened and, in the name of saving Oedipus, makes a last futile attempt to keep him from further investigations: If life is dear to you, I pray the gods, Do not ask ... My torment is enough. The poet endowed this woman with tremendous inner strength, who is ready to bear the burden of a terrible secret until the end of her days. But Oedipus no longer listens to her requests and prayers, he is consumed by one desire to finally reveal the secret, whatever it may be. He is still infinitely far from the truth and does not notice the strange words of his wife and her unexpected departure; and the choir, supporting him in ignorance, glorifies his native Thebes and the god Apollo. With the arrival of the old servant, it turns out that he really witnessed the death of Lai, and besides, he, having received an order from Lai to kill the baby once transferred to him, took pity on the child and gave it to the Corinthian shepherd, whom he now, to his embarrassment, recognizes in the messenger before him. Now the secret is out. An agitated herald comes out to the choir to announce the suicide of Jocasta and the terrible deed of Oedipus, who stuck gold pins from Jocasta's clothes into his eyes. With the last words of the herald, Oedipus appears, blind and covered in his own blood. He himself carried out the curse, with which, in ignorance, he branded the criminal. With touching tenderness he says goodbye to his children and entrusts them to the care of Creon. The choir, overwhelmed by what has happened, repeats the ancient saying: And, without a doubt, only one can be called happy, Who has reached the limit of life without knowing misfortunes in it. Who are those opponents, the fight against which Oedipus devoted his enormous will and mind? These are the gods - and their power is so powerful that even an outstanding person seems powerless before them. Many saw in the tragedy of Sophocles only a statement of the power of the gods and therefore considered it as a tragedy of fate, transferring this controversial definition to the whole of Greek tragedy. But Sophocles never depicts his hero as a victim who passively accepts the blows of fate. His Oedipus is an energetic and active person who fights for his happiness for the sake of the triumph of justice and reason. He comes out victorious in the struggle, as he deprives his opponents of the right to completely dispose of a person at their discretion. If Sophocles had thought differently, he would have acted like his younger contemporary, the tragic poet Euripides, in whom, at the end of the tragedy about Oedipus, Creon ordered the servants to blind Oedipus and drove him out of the country. Oedipus of Sophocles resists to the very end those forces with which he fought all his life. Therefore, he himself invents punishment for himself, carries it out himself and thereby overcomes his suffering. The contradiction between the subjectively unlimited possibilities of the human mind and the objectively limited limits of human activity, reflected in the tragedy Oedipus Rex, is one of the characteristic contradictions of Sophocles' time. In the images of the gods opposing man, Sophocles embodied everything that could not be explained in the surrounding world, the laws of which were still almost unknown to man. Therefore, Sophocles cannot ethically justify the gods who subject people to such suffering. The poet has not yet doubted the goodness of the world order and the inviolability of world harmony. Against all odds, he optimistically affirms the human right to happiness, believing that misfortunes cannot overthrow the one who defends his rights and fights for them. Sophocles is still far from the art of individual characteristics of modern drama. His heroic images are static and are not characters in our sense, as they remain unchanged in all the vicissitudes of fate. But they are great in their integrity, in freedom from everything accidental and individual. The first place among the remarkable Sophocles' images rightfully belongs to Oedipus, who has become one of the greatest heroes of world drama. In the tragedy "Oedipus Rex" Sophocles makes an important discovery that will later allow him to deepen the heroic image. It shows that a person in himself draws strength that helps him live, fight and win. The structure of the tragedy is quite traditional: a prologue (1-150), a parody (151-215), four episodia (216-462, 513-862, 911-1085, 1110-1185) and four stasims adjoining the nu (463-512, 863-910 , 1086-1109, 1186-1222), of which the third performs the function of a hyporcheme; completes the tragedy of the exodes (1223-1530) with the included commos of Oedipus with the choir (1313-1368) and the final dialogue of Oedipus with Creon in anapaests (1515-1523). About st.1524-1530 see below in the notes. To perform the tragedy, three actors were required, among whom the roles were distributed as follows: the protagonist - Oedipus; deuteragonist - priest of Zeus Jocasta, Shepherd, Household; tritagonist - Creon, Tiresias, Corinthian messenger. Apart from the dramas of Aeschylus and Euripides mentioned above, the name of the tragedy "Oedipus" is attested to more than a dozen Athenian tragedians, from whom nothing came of this topic. In Rome, Julius Caesar addressed the image of Oedipus (his tragedy has not survived) and Seneca is the only author, except for Sophocles, whose tragedy has survived to this day. http://antique-lit.niv.ru/

HEROIC
Heroic is the predominant emotional and semantic beginning of the historically early high genres, especially epics (traditional folk epic). Here, the actions of people are raised on a shield and poeticized, testifying to their fearlessness and ability to majestic accomplishments, their readiness to overcome the instinct of self-preservation, take risks, deprivations, dangers, and meet death with dignity. The heroic mood is associated with strong-willed composure, with uncompromising and inflexible spirit. A heroic deed in its traditional sense (regardless of the victory or death of its performer) is the right path for a person to posthumous glory. The heroic individuality (a hero in the original strict sense of the word) arouses admiration and worship, is drawn to the general consciousness as being on a certain pedestal, in a halo of high exclusivity. According to S.S. Averintsev, they do not spare heroes: they are admired, they are sung.
Heroic deeds are often an end in itself demonstration of energy and strength. Such are the legendary exploits of Hercules, carried out not so much for the sake of the cowardly Eurystheus, but for their own sake. Something of this kind is the antics of the mischievous Vaska Buslaev, to some extent, the actions of Taras Bulba, who does not know how to restrain himself in a warlike revelry.

As part of the life of mankind, heroism of a different kind is eternally significant and ethically undeniable: spiritualized by a superpersonal goal, altruistic, sacrificial, signifying service in the highest sense of the word. Its roots for Europeans are also in antiquity (the images of Hector, the defender of his native Troy, or Prometheus, the fire maker, as he is in the "post-Aeschylus" interpretations). From here threads are drawn to the heroics of "War and Peace" by L.N. Tolstoy, to the image of Vasily Terkin by A.T. Tvardovsky and many other things in the art of the last centuries. Heroism is unquestionably true also in those cases when it marks a person's defense of his own dignity in circumstances that violate the rights to independence and freedom.

The heroic impulse often combines (in a paradoxical way, and at the same time naturally) the self-willed self-affirmation of a person with his desire to serve society and humanity. A similar "alloy" took place in the fate of Byron. This kind of heroism often received severely critical coverage (for example, the image of Raskolnikov).

Gratitude-filled worldview is inextricably linked in the Christian cultural tradition with contrition of the heart and enlightening repentance, the main thing is compassion that extends to everything and everything.

The emotional atmosphere in question almost dominates the hagiographies and related genres. It is organically associated with the theme of righteousness in literature and painting, and, in particular, is clear in a number of works of Russian classics of the 19th century. ("Living relics" by I.S. Turgenev, "Silence" by N.A. Nekrasov, "War and Peace" by L.N. Tolstoy, "Cathedrals" by N.S. Leskov, "The Brothers Karamazov" by F.M. Dostoevsky, "Holy Night" and "Student" by A.P. Chekhov). This atmosphere is also present in Russian literature of the 20th century, most noticeably in the prose of I.S. Shmelev ("Summer of the Lord" and, in particular, "Praying Man").

TRAGIC
This is one of the forms of emotional comprehension and artistic development of life's contradictions. As a mentality, it is grief and compassion. Tragic is based on conflicts (collisions) in the life of a person (or a group of people), which cannot be resolved, but which cannot be reconciled. The traditional (classical) understanding of the tragic goes back to Aristotle (judgments about tragedy), and the theoretical development of the concept goes back to the aesthetics of romanticism and Hegel. The tragic hero is seen here as a strong and whole person who finds himself in a situation of discord with life (sometimes with himself), unable to bend and retreat, and therefore doomed to suffering and death. Tragic and literature captures the idea of ​​an irreparable loss of human values ​​and at the same time faith in a person who has courage and remains true to himself even in the face of inevitable defeat. Tragic situations can include in this moment the guilt of a person (such is Pushkin's "Boris Godunov"). The concept of tragic guilt is universal in Hegel, according to which the tragic hero is guilty for the mere fact that violates the established order.
In the second half of the XIX century. the tragic began to be understood broadly - as everything that can cause a sad feeling, compassion. Later, the tragic was given a universal meaning. In accordance with such a view (it is called pantragic), the catastrophic nature of human existence is its main, essential property. At the same time, the tragic is reduced to suffering and a sense of hopelessness, while its positive content (the affirmation of steadfastness, consistency, courage) is leveled and not taken into account.
Along with the tragic in art and literature, there are such forms of elucidation of life's contradictions as drama and elegiac.

philosophy and aesthetic a category that characterizes an insoluble society.-historical. a conflict unfolding in the process of free action of a person and accompanied by a person. suffering and destruction of important values ​​for life. Unlike sad or terrible, T. as a kind of threatening or accomplished destruction is not caused by random external. forces, and stems from vnutr. the nature of the dying phenomenon itself, its insoluble self-dividing in the process of its realization. The dialectic of life turns to man in his pathetic (suffering) T. and destroys him. side.

T. presupposes the free action of a person, the self-determination of the actor, so that although his collapse is a natural and necessary consequence of this action, the action itself is a free human act. personality. The contradiction underlying T. lies in the fact that it is the free action of a person that realizes the inevitable necessity that destroys him, which overtakes a person exactly where he tried to overcome it or get away from it (the so-called tragic irony). Horror and suffering, which are essential for T. pathetic. element, are tragic not as a result of the intervention of c.-l. random ext. forces, but as the consequences of the actions of the person himself. Unlike melodramatic (causing pity, "touching") T. cannot be where a person acts only as a passive object of the fate he endures. T. is akin to the sublime in that it is inseparable from the idea of ​​the dignity and greatness of man, manifested in his very suffering. As a form of sublimely pathetic the suffering of the acting hero, T. goes beyond the antinomy of optimism and pessimism: the first is excluded by the insoluble conflict found in T., the irreparable loss of what should not have disappeared, the second is heroic. the activity of a person who challenges fate and does not reconcile with it even in his defeat.

T. has always defined. social-historical. content that determines the structure of his art. formation (in particular, in a specific variety of drama - tragedy). T. in antique. the era is characterized by a certain underdevelopment of the personal principle, above which the good of the policy certainly rises (on its side are the gods, the patrons of the policy), and objectivistically cosmological. understanding of fate as an impersonal force that dominates nature and society. Therefore, T. in antiquity was often described through the concepts of fate and fate, as opposed to the new European. tragedy, where the source of T. is the subject himself, the depths of his ext. the world and the actions caused by them (W. Shakespeare).

Drevnevost. philosophy that does not trust a freely personal principle (including Buddhism, with its heightened awareness of the pathetic essence of life, but a purely pessimistic assessment of it), did not develop the concept of T.

Antich. and Wed-century. philosophy does not know specials at all. theory of T.: the doctrine of T. is here an inseparable moment of the doctrine of being. An example of understanding T. in other Greek. philosophy, where it acts as an essential aspect of the cosmos and the dynamics of the opposing principles in it, the philosophy of Aristotle can serve. With t. sp. The Aristotelian doctrine of nous (mind) T. arises when this eternal self-sufficing mind is given into the power of other being and becomes temporary from eternal, from self-sufficient - subject to necessity, from blissful - suffering and mournful. Then the human begins. “action and life” (imitation of Crimea is the essence of tragedy - see “Poetics”, 1450 a) with its joys and sorrows, with its transitions from happiness to misfortune, with its guilt, crimes and retribution. This exit of the mind into the power of necessity and chance constitutes the unconscious. the crime. But sooner or later there is a recollection or "recognition" of the former blissful state, the crime is caught and evaluated. Then comes the tragic time. pathos, caused by shock human. creatures from the contrast of blissful innocence and the darkness of vanity and crime. But this identification of the crime signifies at the same time the beginning of the restoration of the trampled, which takes place in the form of retribution, carried out through fear and compassion. As a result, the passions are purified (catharsis) and the disturbed balance of the mind is restored.

Isolation of the category of T. and philosophy. its comprehension is carried out in it. classical aesthetics. Schiller, developing the ideas of Kantian philosophy, saw the source of T. in the conflict between feelings. and morals. human nature (“On the Tragic in Art”, 1792). According to Schelling, the essence of art lies in "... the struggle of freedom in the subject and the need for the objective ...", and both sides "... simultaneously appear both victorious and defeated - in complete indistinguishability" ("Philosophy of Art", M ., 1966, p. 400). Necessity, fate makes the hero guilty without Ph.D. intention on his part, but due to a predetermined set of circumstances. The hero must struggle with necessity - otherwise, if he passively accepted it, there would be no freedom - and be defeated by it. But in order for necessity not to be victorious, the hero must voluntarily expiate this guilt predetermined by fate, and in this voluntary punishment for an inevitable crime lies the victory of freedom.

Hegel sees the theme of T. in the self-dividing of morals. substances as areas of will and accomplishment (see Soch., vol. 14, M., 1958, pp. 365-89). Components of its morals. forces and acting characters are different in their content and individual manifestation, and the development of these differences necessarily leads to conflict. Each of the different morals. Forces seeks to implement determined. the goal, overwhelmed by the definition. pathos, which is realized in action, and in this one-sided certainty of its content inevitably violates the opposite side and collides with it. The death of these colliding forces restores the disturbed balance on a different, higher level, and thereby moves the universal substance forward, contributing to historical process self-development of the spirit.

Hegel and the romantics (A. V. Schlegel, Schelling) give a typological analysis of ancient and new European. understanding of T. The latter proceeds from the fact that man himself is guilty of the horrors and suffering that befell him, while in antiquity he acted rather as a passive object of the fate he endured. Kierkegaard notes the different understanding of the tragic connected with this. guilt in antiquity and modern times: in antiquity. in tragedy, grief is deeper, pain is less, in modern tragedy it is the other way around, since pain is associated with awareness of one's own. guilt, reflection on it.

If it. classical philosophy, and above all the philosophy of Hegel, in its understanding of T. proceeded from the rationality of the will and the meaningfulness of the tragic. conflict, where the victory of an idea was achieved at the cost of the death of its carrier, then in the irrationalistic. philosophy of Schopenhauer and Nietzsche there is a break with this tradition, because the very existence of c.-l. meaning in the world. Considering the will to be immoral and unreasonable, Schopenhauer sees the essence of T. in the self-confrontation of the blind will, senseless suffering, and the death of the just. Nietzsche characterizes art as the primordial essence of being—chaotic, irrational, and formless (“The Birth of Tragedy from the Spirit of Music,” 1872). In the 20th century irrationalistic interpretation of T. was continued in existentialism. According to Jaspers, true t. In the spirit of the philosophy of life, Simmel wrote about the tragic. contradictions between the dynamics of creativity. process and those stable forms in which it crystallizes (“The Conflict of Modern Culture”, 1918, Russian translation, 1923), F. Stepun - about the “tragedy of creativity” as the objectification of the inexpressible inner. the world of personality (journal Logos, 1910, book 1).

Marxism-Leninism gave the social-historical. understanding of technology, considering its objective prerequisites for the antagonisms of an exploiting society, the alienation of man and his activity characteristic of it. Analyzing the death of the old societies. way of life, K. Marx wrote: “History ... goes through many phases when it takes an obsolete form of life to the grave”; if “the last phase of the world-historical form is its coedia”, then Marx considers the history of the old order to be tragic, “... while it was the power of the world that has existed from time immemorial, freedom, on the contrary, was an idea that overshadowed individuals ...” and “... as long as the old order itself believed ... in its legitimacy”, so that it was on the side of “... not a personal, but a world-historical delusion” (“Toward a Criticism of the Hegelian Philosophy of Law.” For an introduction, see book: Marx K. and Engels F., Soch., v. 1, p. 418). Unlike this type of T., the source of revolution. Marx and Engels saw tragedies in the collision "...between historically necessary requirement and the practical impossibility of its implementation” (Engels F., ibid., vol. 29, p. 495), when the objective underdevelopment of societies. relations, the immaturity of the conditions of the revolution. the movement led to the death of its representatives (T. Müntzer, the Jacobins, and others); a similar conflict, according to Marx, "... led to the collapse of the revolutionary party of 1848-1849" (ibid., p. 483).

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