History of soil development Smolensk region 10

Soil classification 16

Soil erosion and its control 25

Introduction

Soil and its main properties

The concept of soil and soil formation

1) weathering (destruction) rocks and the formation of various, new mineral compounds;

2) the accumulation of dead plant and animal residues that undergo decay and transformation, as a result of which the humus part of the soil is formed;

3) movement in the soil thickness of some mineral, organomineral and organic substances.

Causes of Soil Diversity

Soil composition

application of organic and mineral fertilizers;
liming
rational use of plant residues.

History of soil development in the Smolensk region

The soils spread in the territory of the region reflect the totality of the processes that took place in the past and are taking place now.
The development of woody vegetation on the territory of the region is determined by many millennia. This is evidenced not only by paleogeographic data, but also by the morphology and properties of soils. The appearance of soddy-podzolic soils, their morphology, and the depletion of their upper part in silty particles indicate the duration of the development of the podzolic soil-forming process. The results of this process are observed almost everywhere and in terms of the intensity of development they rank first among other processes in the region. The beginning of podzol formation in the territory of the Smolensk region can be attributed to the period of glaciation. Analysis data on numerous points indicate that during the interglacial epochs, woody vegetation with the participation of forbs and mosses was developed here. Such vegetation, a more severe and humid climate than now, contributed to the development of podzolic and marsh soil formation. This is confirmed by buried peat and podzolic soils.
In the era of the last Valdai glaciation for our region, soil-forming processes were suppressed, since the dry and cold climate led to the development of permafrost. However, with the improvement of the climate, the revival of soil-forming processes then took place. This is indicated by two horizons with traces of soil formation, which are traced in loess rocks lying above the buried podzolic soil.
In the post-Valdai era (Holocene), lasting about 12 thousand years (BC), soil formation conditions were also close to modern ones. Against the background of the dominance of the podzolic process, in addition to the development of bog soil formation, in some periods there was an intensification of the sod process.
Judging by paleobotanical data, it can be argued that at the beginning of this era, in a humid climate under the canopy of green spruce forests, podzolic and bog processes of soil formation took place. Later, in a drier climate under pine-broad-leaved forests, along with podzolic, a sod process of soil formation was developed.
In the middle Holocene (7000-2500 years BC), in a dry climate, which determined the maximum distribution of broad-leaved forests, the soddy and soddy-podzolic processes of soil formation were even more pronounced.
A new increase in climate humidity at the end of the post-Valdai era (2500-0 years BC) leads to a change from broad-leaved forests to mixed coniferous-broad-leaved forests. This was reflected in the strengthening of podzol formation and waterlogging of the territory of the region. Thus, in the post-glacial period, climatic changes and related changes in vegetation and soil formation took place.
In climate change there were rhythms (phases) lasting 1800-1900 years, consisting of cool-humid and warm-dry phases.
Based on this, it can be considered that in the cool-humid phase in the region there was an increase in podzol formation and waterlogging, and in the warm-dry phase of the climate, a weakening of the podzolic and an increase in the sod process of soil formation was observed.
In addition to climate and vegetation, the nature of soil formation was influenced by relief and parent rocks. With the retreat of the Valdai glacier, the settlement of the territory occurred simultaneously with woody and herbaceous groups.
Therefore, in the post-glacial era, podzolic and sod processes of soil formation could immediately proceed. And it is not necessary, as N.P. Remezov believes, that podzolic soils develop from tundra ones.
The relief and parent rocks determined the differentiation of soil-forming processes. Pine and spruce forests with podzolic soils were predominantly formed on sandy rocks and moraine loams, the development of which continues to this day.
In the depressions of the plains, where a significant amount of moisture accumulated, peat-boggy soils were formed. Their development has been going on since the beginning of the post-glacial period.
Elevated plains, which turned out to be covered by loess rocks, apparently were inhabited at the beginning by herbaceous (meadow) vegetation, under the canopy of which the process of humus formation took place. This was facilitated by the weak division of the territory and the physicochemical features of loess rocks.
Subsequently, with the intensification of the dismemberment of the territory of the loess plains and the leaching of carbonates, the herbaceous vegetation is replaced by mixed forests, which still exist today. As a result of such a change in vegetation on thick loess rocks, the podzolic process was superimposed on the former soddy process of soil formation, which led to the degradation of humus-calcareous soils. This is confirmed by the presence of soddy-podzolic soils with two humus horizons, distributed in separate areas on thick loess rocks of elevated plains. The second carbon black humus horizon of different thickness, located under the arable one, is the residual part of the humus horizon of the former humus-calcareous soil. The preservation of this part of the humus horizon at the present time, apparently, is associated not only with the role of hard groundwater in the relief microforms of loess plains, but also with the processes of soil erosion.
On outwash and ancient alluvial sands, as well as on carbonate-free moraine loams, podzol formation lasts longer than on loess rocks. The soils on these rocks are more strongly altered by podzol formation.
On loess plateaus, podzolization was preceded by a soddy process. Therefore, the soils on these rocks are less leached and the results of the podzolic process are less pronounced in them. This is also reflected in the fact that, in terms of composition and agricultural production properties, soddy-podzolic soils of loess rocks are often better than similar soils of moraine loams.
Along with the podzolic and soddy processes, the development of marsh and solonchak processes of soil formation proceeded.
In the modern era, there are also changes natural conditions, which undoubtedly affects the nature of soil formation. It is established that the period from the XV century. until the 18th century was a period of harsh climate with high overall humidity. FROM early XIX in. there is a decrease in the amount of precipitation: peat bogs dry up, the level of groundwater decreases and the moistening of the soil cover decreases.
Of course, climate change affects modern processes soil formation. However, the most powerful factor is human activity. By cutting down forests, plowing up land, a person changes not only the intensity, but also the direction of soil-forming processes.
Various tools found by E. A. Schmidt during excavations of numerous ancient settlements in the region testify that people began to engage in agriculture and cattle breeding here about 3 thousand years ago.
In this regard, the buried soils described by the author under ancient mounds created by man 2500-3000 years ago are of great interest. So, for example, in the village of Zharyn, Roslavl region, under a cultural layer 2 m thick, strongly podzolic soil is expressed on carbonate loess-like loams. Approximately the same buried soil has been described in the village of Teleshi in the Smolensk region. At present, in similar conditions of relief and rocks, soddy-medium podzolic loamy soils are developed here.
In the village of Bateki, Smolensk region, buried heavily podzolic sandy soil was found under a 1.7 m thick cultural layer on the esker ridge.
On the main shore of the lake Okatovo, Demidov district, under the cultural layer with a thickness of 1.2 m, a sandy buried soil of a soddy-podzolic type was found. At present, in similar conditions of relief and rocks, soddy-podzolic soils are also developed here.
Thus, more than 2500 years ago, a person began to cut down forests, develop the most suitable places for arable land: the slopes of river valleys, elevated flat areas of watersheds, etc. The forest was cut down, uprooted, logging residues were burned and then plowed. crops were sharply reduced, arable land was abandoned, and new lands were developed that had not yet been touched by the plow.
According to Ya. Solovyov, already by the period of general land surveying (1776-1778), almost half of the territory of the former Smolensk province was plowed up. Forests occupied a little more than half of its territory.
In the future, due to the deforestation, the area of ​​arable land continued to expand. Currently, the area of ​​forests is 30-32% of the total area of ​​the region. With the slash and then shifting system of agriculture, which dominated until the current century, man only disrupted the natural course of soil formation, and most often for the worse. The legacy of this is "plowed" soils with low fertility.
With the transition to permanent land use, man began to more actively influence the processes of soil formation. By applying organic and mineral fertilizers, he changes the podzolic soil so much that it eventually loses the signs of the original soil. As a result of human production activities, variants of cultivated soddy-podzolic soils are created, and the original soils change not only for the better, but also for the worse.
Only when high level agricultural technology and rational use soil, the podzolic process is removed and replaced by the process of humus formation. The results of this are expressed in old-arable, well-fertilized fields, old vegetable gardens, near farms, etc.
A decisive role in the cultivation of soils belongs to organic and mineral fertilizers, liming and proper processing. This is especially important now in connection with the introduction of new crops into agriculture: corn, sugar beets, legumes, and others.
Thus, the same soil-forming processes are currently taking place on the territory of the Smolensk region as in past eras. However, under human influence on soddy-podzolic soils, an increase in the process of humus formation is noticeable.
Only knowing the origin, properties and history of soil development, a person can change them in the right direction and increase fertility.

Soil classification

podzolic;
sod-podzolic;
podzolic marsh;
forest-steppe;
sod-carbonate;
sod-peat-gley.

I type - soddy soils

II type - podzolic soils

III type - sod-podzolic soils

In the Smolensk region, soils of this type occupy the main area and are found everywhere where meadow vegetation has replaced forest vegetation, or where grass vegetation has grown or is growing under the sparse forest canopy. Therefore, a distinctive feature of soddy-podzolic soils is the presence of a humus horizon under the forest litter (turf), which is replaced by podzolic and lower illuvial horizons.
etc.................

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Introduction

Smolensk soil formation hydrology agroecology

This research work is devoted to the study, description and use of soil - geographical zoning and soil cover characteristics on the example of the Smolensk region. The work is relevant, because with the help of the information received, we can solve issues related to land use in this region. To date, the technologies and possibilities for obtaining the information of interest are well developed and continue to improve.

The object of the study is the methods of studying and describing the soil - geographical zoning of the territory of the Smolensk region. And the subject of research is the assessment of soils in agronomy, the compilation of geomorphological and soil maps.

1 . Gegeographical position of the Smolensk region

The Smolensk Region is located in the central part of the East European Platform, on the western outskirts of the European part of Russia, on the border with Belarus. Most of located on the Smolensk-Moscow Upland, the western part of the region - on the East European Plain. The region stretches for 255 km from north to south and for 301 km from west to east. It occupies an area of ​​49,786 km². Geographical position area is in many ways peculiar and even in individual features unique. It is located in temperate latitudes, in the zone of noticeable influence of air masses from the Atlantic.

2 . Hacharacterization of soil formation factors

2.1 Hydrology

The main river of the region is the Dnieper with tributaries Sozh, Desna, Vop, Vyazma. The Volga basin includes the Vazuza River and its tributary Gzhat, as well as the Ugra River, a tributary of the Oka. In the northwest, a short section of the Western Dvina and its tributary, the Kasplya River, flows.

There are several hundred lakes in the region, of which the glacial lakes in the northwest are especially beautiful (more than 160 with a mirror area of ​​at least 1 ha): Kasplya, Svaditskoye, Velisto, etc. The largest among them is Akatovskoe (655 ha), the deepest is Baklanovskoe ( 28 meters). The largest karst lake is Kalyginskoye.

Among the large reservoirs, one can emphasize the Vazuzsky and Yauzsky reservoirs supplying water to Moscow in the northeast, as well as the coolers of power plants - the Smolensk reservoir in the north near the village of Ozerny and the Desnogorsk reservoir in the south of the region near the city of Desnogorsk.

About 40 aquifers lie in the bowels. General Infiltration Resources groundwater are estimated at 4.75 billion m3/year.

2.2 Climate

The climate is temperate continental. average temperature January?9°C, July +17°C. For most of the region, the differences in temperature are small, only the southern regions have a higher temperature (by about 1 °). It belongs to excessively humidified territories, precipitation is from 630 to 730 mm per year, more in the northwestern part - where cyclones pass more often, maximum in summer. The average annual number of days with precipitation is from 170 to 190. The growing season is 129-143 days. The period with a positive average daily air temperature lasts 213-224 days. The average duration of the frost-free period is 125-148 days. The region is characterized by a significant variability of atmospheric circulation during the year, which leads to very noticeable deviations in temperature and precipitation from long-term averages. The distribution of precipitation throughout the year is also uneven - the largest number they fall in the summer (about 225-250 mm). For the year as a whole, the winds of the western, southwestern and southern directions. Also, the Smolensk region is characterized by high cloudiness (the largest number of clear days in spring - up to 10%).

There are four meteorological stations of Roshydromet and the Smolensk Aerological Station in the region.

2.3 Vegetation

2.4 Relief

The relief is largely determined by the deposits of glaciers. Glaciers advancing from the northwest to the territory of the Smolensk region left behind thick strata of glacial deposits - boulder loams and sandy loams (moraines), various water-glacial deposits - sandy loams, sands and other rocks. Erosion processes play a significant role in the creation of modern relief forms. Over vast expanses, suffusion processes influenced the formation of relief.

3. ground cover

On the territory of the studied farm, with the help of numerous sections, the nature of the soil cover was established. It was found that the soil cover is represented by soddy-podzolic soils typical for the entire Smolensk region, belonging to the moderately freezing subtype. Along with the basic and podzolic processes, the gley process also takes place, leading to gleyization of the soil profile both from the surface and, in some cases, along all genetic horizons. Therefore, among ordinary soddy-podzolic soils, soddy-podzolic surface-gleyic and, accordingly, soddy-podzolic gleyic soils are formed.

Below is a list of eight soil types identified by the degree of podzolization and the depth of podzolization found in the surveyed area.

1. Basic cut№ 4 0 . Significant thickness (28 cm) of the existing arable horizon (A p), a decrease in the silica content (A 2 - 81.2%, B 2 - 70.41%, BC - 72.5%) and an increase in the gross composition of sesquioxides R 2 O 3 , CaO, and MgO down the profile starting from the A 2 horizon indicate that we have a soddy-podzolic soil. This corresponds to the acid reaction of the soil, decreasing down the profile (A 2 -4.5; B 2 - 4.7; BC - 4.8). The content in A p of physical clay (<0,01 мм) 21,1%, а в горизонте BC - 29,7% говорит об этой почве о легкосуглинистой на лёгком суглинке. Нижняя граница горизонта A 2 - 33 см, т.е. почва среднеглубокоподзолистая. Поскольку дневная поверхность почвы лежит между горизонтами с отметками абсолютных высот соответственно 180 и 200, то материнская порода - покровный моренный суглинок. Итак, общее название почвы - дерново-среднеглубокоподзолистая легкосуглинистая на покровном моренном лёгком суглинке. Индекс - П d 2/4 lpl.

2. Basic cut№ 9 3 . The section has similar diagnostic features (A p - 25 cm, a similar distribution of SiO 2 , R 2 O 3 , CaO and MgO along the profile, the content of physical clay in the A 2 horizon is 16.2%), but differs in a large amount of silica (A 2 - 83 .5%) and physical clay in the BC horizon (30.4%). The day surface lies above 200 m above sea level; lower boundary A 2 - 38 cm. d 3/4lP l s).

3. Basic cut№ 3 1 . In the section of this soil, not only the A 1 horizon is absent, but also the A 2 horizon, which are involved in the A p (arable horizon), 25 cm thick, which indicates eroded soil. Other data - pH 5.2-4.7; accumulation of silica in the upper part of the profile (A p - 80.0%, B 1 - 73.3%, BC - 76.8%) and an increase in the content of R 2 O 3 , CaO, MgO down the profile, the content of physical clay in A p 21 .2%, in BC - 29.2%, speak of soddy-podzolic light loamy medium washed out on cover loess-like loam (day surface above 190 m above sea level). Index - P d lpl

4.Basic cut№ 6 7 . The structure of the profile is observed, similar to the previous one, where A p included horizon A 2 (25 cm thick). The reaction of the medium is less acidic (A p -5.2; B 1 - 5.1; BC - 5.4), a large amount of accumulated silica in the upper part of the profile (90.0), the removal of sesquioxides, CaO and MgO down the profile , the content of physical clay in horizon A n 12.6%, in BC 27.6%. The day surface is below 200 m above sea level. This soil is a soddy-podzolic sandy loam medium eroded on a covering moraine light loam (P d upl)

5. Basic cut№ 5 1 . This section, in addition to all the features characteristic of soddy-podzolic soils (presence of a fairly thick horizon A 1 (15 cm), pH 4.7-4.6, respectively, A 1 and A 2 horizons, silica accumulation, removal of calcium, magnesium, sesquioxides down along the profile, a high percentage of humus in A 1 (6.72%), has signs of gleying throughout the profile Physical clay content: A 1 g - 34.7%, A 2 g - 29.2%, depth of the lower boundary A 2 g - 32 cm. This is a soddy medium deep podzolic gley medium loamy soil on light clay (P dg 2/4 sgl).

6. Basic cut№ 8 4 . A p includes horizon A 2 (thickness 28 cm), pH 5.3-4.5-4.7, respectively, for horizons A p; B; BC; removal of CaO, MgO, R 2 O 3 down the profile, accumulation of SiO 2 in its upper part. The content of physical clay for horizons A p and BC is 21.6% and 29.2%, respectively. The absolute mark of the occurrence of the day surface of the soil is above 185 m. d lpl).

7. Basic cut№ 4 9 . The arable layer is absent, horizons A 1 (10 cm), A 2 are presented, the lower boundary of occurrence is 26 cm); pH 4.2; 4.3; 4.0; 4.1 for horizons A 1 , A 2 , B and BC respectively. The first three horizons show signs of gleying. The profile distribution of silica, Ca, Mg, and R2O3 is typical of podzolized soils. Physical clay: A 1 g- 23.0%; BC - 23.1%. This is a soddy-strongly shallow podzolic gleyish light loamy soil on a covering moraine light loam (occurs below 200 m above sea level). Index - P dg 3/3 lpl.

8. Basic cut№ 6 0 . A p with a thickness of 25 cm, the lower boundary of the horizon A 2 39 cm; pH A p - 5.0; A 2 - 4.7; the BC horizon rises to 5.9. The content of SiO 2 in horizon A 2 is 90.3%, in BC it decreases to 73.3%. Down the profile, there is a significant decrease in total CaO, MgO, and R 2 O 3 . The percentage of physical clay in A p - 12.0, in BC - 31.9. Soddy-strongly shallow podzolic sandy loamy soil on cover moraine medium loam (P d 3/3 oops).

4 . Soil-forming processes.

All of the above types of soils are characterized by the manifestation of both soddy and podzolic processes. The essence of the soddy process lies in the active humus formation and accumulation of well-structured organic matter in the A 1 horizon under the influence of a fairly well-developed herbaceous vegetation. The high degree of branching of the root systems and their contact with the mineral part of the soil contribute to the entry of organic matter directly into the soil profile during the decomposition of the rhizomass and the fixation of the resulting humus.

If the soddy process leads to the appearance of a humus horizon A 1, then the podzolic process forms an eluvial horizon A 2 (washout), in which, under the action of chemically aggressive acids (decomposition products of the forest litter), destruction and removal down the profile and beyond the primary and partly secondary minerals. As a result, an illuvial horizon (inwash) is formed. It is these processes that determine the uneven distribution of elements along the profile in the vertical plane: the most stable silica accumulates in the upper horizons, and calcium, potassium, magnesium and other nutrients transferred by acidic agents are concentrated in the illuvial genetic horizon.

The gley process manifests itself to varying degrees in a number of soils. It is associated with the formation of aggressive mobile organic and inorganic compounds due to the destruction and restoration of primary minerals. This leads to the mineralization of ferrous compounds of iron and manganese, the appearance of mobile aluminum. For these flooded soils, one should rather speak of an alluvial-gley process occurring under the influence of seasonal excess moisture, which creates anaerobic conditions necessary for the vital activity of microorganisms that actively participate in the reduction of iron. The resulting organo-mineral complexes migrate with descending and lateral water flows. As a result, a profile clarified and poor in humus and nutrients is formed. If gleying affects only the upper horizons and is represented locally, then the soil is said to be gleyed.

All of the above processes proceed under the conditions of a washing water regime. The water regime is largely determined by the nature of the relief on which the soil lies.

Three types of soils (1, 2, and 8) are most common on the territory of the studied farm, confined to watershed surfaces, saddles, and flattened hollows. They are characterized by a high and medium degree of podzolization to a considerable depth. On the steep and medium steep slopes of hills and ravines, water erosion processes are developed along the hollows, therefore, medium and strongly washed away soddy podzolic soils are widespread here, in which the A 2 horizon (podzolic) is involved in the A s. These soils (types 3, 4 and 6) are characterized by a thin profile not exceeding 1 m (although for this subtype of soddy-podzolic soils, a thickness of 150 cm or more is not uncommon). Soils with signs of gleying (types 5 and 7) and intense podzolization are formed in inter-ridge depressions, river floodplains, and ravine bottoms. Such a pattern of soil distribution over microrelief elements is in accordance with the law of similar topographic soil series, according to which soddy-podzolic soils, being zonal, i.e. genetically independent, formed mainly on watersheds. It is on watersheds (plakors) that the podzolic process proceeds most intensively, and soddy-podzolic soils, being generally automorphic, are genetically confined to eluvial and elementary geochemical landscapes. These EGLs are characterized by the destruction of minerals, leaching, and removal of water-soluble compounds under the conditions of the leaching water regime.

As the steepness of slopes increases, erosion processes intensify and the degree of erosion increases; eroded soils (3, 4, and 6) are formed in the transeluvial EGL, where the eluvial removal of mobile forms of substances is combined with their surface-subsoil transfer. In accumulative EGL, confined to negative landforms, where the silty fraction accumulates and where substances enter the composition of liquid and solid runoff, and groundwater often merges with soil water, under conditions of increasing hydromorphism, soils of a semihydromorphic type with signs of gleying are formed (types 5 and 7 ).

On the territory of this farm there are two very characteristic soil-forming rocks - moraine and loess-like mantle loams (sandy loams), i.e. one can distinguish two categories of soils and, accordingly, two elementary soil areas, the boundary between which runs horizontally with a mark of 200 m above sea level.

The structure of the soil cover of this territory can be characterized as a medium-contrast mesocombination (variation).

5 . Agro-ecological characteristicsoil cover

In order to solve the problems of the most efficient and rational use of the soils of the territory of a given farm, it is necessary to produce an agricultural production grouping. It is presented in the table.

Agricultural grouping of soils

Soddy-podzolic ordinary soils (loamy and sandy loamy) are allocated to the first agrogroup. Soils do not require special agricultural practices.

The second and third agrogroups need special agricultural techniques that would make it possible to get rid, as far as possible, of undesirable processes of gleying (2nd agrogroup) and erosion (3rd agrogroup).

The fourth agrogroup - non-mapped soils of the ravine-gully complex (GBC) are not subject to agricultural use at all.

In addition to the above agricultural activities, all soddy-podzolic soils need regular fertilization with nitrogen and phosphate fertilizers, since the podzolic process leads to soil depletion in these essential nutrients. In addition, phosphorus is often contained in a form that is difficult for plants to access. For soil with index P d 3/3 suPss needs to be cleared of stones.

A comparative assessment of soil groupings based on a set of indicators shows that the 1st grouping can be classified as poorly or medium cultivated (humus content varies between 1.5-2.5%, the arable layer is about 25 cm thick). Gleyed soils of the 3rd group are virgin soils (humus content 2.8-6.72%, Ap is absent). 2nd group - poorly cultivated soils (the percentage of humus does not exceed 2-2.5%)

conclusions

In general, it can be noted that the soils have good fertility and are suitable for a variety of agricultural activities. According to the classification of lands, soddy-podzolic soils can be attributed to the lands of the 1st category (soils of watershed surfaces, the first agrogroup). Slightly eroded soils of the 3rd agrogroup, located on medium and steep slopes, also belong to the 1st category, i.e. they are suitable for arable land (with special plowing techniques and anti-erosion measures). Soils with signs of gleying require cultivation, fertilization and will be involved in crop rotation only after a few years with proper agro-reclamation measures. It is not profitable to meliorate the soils of the UBC, they belong to the 4th category. With proper management of agriculture in the territory, you can get a fairly high yield of various crops.

Bibliography

1) D.F. Maimusov. Soils of the Smolensk region, their improvement and use., Smolensk, 1963;

2) Land cadastre of the Smolensk region., Smolensk, 1971;

3) Agrochemical characteristics of the soils of the USSR. Moscow: Nauka, 1976;

four). VC. Pestryakov. "Cultivation of the soils of the North-West", Leningrad: "Kolos", 1977;

5) Podzolic soils of the West of the European part of the USSR. Scientific works of VASKhNIL., Moscow: "Kolos", 1977;

6) Classification and diagnostics of soils of the USSR., "Kolos", 1977;

7) Soil science. Ed. I.S. Kauricheva, Moscow, Agropromizdat, 1989;

8) N.F. Ganzhara, Soil science, "Agroconsult", Moscow, 2001;

9) G.V. Dobrovolsky, I.S. Urusevskaya, Soil Geography, Moscow, Moscow University Press, 1984;

10) Compilation and use of soil maps. Ed. HELL. Kashansky, Moscow, Agropromizdat, 1987;

11) Atlas of the USSR, Moscow, 1965.

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Geography

The Smolensk Region is located in the central part of the East European Platform, in the west of the European part of Russia, on the border with Belarus. The region stretches for 255 km from north to south and for 285 km from west to east. It borders on the Moscow, Kaluga, Bryansk, Pskov and Tver regions of Russia, as well as on the Mogilev and Vitebsk regions of Belarus.
The soil surface of the region is undulating, with hilly areas and relatively deeply incised river valleys.
Most of the territory is located within the Smolensk, Dukhovshchinsk (up to 282 m) and Vyazemskaya uplands. The maximum mark of the region is 321 m near the village of Maryino, Vyazemsky district. In the northwest - ridges (Slobodskaya (up to 241 m) and others), sections of the Vitebsk (up to 232 m) and Valdai uplands. In the east, a section of the Moscow Upland (heights up to 255 m).
Lowlands - Vazuzskaya, Verkhnedneprovskaya, Berezinskaya; The Dnieper lowland in the extreme south of the region with absolute elevations from 175 to 180 m and the Baltic in the northwestern part, where the lowest elevation is located - 141 m along the banks of the Western Dvina River on the border with Belarus.
The Dnieper River and its tributaries Desna and Sozh originate in the region, large rivers flow: Ugra and Vazuza - tributaries of the Volga. Other significant rivers are Vop, Vyazma. The Volga basin includes the Vazuza River and its tributary Gzhat, as well as the Ugra River, a tributary of the Oka. In the northwest, a short section of the Western Dvina and its tributary, the Kasplya River, flows.
There are several hundred lakes in the region: Kasplya, Svaditskoye, Velisto, etc. The largest among them is Akatovskoye (655 hectares), the deepest is Baklanovskoye (28 meters). The largest karst lake is Kalyginskoye.
Among the large reservoirs, one can emphasize the Vazuzsky and Yauzsky reservoirs supplying water to Moscow in the northeast, as well as the coolers of power plants - the Smolensk reservoir in the north near the village of Ozerny and the Desnogorsk reservoir in the south of the region near the city of Desnogorsk.

Climate

The climate is temperate continental. The average temperature in January is -9 °C, in July +17 °C. It belongs to excessively humidified territories, precipitation is from 630 to 730 mm per year, more in the northwestern part - where cyclones pass more often, maximum in summer. The average annual number of days with precipitation is from 170 to 190. The growing season is 129-143 days.

Administrative-territorial structure

Since 2006, there are 350 municipalities in the region, of which:
2 urban districts (Smolensk, Desnogorsk), 25 municipal districts (Velizhsky, Vyazemsky, Gagarinsky, Glinkovsky, Demidovsky, Dorogobuzhsky, Dukhovshchinsky, Elninsky, Ershichsky, Kardymovsky, Krasninsky, Monastyrshinsky, Novoduginsky, Pochinkovsky, Roslavl, Rudnyansky, Safonovsky, Smolensky, Sychevsky , Temkinsky, Ugransky, Khislavichsky, Kholm-Zhirkovsky, Shumyachsky, Yartsevsky), 25 urban settlements, 298 rural settlements.

Population

The national composition of the Smolensk region is quite homogeneous: Russians make up more than 93% of the population. The population is declining despite the migration influx. There has been a trend towards stabilization of demographic indicators. Population 983,227 (2008). The population density is not very high: 19.9 people / km², the proportion of the urban population: 71.4%.
Most of the population lives in Smolensk and along the Moscow-Minsk and Smolensk-Roslavl-Bryansk transport corridors, in the Vyazemsky, Gagarinsky, Safonovsky, Smolensky, Roslavl and Yartsevsky regions. The population density outside these highways lags far behind.
At the beginning of the 20th century, the territory of the region was much more densely populated: according to the 1926 census, 2166 thousand people lived within the boundaries of the current Smolensk region. However, as a result of the destruction of the Great Patriotic War, the migration of young people to other regions of the country and the natural decline in the population, the number of inhabitants of the Smolensk region by the beginning of the 21st century has more than halved.

Flora and fauna

The Smolensk region is located in the subtaiga zone of mixed broad-leaved-dark-coniferous forests. Forests (aspen, birch, spruce) occupy about 38.2% of the territory in the 2000s.
The total area of ​​the forest fund is 2,100 thousand hectares, timber reserves are about 230 million m³, including coniferous species - 55 million m³. Stocks are distributed unevenly, mainly in the upper reaches of the Dnieper and in the south - southeast (along the valley of the Ugra river). Insignificant areas of broad-leaved-pine forests in the extreme south and pine forests in the Baltic lowland stand out.
On the territory of the Smolensk region there is a national park "Smolenskoye Poozerye", which is located in the north-west of the region. A feature of the park is the presence of virgin, unique in beauty pine and broad-leaved forests. Generous nature of this region. There are many wild boars, hares, elks in the forests, there are roe deer and bears. 30 species of fish live in the lakes: bream, perch, pike, roach, crucian carp, rudd and others. In spring, up to 190 species of birds appear in the park. In 1999, the national park was included in the list of key bird areas of international importance.

Economy

Gross domestic product: 68.4 billion rubles (2005)
GDP per capita: 67.5 thousand rubles. (2005)
The industrial complex forms about 40% of GDP (2005), of which 22.6% are manufacturing industries (primarily the chemical and food industries), 8.9% - energy, 8% - the construction complex. The agro-industrial complex creates 10% of GDP (2005). Among the Russian regions, a relatively high share (2.6% of GDP) is invested in the hotel and restaurant business.
Industry. In the volume of industrial production, the jewelery industry stands out (about 15%; PO Kristall), the electric power industry (about 13%; Smolensk NPP, Smolenskenergo), mechanical engineering (about 12%; Auto-Aggregate Plant, Car Repair Plant), food industry (about 10%) and chemistry (about 9%; Dorogobuzh).
Power industry. Main power plants:
Smolensk NPP 3000 MW
Smolenskaya GRES 630 MW
Smolenskaya CHPP-2 275 MW
Dorogobuzhskaya GRES 220 MW
there are also ten stations of smaller capacity.
Chemical industry. OJSC Dorogobuzh (Verkhnedneprovsky settlement, Dorogobuzh district) is a manufacturer of mineral fertilizers, synthetic ammonia, sulfuric and weak nitric acids and catalysts. Part of the Akron holding
Several enterprises on the basis of the former Avangard plant (Safonovo): production of plastic products, cable products, reagents for the oil and oil refining industries
Roslavl Chemical Plant produces household chemicals (oil paints, whitewash, varnishes)
Vyazemsky plant of synthetic products - pharmaceutical and cosmetic products
Building complex. The main producers of building materials: Smolensk DSK, Safonovsky plant of building materials; brick factories: Smolensk No. 1 and No. 2, Vyazemsky, Roslavl, Safonovsky and Elninsky; Izdeshkovsky Building Lime Plant, Vyazemsky Mining and Processing Plant (crushed stone and sand for concrete goods), Vyazemsky Plant of Reinforced Concrete Sleepers.
Food industry. The region ranks first in the Central District in the production of canned milk and milk powder, there are many cheese producers in the region, large producers of flour, meat, fat-and-oil and canned vegetables.
Engineering. The leading sub-sectors are: the automotive industry (22.3%) and instrumentation (20.8%), the electrical industry (10.8%), machine building for the light and food industries (7.2%), as well as aircraft manufacturing and energy production. equipment.
The main area of ​​specialization of mechanical engineering is the manufacture of components, parts and spare parts for cars.
Agriculture. The leading branch of agriculture is animal husbandry (more than 55% of the value of the industry's products) of the dairy and meat direction. The number of cattle is about 725 thousand heads, including 290 thousand cows. Poultry farming is concentrated on large poultry farms located in the suburban area of ​​the regional center (JSC Smetanino, JSC Prigorskoye, Divinskaya poultry farm). The number of poultry in 2001 amounted to 2912.9 thousand heads.
Agricultural lands of the region occupy 1.75 million hectares (1% of the area of ​​agricultural land in the Russian Federation) or 35.2% of its territory. 1.3 million hectares are arable, in the southern regions the plowing reaches 70%.
Crop production of the region specializes in fodder (44% of sown area) and grain (45%) crops, production of flax, potatoes and vegetables. Under grain occupied 595 thousand hectares.
in the bowels of the region in its eastern and southeastern parts, brown coals of the Moscow region coal basin occur. About 30 deposits have been explored in detail with a total reserve of 400 million tons.
Surface deposits of peat are widespread, there are 1154 deposits with total reserves of more than 300 million tons, especially massive ones are located in Dukhovshchinsky and Rudnyansky districts. There are 233 sapropel deposits with total reserves of 170 million tons.
Deposits of rock salt have been explored - seams with a thickness of 15 to 51 m with interlayers of potassium salts, phosphorites - total reserves of up to 10 million tons with a P2O5 content of up to 18% have been discovered.

Minerals

Calcareous tuffs are widespread, the total reserve of which is about 7 million tons, limestones (they are relatively shallow in the central and western parts of the region, the total reserves are 2.4 million m³); chalk (distributed in the southern part of the region, the maximum layer thickness is up to 36 m); refractory, fusible, bentonite and construction clays; dolomites, marl, tripoli, glauconite, gypsum, glass and building sands, sand and gravel materials.
In addition, there are therapeutic muds and high-quality mineral waters and brines.