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§ 96. Leading capitalist countries in the second half of the twentieth century.
The rise of the United States into a leading world power... The war led to dramatic shifts in the balance of power in the world. The United States not only suffered little in the war, but also made significant profits. The country has increased the production of coal, oil, power generation, steel smelting. The basis of such an economic upsurge was the large military orders of the government. The United States has taken a leading position in the world economy. A factor in ensuring the economic, scientific and technical hegemony of the United States was the import of ideas and specialists from other countries. Already on the eve and during the war, many scientists emigrated to the United States. After the war, it was exported from Germany big number German specialists and scientific and technical documentation. The military conjuncture contributed to the development of agriculture. There was a great demand for food and raw materials in the world, which created a favorable situation in the agricultural market after 1945. Explosions became a terrible demonstration of the increased power of the United States. atomic bombs in the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. In 1945, President H. Truman said openly that the burden of responsibility for the further leadership of the world fell on America. In the conditions of the beginning of the Cold War, the United States came up with the concepts of "containment" and "rollback" of communism, aimed against the USSR. US military bases cover a large part of the world. The onset of peacetime did not stop state intervention in the economy. Despite the praise for free enterprise, the development of the economy after Roosevelt's "New Deal" was no longer conceived without the regulatory role of the state. Under the control of the state, the transition of industry to a peaceful track was carried out. A program was implemented to build roads, power plants, etc. The Presidential Council of Economic Advisers made recommendations to the authorities. The social programs of the Roosevelt New Deal era were preserved. The new policy was called "Fair course." Along with this, measures were taken to restrict the rights of trade unions (the Taft-Hartley Act). Simultaneously on the initiative of the senator J. McCarthy persecution of people accused of "anti-American activities" (McCarthyism) unfolded. Many people fell victim to the "witch hunt", including such famous people as Ch. Chaplin. Within the framework of such a policy, the buildup of weapons, including nuclear ones, continued. The formation of the military-industrial complex (MIC) is coming to an end, in which the interests of officials, the top of the army and the military industry were combined.
50-60s XX century were generally favorable for the development of the economy, its rapid growth took place, associated primarily with the implementation of the achievements of the scientific and technological revolution. During these years, the country achieved great success in the struggle of the Negro (African American) population for their rights. Protest actions led by M.L King, led to the prohibition of racial segregation. By 1968, laws were passed to ensure black equality. However, achieving real equality turned out to be much more difficult than legal, influential forces resisted this, which found expression in the murder of Queen.
Other transformations were carried out in social sphere.
Became president in 1961 J. Kennedy pursued a policy of "new frontiers" aimed at creating a society of "general welfare" (elimination of inequality, poverty, crime, prevention of nuclear war). More important social laws were enacted to make it easier for the poor to access education, health care, and more.
In the late 60s - early 70s. xx century. the US position is deteriorating.
This was due to the escalation of the Vietnam War, which ended in the largest defeat in the history of the United States, as well as the global economic crisis in the early 70s of the 20th century. These events were one of the factors that led to the policy of detente: under the president R. Nixon the first arms limitation treaties were signed between the USA and the USSR.
In the early 80s of the twentieth century. a new economic crisis began.
Under these conditions, the president R. Reagan proclaimed a policy called the "Conservative Revolution". Social spending on education, medicine, pensions was cut, but taxes were also cut. The United States has taken a course towards the development of free enterprise, reducing the role of the state in the economy. This course caused many protests, but helped to improve the situation in the economy. Reagan advocated a buildup of the arms race, but in the late 80s of the 20th century. at the suggestion of the leader of the USSR M.S.Gorbachev, the process of a new reduction of armaments began. It accelerated in an atmosphere of unilateral concessions on the part of the USSR.
The collapse of the USSR and the entire socialist camp contributed to the longest period of economic recovery in the United States in the 90s. XX century under the president at Clinton's. The United States has become the only center of power in the world and has begun to claim world leadership. True, at the end of the XX-beginning of the XXI century. the economic situation in the country has deteriorated. Terrorist attacks became a serious test for the USA 11 September 2001 Terrorist attacks in New York and Washington have cost more than 3,000 lives.
Leading countries of Western Europe.
The Second World War undermined the economies of all European countries. Enormous efforts had to be expended on its restoration. Painful phenomena in these countries were caused by the collapse of the colonial system, the loss of colonies. So, for Great Britain, the results of the war, according to W. Churchill, became "a triumph AND a tragedy." England has finally become the "junior partner" of the United States. By the beginning of the 60s of the twentieth century. England lost almost all of its colonies. A serious problem since the 70s. XX century became an armed struggle in Northern Ireland. The economy of Great Britain could not revive for a long time after the war, until the beginning of the 50s. XX century the card system was preserved. The Laborites who came to power after the war nationalized a number of industries and expanded social programs. The situation in the economy has gradually improved. In the 5060s. XX century there was intensive economic growth. However, the crises of 1974-1975 and 1980-1982. caused severe damage to the country. The Conservative government that came to power in 1979, led by M. Thatcher defended the "true values of British society." In practice, this was reflected in the privatization of the public sector, reduced government regulation and encouragement of private entrepreneurship, tax cuts and social spending. In France, after the Second World War, under the influence of the Communists, who sharply increased their authority during the years of the struggle against fascism, a number of large industries were nationalized, and the property of German accomplices was confiscated. The social rights and guarantees of the people have expanded. In 1946, a new constitution was adopted, establishing the regime of the Fourth Republic. However, foreign policy events (wars in Vietnam, Algeria) made the situation in the country extremely unstable.
In the wake of discontent in 1958, General C. de Gaulle. He held a referendum that adopted a new constitution dramatically expanding the president's rights. The period of the Fifth Republic began. C. de Gaulle managed to solve a number of acute problems: the French left Indochina, all the colonies in Africa gained freedom. Initially, de Gaulle tried with the help of military force to keep France in Algeria, which was home to a million French. However, the escalation of hostilities, the intensification of repressions against the participants in the national liberation war only led to an increase in the resistance of the Algerians. In 1962, Algeria gained independence, and most of the French fled from there to France. An attempt at a military coup by forces opposing the withdrawal from Algeria was suppressed in the country. From the middle of the 60s of the twentieth century. the foreign policy of France became more independent, it withdrew from the military organization of NATO, an agreement was concluded with the USSR.
At the same time, the situation in the economy has improved. However, contradictions in the country persisted, which led to mass demonstrations of students and workers in 1968. Under the influence of these protests in 1969, de Gaulle resigned. His successor F Pompidou kept the same political course... In the 70s. XX century the situation in the economy has become less stable. In the 1981 presidential elections, the leader of the Socialist Party was elected F. Mitterrand. After the victory of the socialists in the parliamentary elections, they formed their own government (with the participation of the communists). A number of reforms were carried out in the interests of broad strata of the population (shorter working hours, increased vacations), the rights of trade unions were expanded, and a number of industries were nationalized. However, the economic problems that have arisen have forced the government to go along the path of austerity. The role of the right-wing parties increased, with the governments of which Mitterrand was supposed to cooperate, the reforms were suspended. A serious problem was the strengthening of nationalist sentiments in France due to the massive influx of emigrants into the country. The mood of the SUPPORTERS of the slogan "France for the French" is expressed by the National Front, led by F - M. Le Lenom, which at times receives a significant number of votes. The influence of the left forces has diminished. Right-wing politician Gaullist became president in 1995 elections Zh Shirak.
After the establishment of the Federal Republic of Germany in 1949, its government was headed by the leader of the Christian Democratic Union (CDU) Adenauer, who remained in power until 1960. He pursued a policy of creating a socially oriented market economy with a significant role of government regulation. After the completion of the economic recovery period, the development of the German economy proceeded at a very rapid pace, which was facilitated by US assistance. Germany has become an economically powerful power. V political life there was a struggle between the CDU and the Social Democrats. In the late 60s. XX century A government dominated by Social Democrats, led by W. Brandt. Many transformations have been carried out in the interests of the general population. In foreign policy, Brandt normalized relations with the USSR, Poland, and the GDR. However, the economic crises of the 70s. xx century. led to the yxydeposition of the country. The leader of the CDU came to power in 1982 G. Kohl. His government reduced state regulation of the economy, carried out privatization. Favorable market conditions contributed to an increase in the pace of development. The FRG and the GDR were unified. by the end of the 90s. xx century. new financial and economic problems arose. In 1998, the Social Democrats, led by G. Schroeder.
In the mid 70s. XX century the last authoritarian regimes have disappeared in Europe. In 1974 in Portugal, the military staged a coup overthrowing the dictatorial regime A. Salazar. Democratic reforms were carried out, a number of leading industries were nationalized, and independence was granted to the colonies. In Spain after the death of the dictator F. Franco in 1975, the restoration of democracy began. The democratization of society was supported by King Juan Carlos 1. Over time, significant successes were achieved in the economy, the standard of living of the population increased. After the end of World War II, a civil war broke out in Greece (1946-1949) between pro-communist and pro-Western forces, supported by Britain and the United States. It ended in the defeat of the communists. In 1967, a military coup took place in the country and the regime of "black colonels" was established. By limiting democracy, the "black colonels" at the same time expanded social support for the population. The regime's attempt to annex Cyprus led to its fall in 1974.
European integration. In the second half of the twentieth century. there have been trends towards the integration of countries in many regions, especially in Europe. Back in 1949, the Council of Europe was established. In 1957, 6 countries, led by France and the Federal Republic of Germany, signed the Rome Treaty establishing the European Economic Community (EEC) - the Common Market, which removes customs barriers. In the 70s - 80s. xx century. the number of EEC members increased to 12. In 1979, the first direct elections to the European Parliament were held. In 1991, as a result of long negotiations and decades of rapprochement between the EEC countries, documents on monetary, economic and political unions were signed in the Dutch city of Maastricht. In 1995, the EEC, which already included 15 states, was transformed into the European Union (EU). Since 2002, 12 EU countries have finally introduced a single currency - the euro, which strengthened the economic positions of these countries in the fight against the United States and Japan. The treaties provide for the expansion of the EU's supranational powers. The main directions of the policy will be determined by the European Council. To make decisions, the consent of 8 out of 12 countries is required. In the future, the creation of a single European government is not ruled out.
Japan. The Second World War had grave consequences for Japan - destruction of the economy, loss of colonies, occupation. Under pressure from the United States, the Japanese emperor agreed to limit his power. In 1947, the Constitution was adopted, expanding democratic rights and securing the peaceful status of the country (according to the Constitution, military expenditures cannot be higher than 1% of all budget expenditures). The right-wing Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) is almost permanently in power in Japan. Japan very quickly managed to rebuild its economy. Since the 50s. XX century its sharp rise begins, which has received the name of the Japanese "economic miracle". This "miracle" was, in addition to a favorable situation, based on the peculiarities of the organization of the economy and the mentality of the Japanese, as well as a small share of military spending. Diligence, unpretentiousness, corporate and communal traditions of the population allowed the Japanese economy to compete successfully. A course was taken on the development of knowledge-intensive industries, which made Japan the leader in the production of electronics. Nevertheless, at the turn of the XX and XXI centuries. significant problems arose in Japan. More and more scandals broke out around the LDP, related to corruption. Economic growth slowed down, competition from the "newly industrialized countries" (South Korea, Singapore, Thailand, Malaysia) and China increased. China also poses a military threat to Japan.
Topic 11 Countries of Europe and the USA in the second half of the twentieth century
11.1 World after World War II
At the international level, the ideals of the post-war world were declared in the documents created in 1945. The United Nations... Its founding conference was held in San Francisco from April 25 to June 26, 1945. The official date of the formation of the UN is October 24, 1945, when its Charter was ratified. The preamble (introductory part) of the UN Charter says: "We, the peoples of the United Nations, determined to save succeeding generations from the scourge of war."
From November 1945 to October 1946, the International Military Tribunal for German war criminals sat in the city of Nuremberg. The main defendants appeared before him, including G. Goering, I. Ribbentrop, V. Keitel and others. The memory of the deaths of millions of people during the war years prompted the desire to establish and protect human rights and freedoms as a special value. In December 1948, the UN General Assembly adopted Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
However, the implementation of the set goals turned out to be difficult. The real events of the following decades did not always develop in accordance with the predetermined ideals.
The liberation struggle of the peoples of Europe and Asia against the occupiers and their accomplices that unfolded during the war years was not limited to the task of restoring the pre-war order. In the countries of Eastern Europe and a number of Asian countries, during the liberation, the governments of the National (Popular) Front came to power. At that time, they most often represented coalitions of anti-fascist, anti-militarist parties and organizations. Communists and Social Democrats played an active role in them even then.
By the end of the 1940s, in most of these countries, the communists were able to concentrate all the power in their hands. In some cases, for example in Yugoslavia, Romania, one-party systems were established, in others - in Poland, Czechoslovakia and other countries - the existence of other parties was allowed. Albania, Bulgaria, Hungary, the German Democratic Republic, Poland, Romania, Czechoslovakia, led by the Soviet Union, formed a special bloc. Several Asian states joined them: Mongolia, North Vietnam, North Korea, China, and in the 1960s - Cuba. This community was called first "socialist camp", then - "socialist system" and, finally, "socialist community". The post-war world was divided into "Western" and "Eastern" blocs, or, as they were then called in Soviet socio-political literature, "capitalist" and "socialist" systems. It was bipolar(which had two poles, personified by the USA and the USSR) peace... How did the relations between the states of the West and the East develop?
11.2 Economic Development
All states participating in the war were faced with the urgent tasks of demobilizing multi-million-strong armies, employing the demobilized, transferring industry to peacetime production, and restoring the destruction of war. The economies of the defeated countries, especially Germany and Japan, suffered the most. In most European countries, the rationing system of distribution remained, there was an acute shortage of food, housing, and industrial goods. It was only in 1949 that the industrial and agricultural production of capitalist Europe restored its pre-war level.
Gradually, two approaches emerged. In France, England, Austria, a model of state regulation has developed, which presupposes direct state intervention in the economy. A number of industries and banks were nationalized here. So, in 1945, the Laborites carried out the nationalization of the British bank, and a little later - the coal mining industry. The state also took over the gas and electric power industries, transport, railways, and some airlines. A large public sector was formed as a result of nationalization in France. It included coal industry enterprises, Renault factories, five major banks, and major insurance companies. In 1947, a general plan for the modernization and reconstruction of industry was adopted, which laid the foundations for state planning for the development of the main sectors of the economy.
The problem of reconversion in the USA was solved in a different way. There, private property relations were much stronger, and therefore the emphasis was placed only on indirect methods of regulation through taxes and credit. Primary attention in the United States and Western Europe began to be given to labor relations, the basis of the entire social life of society. However, this problem was viewed differently everywhere. In the United States, the Taft-Hartley Act was passed, which introduced strict state control over the activities of trade unions. In addressing other issues, the state took the path of expanding and strengthening the social infrastructure. The key in this regard was the program of G. Truman's "fair course" put forward in 1948, which provided for an increase in the minimum wages, the introduction of health insurance, the construction of cheap housing for low-income families, etc. Similar measures were taken by the Labor government of K. Attlee in England, where, since 1948, a system of free medical care has been introduced. Social progress was evident in other Western European countries as well. In most of them, the trade unions, which were then on the rise, were actively involved in the struggle to solve basic social problems. This has resulted in an unprecedented increase in government spending on social insurance, science, education and training.
In terms of the rate of development and the volume of industrial production, the United States was far ahead of all other capitalist countries. In 1948, American industrial production was 78% higher than the pre-war level. The United States then produced more than 55% of the industrial output of the entire capitalist world and concentrated in its hands almost 75% of the world's gold reserves. American industrial products penetrated markets that were previously dominated by goods from Germany, Japan, or US allies England and France.
The United States was consolidated by a new system of international monetary and financial relations. In 1944, at the UN conference on currency and financial matters in Bretton Woods (USA), it was decided to create the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), which became intergovernmental institutions that regulate monetary and credit relations between the capitalist states that are part of them. The conference participants agreed to establish a fixed gold content of the dollar, which was the basis for the rates of other currencies. The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, which was dominated by the United States, provided loans and credits to IMF members to develop the economy and maintain balance of payments.
An important measure to stabilize the economic life of post-war Europe was the "Marshall Plan" (named after the US Secretary of State) - US assistance to Western countries for economic recovery. For 1948-1952 this aid totaled $ 13 billion. By the early 1950s. country Western Europe and Japan largely recovered from the aftermath of the war. Their economic development has accelerated. A rapid economic recovery began. They restored their economy and began to overtake the rivals of Germany and Japan. The rapid pace of their development has come to be called an economic miracle.
Central and Southeast Europe(Poland, East Germany, Hungary, Romania, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Albania), which in the post-war period began to be called simply Eastern Europe, went through dramatic trials. The liberation of Europe from fascism opened the way for the establishment of a democratic system and anti-fascist transformations. A greater or lesser degree of copying the experience of the USSR was characteristic of all countries of Central and South-Eastern Europe. Although Yugoslavia chose a slightly different variant of socio-economic policy, in its main parameters it represented a variant of totalitarian socialism, but with a greater orientation towards the West.
11.3. The theory of the "welfare state": essence, causes of the crisis
The concept of the "welfare state" flourished in the late 1950s and early 1960s. According to this concept, such regulation of economic development was carried out in Western countries, which led to the stabilization of social relations. As a result, a new society has emerged in Western countries, the features of which are the achievement of a high standard of living, determined by mass consumption and social protection. In this society, much attention has been paid to the development of education, health care, and the social sphere in general.
The theory of regulation of market relations was developed by the English economist D.M. Keynes back in the 1930s. (the theory of "effective demand"). But it was only after World War II that Western and North American governments were able to apply Keynesian theory. The expansion of aggregate demand has created a mass consumer of durable goods. It is thanks to the structural changes in the production-consumption system that took place in the 1950s-1960s that the possibility of a relatively long period of economic recovery and high growth rates, reducing unemployment to the level of full employment in Western countries, was created. The symbol of this economic upsurge is the automobile, which has become available for the personal use of millions of Westerners. Refrigerators, televisions, radio equipment, washing machines, etc. became widely available. From a long-term perspective, the state of the durable goods market was approaching the mid-1970s. to the saturation line.
Profound changes have taken place and in the agricultural sector countries of Western Europe. The powerful development of biotechnology and agricultural engineering made it possible to complete the mechanization and chemicalization of agriculture in the post-war decade. As a result, by the mid-1960s. Western Europe not only began to fully provide itself with food, but also turned into a major exporter of food. The intensification of agricultural production led to a reduction in employment. The service sector, which also includes education, health care and the social security system, has become an important area of absorption of the released labor force.
The peak of social reform in Western countries came in the 1960s. The major social transformations carried out at that time, although they significantly altered the appearance of Western society, at the same time marked the boundaries of the possibilities of liberal statism. The rapid development of the scientific and technological revolution, which also occurred in the 1960s, gave rise to hope for sustainable further economic growth. The scientific and technological revolution contributed to the growth of needs, led to a constant renewal of the assortment of products, which left an imprint on the entire sphere of production, dictating its own conditions to it. All these factors influenced not only material production, but also the culture of society. 1960s were marked by a burst of "mass culture" that influenced the entire lifestyle. Funds to ensure stable economic growth were received mainly from taxes, government loans and money emission. This led to the formation of a budget deficit, but then they did not see a particular danger in it. Deficient government funding for numerous social programs was supposed to increase demand, and this increased business activity and, as politicians and economists believed, guaranteed social stability. But these theoretical constructions also had their flaws. Deficit financing was inevitably accompanied by a rise in inflation. These negative aspects began to show themselves later, in the 1970s, when a massive criticism of Keynesianism began. By the end of the 1960s. it became obvious that economic growth in itself does not save society from shocks. By the turn of the 1960s-1970s. it became obvious that the implementation of social reforms does not guarantee sustainable social progress. It turned out that they have many vulnerabilities, and this in the 1970s. took advantage of the conservatives.
11.4. The economic crisis of 1974-1975 and its influence on the development of Western civilization
Among the post-war economic upheavals, a special place belongs to the crisis of 1974-75. It covered almost all developed countries of the West and Japan. The crisis led to the stagnation of the traditional sectors of the economy of these countries, to disruptions in the credit and financial sphere, to a sharp drop in growth rates. The use of anti-crisis measures following the recipes of neo-Keynesianism, which included an increase in government spending, tax cuts, and a cheapening of credit, only intensified inflation. The use of the opposite measures (cutting government spending, tightening tax and credit policies) led to a deepening recession and an increase in unemployment. The peculiarity of the situation was that neither one nor the other system of anti-crisis measures led to overcoming the economic shock.
The new conditions required fresh conceptual solutions concerning the development of methods for regulating socio-economic processes adequate to the needs of the day. The previous Keynesian method of solving these problems has ceased to suit the ruling elite of the leading Western countries. Criticism of Keynesianism in the mid-1970s acquired a frontal character. A new conservative concept of economic regulation gradually emerged, the most prominent representatives of which at political level were Margaret Thatcher, who headed the British government in 1979, and Ronald Reagan, who was elected in 1980 to the presidency of the United States. In the field of economic policy, the neoconservatives were inspired by the ideologues of the free market (M. Friedman) and supporters of the "supply theory" (A. Laffer). The most important difference between the new political and economic recipes from Keynesianism was the other direction of government spending. The stake was made on reducing government spending on social policy. Tax cuts were also carried out in order to intensify the inflow of investments into production. If neo-Keyesianism proceeded from stimulating demand as a prerequisite for the growth of production, then neoconservatives, on the contrary, aimed at stimulating the factors that ensure the growth of the supply of goods. Hence their formula: demand does not determine supply, but supply determines demand. In the field of monetary policy, the neoconservative course was based on monetarist recipes for a tough policy of control over money circulation in order to limit inflation in the first place.
Proponents of neoconservatism also defined the relationship between government regulation and the market mechanism in a different way. They gave priority to competition, the market, and private monopoly methods of regulation. "State for the market" - this was the most important principle of the new conservatism. According to the recommendations of the ideologues of neoconservatism in the states of Western Europe and the USA, Canada, the same type of measures were carried out: lower taxes on corporations with an increase in indirect taxes, decrease in entrepreneurs' contributions to social insurance funds, curtailment of a number of social policy programs, denationalization or privatization of state property. Economic turmoil in the 1970s took place against the background of the scientific and technological revolution, which was gaining more and more scope. The main content of the new phase of its development was the massive introduction of computers in the spheres of production and management. This gave impetus to the beginning of the process of structural restructuring of the economy and the gradual transition of Western civilization to a new phase, which began to be called the post-industrial, or informational, society. The introduction of the latest technology has contributed to a significant leap in improving labor productivity. And this began to pay off and led to a way out of the crisis and another economic recovery.
True, the main costs of restructuring the economy fell on the bulk of the population of Western countries, but this did not lead to social cataclysms. The ruling elites managed to maintain control over the situation and give a new impetus to economic processes. Gradually, the "conservative wave" began to decline. But this did not mean a change in the milestones in the development of Western civilization.
11.5. Political development
In the political sphere, the second half of the 1940s was a time of intense struggle, primarily over issues of government. The situations in individual countries varied significantly. Great Britain has fully preserved the pre-war political system. France and a number of other countries had to overcome the consequences of the occupation and the activities of collaborationist governments. And in Germany, Italy, it was about the complete elimination of the remnants of Nazism and fascism and the creation of new democratic states.
Despite the differences, there were also common features in the political life of Western European countries in the early post-war years. One of them was the coming to power of the left forces - the social democratic and socialist parties. In a number of cases, communists also participated in the first post-war governments. This was the case in France and Italy, where by the end of the war the communist parties had become massive and enjoyed considerable prestige due to their active participation in the Resistance movement. Their positions were strengthened by cooperation with the socialists.
The initial impetus for the "conservative wave", in the opinion of most scholars, was given by the economic crisis of 1974-1975. It coincided with a surge in inflation, which led to the collapse of the structure of domestic prices, which made it difficult to obtain loans. Added to this was the energy crisis, which contributed to the disruption of traditional ties in the world market, complicated the normal course of export-import operations, and destabilized the sphere of financial and credit relations. The skyrocketing oil prices have triggered structural changes in the economy. The main branches of European industry (ferrous metallurgy, shipbuilding, chemical production) fell into decay. In turn, there is a rapid development of new energy-saving technologies. As a result of the disruption of the international currency exchange, the foundations of the financial system, introduced back in Bretton Woods in 1944, were shaken. In the Western community, mistrust of the dollar as the main means of payment began to grow. In 1971 and 1973. it was devalued twice. In March 1973, the leading Western countries and Japan signed an agreement on the introduction of "floating" exchange rates, and in 1976 the International Monetary Fund (IMF) canceled the official price of gold. Economic turmoil of the 70s. took place against the backdrop of the increasingly widespread scientific and technological revolution. Its main manifestation was the massive computerization of production, which contributed to the gradual transition of the entire Western civilization to the "post-industrial" stage of development. The processes of internationalization of economic life have noticeably accelerated. TNCs began to define the face of the Western economy. By the mid-80s. they already accounted for 60% foreign trade and 80% of developments in the field of new technologies. The process of transforming the economy, triggered by the economic crisis, was accompanied by a number of social difficulties: an increase in unemployment, an increase in the cost of living. Traditional Keynesian prescriptions for increasing government spending, tax cuts, and cheap credit have generated permanent inflation and budget deficits. Criticism of Keynesianism in the mid-70s. acquired a frontal character. A new conservative concept of economic regulation is gradually emerging, the most prominent representatives of which in the political arena were M. Thatcher, who headed the British government in 1979, and R. Reagan, who was elected in 1980, to the post of President of the United States. In the field of economic policy, the neoconservatives were guided by the ideas of the "free market" and "supply theory". In the social sphere, the focus was on cutting government spending. The state retained under its control only the support system for the disabled population. All able-bodied citizens had to provide for themselves. Was associated with this and new policy in the area of taxation: a radical reduction in corporate taxes was carried out, which was intended to increase the flow of investment in production. The second component of the conservative economic policy is the “state for the market” formula. This strategy is based on the concept of internal stability of capitalism, according to which this system is declared capable of self-regulation through competition with minimal government interference in the reproduction process. Neoconservative recipes quickly gained widespread popularity among the ruling elite of the leading countries of Western Europe and the United States. Hence the general set of measures in the field of economic policy: lower taxes on corporations with an increase in indirect taxes, curtailment of a number of social programs, widespread sale of state property (reprivatization) and the closure of unprofitable enterprises. Among those social strata that supported the neoconservatives, one can distinguish mainly entrepreneurs, highly skilled workers and young people. In the United States, a revision of socio-economic policy took place after the Republican R. Reagan came to power. Already in the first year of his presidency, a law on economic recovery was adopted. Tax reform became its central link. Instead of a progressive system of taxation, a new scale was introduced, close to proportional taxation, which, of course, was beneficial to the most prosperous strata and the middle class. At the same time, the government has implemented a reduction in social spending. In 1982, Reagan came up with the concept of "new federalism", which included a redistribution of powers between the federal and state governments in favor of the latter. In this regard, the republican administration proposed canceling about 150 federal social programs, and transferring the rest to local authorities. Reagan managed to reduce the inflation rate in a short time: in 1981 it was 10.4%, and by the mid-1980s. dropped to 4%. For the first time since the 1960s. a rapid economic upturn began (in 1984 the growth rate reached 6.4%), and spending on education increased.
In general terms, the results of "Reaganomics" can be reflected in the following formulation: "The rich have become richer, the poor - poorer." But here it is necessary to make a number of reservations. The rise in living standards has affected not only the group of rich and super-rich citizens, but also a fairly broad and constantly growing middle stratum. Although Reaganomics caused significant damage to poor Americans, it created an environment that gave the chances of getting a job, while the previous social policy contributed only to an overall reduction in the number of poor people in the country. Therefore, despite the rather harsh measures in the social sphere, the US government did not have to face any serious public protest. In England, the decisive offensive of the neoconservatives is associated with the name of M. Thatcher. His main goal she announced a fight against inflation. For three years, its level has decreased from 18% to 5%. Thatcher lifted price controls and lifted restrictions on capital movements. Subsidization of the public sector was sharply reduced, and from 1980 it began to sell off: enterprises in the oil and aerospace industries, air transport, as well as bus companies, a number of communications enterprises, and part of the property of the British Railways Administration were privatized. The privatization also affected the municipal housing stock. By 1990, 21 state-owned companies were privatized, 9 million British became shareholders, 2/3 of families - the owners of houses or apartments. On the social front, Thatcher launched a violent attack on trade unions. In 1980 and 1982. she succeeded in passing through parliament two laws restricting their rights: solidarity strikes were banned, and the rule on preferential employment of union members was abolished. Representatives of trade unions were excluded from participation in the activities of advisory government commissions on problems of social and economic policy. But Thatcher dealt the main blow to the trade unions during the famous miners' strike in 1984-85. The reason for its beginning was the plan developed by the government to close 40 unprofitable mines with the simultaneous dismissal of 20 thousand people. In March 1984, the miners' union went on strike. An open war broke out between the pickets of the strikers and the police. A court at the end of 1984 declared the strike illegal and imposed a £ 200,000 fine on the union, and later revoked its right to dispose of its funds. The problem of Northern Ireland was no less difficult for the Thatcher government. The "Iron Lady", as M. Thatcher was called, was a supporter of the forceful version of her solution. The combination of these factors somewhat shaken the position of the ruling party, and in the summer of 1987 the government announced early elections. The Conservatives were victorious again. The success allowed Thatcher to push the Conservative agenda even more vigorously. Second half of the 80s. became one of the most favorable eras in English history of the 20th century: the economy was constantly on the rise, the standard of living rose. Thatcher's departure from the political arena was predictable. She did not wait for the moment when the favorable tendencies for the country began to decline and the Conservative party would bear full responsibility for the worsening of the situation. Therefore, in the fall of 1990, Thatcher announced her retirement from big politics. Similar processes took place in the 80s of the XX century in most of the leading countries of the West. Some exception to the general rule was France, where in the 80s. key positions belonged to the socialists headed by F. Mitterrand. But they also had to reckon with the dominant tendencies of social development. The "conservative wave" had a very specific tasks- to provide optimal, from the point of view of the ruling elite, conditions for the implementation of the overdue structural restructuring of the economy. Therefore, it is no coincidence that by the beginning of the 90s, when the most difficult part of this restructuring was carried out, the "conservative wave" gradually began to decline. This happened in a very mild form. R. Reagan was replaced in 1989 by the moderate conservative George W. Bush, in 1992 the White House was occupied by B. Clinton, and in 2001 George W. Bush came to power. In England, Thatcher was replaced by the moderate conservative J. Major, who, in turn, - in 1997 - by the leader of the Labor Party, E. Blair. However, the change in the ruling parties did not imply a change in the internal political course of England. Events developed in approximately the same way in other Western European countries. The last representative of the "neoconservative wave", German Chancellor G. Kohl, in September 1998 was forced to give up his post to the leader of the Social Democrats G. Schroeder. In general, the 90s. became a time of relative calm in the socio-political development of the leading Western countries in the XX century. True, most experts believe that it will be short-lived. The entry of Western civilization into the stage of "post-industrial" development poses many new, previously unknown tasks for politicians.
Countries of Eastern Europe in the second half of the twentieth century.
The beginning of the construction of socialism.
During the Second World War in the countries of Eastern Europe, the authority of the left forces, especially the communists, increased significantly. In a number of states, they led anti-fascist uprisings (Bulgaria, Romania), in others they led the partisan struggle. 1945-1946 in all countries adopted new constitutions, liquidated monarchies, power passed to the people's governments, large enterprises were nationalized and agrarian reforms... In the elections, the communists took strong positions in parliaments. They called for even more radical changes, which were opposed by the bourgeois democratic parties. At the same time, the process of the merger of communists and social democrats under the dominance of the former unfolded everywhere.
The communists were strongly supported by the presence of Soviet troops in Eastern Europe. In the context of the outbreak of the Cold War, a stake was placed on accelerating transformations. This largely corresponded to the sentiments of the majority of the population, among whom the authority of the Soviet Union was great, and many saw in the construction of socialism a way to quickly overcome post-war difficulties and further create a just society. The USSR provided these states with enormous material assistance.
In the 1947 elections, the Communists won the majority of seats in the Polish Sejm. The Diet elected a communist president B. Bieruta. In Czechoslovakia in February 1948, the communists, in the course of many days of mass meetings of workers, achieved the creation of a new government, where they played a leading role. President soon E. Benes resigned, and the leader of the Communist Party was elected as the new president K. Gottwald.
By 1949, in all countries of the region, power was in the hands of the communist parties. In October 1949, the GDR was formed. In some countries, a multi-party system has survived, but in many ways it has become a formality.
CMEA and OVD.
With the formation of the countries of "people's democracies", the process of the formation of the world socialist system began. Economic ties between the USSR and the countries of people's democracies were carried out at the first stage in the form of a bilateral foreign trade agreement. At the same time, the USSR tightly controlled the activities of the governments of these countries.
Since 1947, this control was exercised by the heir of the Comintern. Cominform. Great importance in the expansion and strengthening of economic ties began to play Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA), created in 1949. Its members were Bulgaria, Hungary, Poland, Romania, USSR and Czechoslovakia, later Albania joined. The creation of CMEA was a definite response to the creation of NATO. The CMEA goals were to unite and coordinate efforts in the development of the economies of the Commonwealth member countries.
In the political field, the creation in 1955 of the Warsaw Pact Organization (OVD) was of great importance. Its creation was a response to the admission of Germany to NATO. In accordance with the terms of the treaty, its parties pledged to provide the attacked states with immediate assistance by all means, including the use of armed force, in the event of an armed attack on any of them. A unified military command was created, joint military exercises were conducted, weapons and the organization of troops were unified.
Western countries in the second half of the twentieth centuryI ... Testing.
1. The split of Germany into 2 states occurred:
A) in 1945; B) in 1946; C) in 1948;D) in 1949
2. The American program of post-war aid to European countries was called:
A) Truman Doctrine; B) the Monroe doctrine;C) the Marshall plan; D) "new course".
3.150-1953 are the years:
A) Vietnam War;B) the wars in Korea; C) wars in Afghanistan; D) the years of the "cold war".
4. The United Nations was founded in:
A) April 25 - June 26, 1945; B) January 17 - March 23, 1946;
C) May 12 - June 23, 1947; D) February 1 - March 29, 1949;
5. What policy did M. Thatcher pursue as the head of parliament?
A) strict limitation of government spending; B) granting benefits to small business entrepreneurs;
C) offered a "third way" of development; D) construction of cheap dwellings
6. What views did President Viscari d Esteing hold?
A) liberal; B) right-wing conservative; C) socialist; D) nationalistic.
7. The peculiarity of the Italian party - political system is:
A) frequent change political parties;
B) the dominant position of the CDA;
C) a strong coalition of the CDP and the Socialist Party;
D) the dominant position of the Socialist Party;
8. What support did the Labor governments in Great Britain enjoy?
A) small and medium-sized entrepreneurs;
B) active part labor force and trade unions;
C) the big industrial bourgeoisie;
D) the peasantry and agricultural workers.
9. Which of the following tasks becomes the main one for the state in the context of globalization?
A) pursuing a policy of protectionism in the interests of the national economy;
B) ensuring the international competitiveness of the country;
C) reducing the cost of social network;
D) carrying out the nationalization of industrial production;
10. Mass demonstrations of the French in May 1968 testify to:
A) the maturation of situations leading to a revolution;
B) the collapse of the traditional value system;
C) on the intensification of the activities of terrorist groups;
D) deterioration of the economic situation in the country.
11. The Italian "economic miracle" is called:
A) a dynamic leap in the development of the Italian economy;
B) stabilization of the Italian economy
C) the development of Italy according to plan;
D) overcoming the crisis at the expense of Italian entrepreneurs.
12. The confrontation between the "western" and "eastern" blocks, which lasted from the mid-1940s. until the mid-1980s, received the name:
A) "undeclared war"; B) "policy of containment";
C) "nuclear dialogue";D) "cold war".
13. Referendum on the state. the device of Italy (monarchy or republic) took place in:
A) 1943; B) 1945; C) 1946; D) 1954
14. The reason for the Italian economic miracle of the 50-60s. XX century is an:
A) the presence of rich mineral deposits;
B) powerful industry in the South of the country;
B) cheap work force and the introduction of advanced technologies into production ;
D) the growth of military orders from the state.
15. Operation Clean Hands 1992 in Italy revealed:
A) massive violations in Food Industry;
B) the connection of the mafia with the state. apparatus on an alarming scale;
C) unfair competition in textile industry;
D) contractual football matches.
16. Victory in the 1994 elections. in Italy won:
A) the Communist Party of Italy; B) the Socialist Party of Italy;
C) "Forward, Italy!" (S. Berlusconi's movement); D) Christian Democratic Party of Italy.
17. "New Eastern Policy" is associated with the name:
A) V. Brandt; B) K. Adenauer; C) G. Kohl; D) G. Schroeder.
18. The main rivals in politics in the FRG are the parties:
A) Christian Democratic Union (CDU) and the Greens;
B) CDU and the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD);
C) SPD and NSDAP;
D) CDU and communists.
19. Most influential political force in Ulster:
A) Shin Fein ; B) IRA; C) Unionists; D) Republicans.
20. A new round the arms race in the late 70s is associated with:
A) With the introduction of troops into Afghanistan ;
B) With the military support of Vietnam in the fight against the United States;
C) With the introduction of troops into Czechoslovakia;
D) With the military support of India in the fight against England.
II ... Give a name, term, concept.
1. Complete the sentence: “The military, economic, political and ideological confrontation between the two systems, most vividly expressed in the creation of military-political blocs, the arms race, mutual threats, the struggle for spheres of influence in different regions of the world, crises that have repeatedly put humanity on the brink of a new world war is called ... "
2. This term was first used by the former British Prime Minister W. Churchill during a trip to the United States, in a speech on March 5, 1946 in Fulton. Describing the situation in Europe, Churchill said that “this is not the Europe we fought for during the war. He sank over her ... " This term was often used in Western journalism to show their attitude towards a particular country of socialism or the entire socialist. camp as a whole. What term are we talking about?
3. Who are we talking about?
During her premiership, she actively fought against influence, which, in her opinion, negatively affected parliamentary democracy and economic results due to regular strikes. Her first term as prime minister was marked by a series of strikes organized by part of the trade unions in response to new legislation that limited their powers. In in
4. Identify the name of the organization (one answer):
1) a military-political alliance created at the initiative of the United States;
2) headquarters located in Brussels;
3) created in 1949;
4) has a contingent of peacekeeping forces.
Answer: NATO
5. Define the term (one term):
1) scientific or philosophical theory;
2) the political system;
3) a set of principles;
4) a guiding principle, either theoretical or political.
Answer: doctrine
III ... Choose several correct answers.
1. Which 3 of the following organizations are associated with the European economic integration process?
A) Free Trade Agreement in North America;
B) European Economic Community (EEC);
C) International Monetary Fund;
D) European Coal and Steel Community;
E) European Free Trade Association;
E) Council for Mutual Economic Assistance
Answer: 1) ABV 2) BVD 3) BGD 4) AGE
2. The political regime of the Fifth Republic in France is characterized by:
A) strengthening the power of the president;
C) strengthening the power of parliament;
D) parliamentary elections of the president.
Answer. 1) AB 2) BV 3) VG 4) AG.
Third Republic.
Turkey after World War II. The role of the Turkish state in world politics. Turkey's relative weakness in the international arena and its reasons.
Turkey in 1945 - 1960 The main trends in domestic and foreign policy during the crisis of the First Republic.
The Kemalist regime and its evolution. Ismet Inonu as a political and statesman in the history of Turkey. Crisis phenomena in politics and ideology, economics and social relations, their main reasons. The decline in the prestige of the Republican People's Party / CHP / in the general population. Social upsurge in the second half of the 40s. XX century. Raising the demand for the democratization of the Turkish state and society. The beginning of the formation process multiparty system... CHP split and education The Democratic Party/ DP, 1946 /. Creation and activity of the Socialist Workers 'and Peasants' Party of Turkey / SRKPT, 1946 /. The desire of the Kemalists to stabilize the political situation and maintain a monopoly on power. Parliamentary elections in 1950 and the defeat of the CHP.
The coming to power of the DP government. Political portraits and activities of Djelal Bayar and Adnan Menderes. Revision of the policy of statism and the formation of a state-bureaucratic stratum of the large Turkish bourgeoisie. Attracting foreign capital and taking the last leading positions in the Turkish economy. Pushing into the background medium and small national entrepreneurship. Limited reforms in agriculture and the cultivation of a stratum of large agrarians of the capitalist type. Partial rejection of the policy of laicism and a certain bias towards the Islamization of public life. Decrease in the rate of economic growth and aggravation of social contradictions. The onset of reaction, violation of constitutional rights and freedoms. “Trial 167” in Istanbul / October 1953 / and fanning anti-communist hysteria in Turkey. Further aggravation of the internal situation. Economic and financial crises, sharp impoverishment of the population and polarization of the main socio-political forces. Strike movement, agrarian riots and student unrest. Fall of the First Republic.
Subordination of Turkey's foreign policy to US interests. "Truman Doctrine" and the conclusion of a military-political alliance between the United States and Turkey / March - July 1947 /. Extension of the Marshall Plan to Turkey / July 1948 /. The transformation of the country into a strategic foothold for the United States at the southern borders of the USSR and socialist countries Southeast Europe, the Near and Middle East. Turkey's participation in the Korean War / 1950 - 1953 /, NATO membership / 1951 / and CENTO / 1955 - 1959 /. Deteriorating relations with the USSR.
Turkey in 1960 - 2000 Second and Third Republics. The alternation in power of the military and civil governments... The role of the army in the political life of the country. Causes and nature of military coups in Turkey.
Military coup on May 27, 1960 in Turkey. Overthrow of the DP regime, arrest and prosecution of D. Bayar, A. Menderes and their closest associates. Dissolution of the government and the Turkish Grand National Assembly / VNST /, banning the activities of political parties. The transfer of power into the hands of the National Unity Committee / KNE / headed by General Gürsel. Moderates and radicals in the KNU, their views on the problems of Turkey's domestic and foreign policy. The struggle for the choice of the course of the country's development, the victory of the moderates and the ousting of the radicals from the KNE. Convocation of the Constituent Assembly / May 1961 /, adoption of the Constitution of the Second Republic, its main provisions. Transition to civilian rule. New stage in the formation of a multi-party system. Creation of parties of bourgeois-liberal orientation - the Party of Justice / PS, 1961 / and the Party of New Turkey / PNT, 1961 /. Renewal of the activity of the CHP and its evolution into a party of the social democratic type. Activation of democratic and progressive forces, formation of the Workers' Party of Turkey / RPT, 1961 /. Coalition government in Turkey and one-party PS cabinets. Memorandum of the Turkish Armed Forces Command / March 12, 1971 / and a shift to the right in the political life of the country.
The main trends in the socio-economic development of Turkey in the era of the Second Republic. Fifteen-year program of industrialization of the country and its implementation / 1963 - 1977 /. The influence of the world economic downturn 1973 - 1975 to Turkey. Decline in industrial development and stagnation in agriculture. Aggravation of social problems, growth of unemployment in cities, agrarian overpopulation in the countryside, labor emigration of Turkish citizens to Western Europe.
The growing crisis in the political life of Turkey during the 70s. XX century. The regrouping of forces in the camp of the parties of the bourgeois-liberal and centrist orientation. The split of the CHP and the formation of the Republican Party of Confidence / RPD, 1972 /. Entry of PNT into the PS / 1973 /. Consolidation of conservative forces and the emergence of political Islamism in Turkey. Creation of the Nationalist Movement Party / PND, 1972 / and the National Salvation Party / PNS, 1972 /. Rivalry in the struggle for power between PS, CHP and RPD. Coalition government and its costs. The main political figures of the Second Republic are Fakhri Koruturk / PS /, Suleiman Demirel / PS /, Bulent Ecevit / NRP /, Turhan Feyzioglu / RPD /, Alparslan Turkesh / PND / and Nejmettin Erbakan / PNS /, their characteristics. Rampant left and right extremism in Turkey, a wave of anarchy and terror. Failure of civilian governments to pull the country out of the political impasse. Command memorandum armed forces Turkey / January 1, 1980 / and its consequences. The meeting of the National Security Council / SNB / on January 22, 1980 as the last attempt at a peaceful resolution of the crisis situation. Fall of the Second Republic.
Foreign policy of Turkey in the era of the Second Republic. Rejection of a one-sided orientation towards the United States, Turkey's revision of the terms of the military-political union of the two states. Activation and expansion of political, economic and other contacts with the FRG and other countries of Western Europe. Normalization of relations with the USSR and the implementation of a number of joint economic projects. Cyprus crisis and confrontation with Greece. The invasion of the Turkish army into Cyprus under the pretext of protecting ethnic Turks - the inhabitants of the island / July 20, 1974 /, its consequences. Turkey's participation in the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe and its signing of the Final Act / Helsinki, August 1975 /.
Military coup on September 12, 1980 in Turkey. The elimination of the government of S. Demirel, the dissolution of the VNST and the suspension of the activities of political parties. The transfer of power into the hands of the SNB, headed by General Kenan Evren. Formation and activity of the non-partisan cabinet of Bulent Ulus from among the politicians and technocrats of the conservative wing. Political quarantine in Turkey and gradual normalization of the situation. National referendum and adoption of the Constitution of the Third Republic / November 1982 /, its main provisions. Transition to civilian rule and re-creation of a multi-party system. Party building in the Third Republic and its features. Party of the center-right, bourgeois-liberal orientation - the Party of the Fatherland. / PO, 1983 / and Party of the right path / PVP, 1983 /. Parties with a center-left, social democratic orientation - the Democratic Left Party / DLP, 1983 / and the Social Democratic Populist Party / SDNP, 1983 /. The crisis and split of the SDPP, the formation of a new Republican People's Party on its basis / CHP, 1992-1995 /. Parties of right-wing nationalist and Islamist orientation - Nationalist Labor Party / NTP, 1983 /, Welfare Party / PB, 1983 / and Justice and Development Party / AKP, 2000 /
Evolution of the political system of the Third Republic. One-party PO offices and coalition government with the participation of the PVP, SDNP and PB. The growth of nationalist, pan-Turkic and Islamic fundamentalist tendencies in Turkish society and state. The victory of the Islamists in the parliamentary elections in November 2002 and the coming to power of the AKP government. A significant change in the balance of power in the political spectrum of Turkey in favor of conservatives and retrogrades, its reasons. The position of the army circles in the current situation. The main political figures of the Third Republic are Kenan Evren, Turgut Ozal and Mesut Yilmaz / PO /, Suleiman Demirel and Tansu Chiller / PVP /, Bulent Ecevit / DLP /, Deniz Baikal / NRP /, Alparslan Türkesh / NTP /, NecmettinB / Erbakan , Abdullah Gul and Recep Tayyip Erdogan / AKP /, Ahmed Nejded Sezer.
Kurdish problem in Turkey. Refusal of the Turkish authorities to recognize the Kurds' right to national self-determination. The policy of forcible assimilation of the Kurds. Liberation movement in Turkish Kurdistan and its organizational forms, means and methods of struggle. The Kurdistan Workers' Party / PKK, 1979 / and the Kurdistan Liberation Army / KLA, 1984 /. Abdullah Ocalan as the leader of the Turkish Kurds.
A qualitative leap in the socio-economic development of Turkey in the era of the Third Republic. T. Ozal as an architect of Turkish reforms. Rejection of the catch-up development model based on import substitution and transition to an export-oriented model. Reform of the financial system in the spirit of monetarism and conversion of the national currency. Privatization and limitation of the mechanism of state regulation of the economy. Stimulating the development of medium and small businesses in the city and countryside. Cancellation of the state monopoly of foreign trade. Changes in the social structure of Turkish society due to urbanization. The emergence of the middle class. The transformation of Turkey into an industrial-agrarian country with an average level of development of capitalism. Costs of reforms. The rise in inflation and the decline in the rate of industrial construction in the mid-90s. XX century. High level unemployment, stagnation of wages of people working on the border, housing crisis, low level of medical care, underdevelopment of the social security system.
The main tendencies of Turkish foreign policy at the end of the XX century. Transformation of foreign policy concepts of the Turkish state after the end of the Cold War. Preservation and strengthening of the military-political alliance between Turkey and the United States. Turkey's role in NATO. Ankara's position during the Yugoslav and Iraqi crises. The problem and prospects of Turkey's accession to the EU. Evolution of relations with Arab states and Iran. Cooperation between Turkey and Israel. Ankara's claims to the role of regional leader in Central and South-West Asia. An attempt to create an Islamic G8 consisting of Turkey, Iran, Pakistan, Egypt, Malaysia, Indonesia and Nigeria / Istanbul, January 1997 /.
Russia and Turkey in the post-confrontation era. "Agreement on the basis of relations Russian Federation and the Turkish Republic "/ May 25, 1992 / and its meaning. Activation and expansion of contacts in the political, economic, scientific and cultural spheres. Creation of the Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation / BSEC, June 1992 /. Implementation of the Blue Stream project, commissioning of the Russia - Black Sea - Turkey gas pipeline. Participation of Turkish firms in joint projects in Russia. Shuttle business and tourism as forms of public diplomacy. Prospects for mutually beneficial cooperation between the two countries.
Turkey and states Central Asia and Transcaucasia are members of the CIS. Pan-Turkism and the revival of the idea of the "Great Turan". Turkish penetration into Azerbaijan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan. Dialogue with Georgia and the blockade of Armenia. Ankara's position on conflicts in the post-Soviet space.
The overall result of the political and socio-economic development of Turkey in the second half of the XX century.
