The cause of the Crimean War was the clash of interests of Russia, England, France and Austria in the Middle East and the Balkans. Leading European countries sought to divide Turkish possessions in order to expand spheres of influence and markets. Turkey sought to take revenge for previous defeats in the wars with Russia.

One of the main reasons for the emergence of military confrontation was the problem of revising legal regime the passage by the Russian fleet of the Mediterranean straits of the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles, recorded in the London Convention of 1840-1841.

The reason for the start of the war was a dispute between the Orthodox and Catholic clergy about the ownership of the "Palestinian shrines" (the Bethlehem Church and the Church of the Holy Sepulcher), located on the territory Ottoman Empire.

In 1851, the Turkish Sultan, instigated by France, ordered that the keys to the Bethlehem Church be taken away from the Orthodox priests and handed over to the Catholics. In 1853, Nicholas 1 put forward an ultimatum with initially impossible demands, which ruled out a peaceful resolution of the conflict. Russia, having broken off diplomatic relations with Turkey, occupied the Danubian principalities, and as a result, on October 4, 1853, Turkey declared war.

Fearing the strengthening of Russia's influence in the Balkans, England and France in 1853 concluded a secret agreement on a policy of opposing Russia's interests and began a diplomatic blockade.

The first period of the war: October 1853 - March 1854. The Black Sea squadron under the command of Admiral Nakhimov in November 1853 completely destroyed the Turkish fleet in the bay of Sinop, capturing the commander in chief. In the ground operation, the Russian army achieved significant victories in December 1853 - having crossed the Danube and pushed back the Turkish troops, it was under the command of General I.F. Paskevich laid siege to Silistria. In the Caucasus, Russian troops won a major victory near Bashkadylklar, frustrating the plans of the Turks to capture Transcaucasia.

England and France, fearing the defeat of the Ottoman Empire, in March 1854 declared war on Russia. From March to August 1854, they launched attacks from the sea against Russian ports on the Addan Islands, Odessa, the Solovetsky Monastery, Petropavlovsk-on-Kamchatka. Attempts at a naval blockade were unsuccessful.

In September 1854, a 60,000-strong landing force was landed on the Crimean Peninsula to capture the main base of the Black Sea Fleet - Sevastopol.

The first battle on the river Alma in September 1854 ended in failure for the Russian troops.

On September 13, 1854, the heroic defense of Sevastopol began, which lasted 11 months. By order of Nakhimov, the Russian sailing fleet, which could not resist the enemy steam ships, was flooded at the entrance to the Sevastopol Bay.

The defense was led by admirals V.A. Kornilov, P.S. Nakhimov, V.I. Istomin, who died heroically during the assaults. The defenders of Sevastopol were L.N. Tolstoy, surgeon N.I. Pirogov.

Many participants in these battles have earned fame for themselves. national heroes: military engineer E.I. Totleben, General S.A. Khrulev, sailors P. Koshka, I. Shevchenko, soldier A. Eliseev.

Russian troops suffered a number of setbacks in the battles near Inkerman in Evpatoria and on the Black River. On August 27, after a 22-day bombardment, Sevastopol was stormed, after which the Russian troops were forced to leave the city.

On March 18, 1856, the Treaty of Paris was signed between Russia, Turkey, France, England, Austria, Prussia and Sardinia. Russia lost bases and part of the fleet, the Black Sea was declared neutral. Russia lost its influence in the Balkans, and its military power in the Black Sea basin was undermined.

This defeat was based on the political miscalculation of Nicholas I, who pushed the economically backward, feudal-feudal Russia into conflict with strong European powers. This defeat prompted Alexander II to carry out a number of cardinal reforms.

Crimean War (briefly)

Brief description of the Crimean War 1853-1856

The main reason for the Crimean War was the clash of interests in the Balkans and the Middle East of such powers as Austria, France, England and Russia. Leading European states sought to open up Turkish possessions in order to increase the sales market. At the same time, Turkey in every possible way wanted to take revenge after the defeats in the wars with Russia.

The trigger mechanism for the war was the problem of revising the legal regime of the ship's passage of the Russian fleet in the Dardanelles and Bosporus, which was fixed in 1840 in the London Convention.

And the reason for the outbreak of hostilities was a dispute between the Catholic and Orthodox clergy about the fidelity of the ownership of the shrines (the Holy Sepulcher and the Bethlehem Church), which were at that moment on the territory of the Ottoman Empire. In 1851, Turkey, incited by France, gives the keys to the shrines to the Catholics. In 1853, Emperor Nicholas I put forward an ultimatum excluding a peaceful resolution of the issue. At the same time, Russia occupies the Danubian principalities, which leads to war. Here are its main points:

· In November 1853, the Black Sea squadron of Admiral Nakhimov defeated the Turkish fleet in the bay of Sinop, and the Russian ground operation was able to push back the enemy troops by crossing the Danube.

· Fearing the defeat of the Ottoman Empire, France and England in the spring of 1854 declare war on Russia, attacking the Russian ports of Odessa, the Addan Islands, etc. from August 1854. These blockade attempts were unsuccessful.

· Autumn 1854 - the landing of sixty thousand troops in the Crimea to capture Sevastopol. Heroic defense of Sevastopol for 11 months.

· On the twenty-seventh of August, after a series of unsuccessful battles, they were forced to leave the city.

On March 18, 1856, the Paris Treaty of Peace was drawn up and signed between Sardinia, Prussia, Austria, England, France, Turkey and Russia. The latter lost part of the fleet and some bases, and the Black Sea was recognized as a neutral territory. In addition, Russia lost power in the Balkans, which significantly undermined its military power.

According to historians, the defeat in the Crimean War was based on the strategic miscalculation of Nicholas I, who pushed the feudal-serf and economically backward Russia into a military conflict with powerful European states.

This defeat prompted Alexander II to carry out cardinal political reforms.

In 1854, in Vienna, with the mediation of Austria, diplomatic negotiations were held between the warring parties. England and France, as peace conditions, demanded a ban for Russia to keep a navy on the Black Sea, Russia's renunciation of the protectorate over Moldavia and Wallachia and claims to patronage of the Sultan's Orthodox subjects, as well as "freedom of navigation" on the Danube (that is, depriving Russia of access to its mouth).

On December 2 (14), Austria announced an alliance with England and France. December 28, 1854 (January 9, 1855) opened a conference of ambassadors of England, France, Austria and Russia, but the negotiations did not produce results and in April 1855 were interrupted.

On January 14 (26), 1855, the Kingdom of Sardinia joined the allies, which concluded an agreement with France, after which 15 thousand Piedmontese soldiers went to Sevastopol. According to Palmerston's plan, Venice and Lombardy, taken from Austria, were to go to Sardinia for participation in the coalition. After the war, France concluded an agreement with Sardinia, in which it officially assumed the corresponding obligations (which, however, were never fulfilled).

On February 18 (March 2), 1855, the Russian Emperor Nicholas I died suddenly. Russian throne inherited by his son, Alexander II. After the fall of Sevastopol, disagreements appeared in the coalition. Palmerston wanted to continue the war, Napoleon III did not. The French emperor began secret (separate) negotiations with Russia. Meanwhile, Austria declared its readiness to join the Allies. In mid-December, she presented an ultimatum to Russia:

Replacement of the Russian protectorate over Wallachia and Serbia by a protectorate of all the great powers;
the establishment of freedom of navigation in the mouths of the Danube;
preventing the passage of someone's squadrons through the Dardanelles and the Bosphorus to the Black Sea, the prohibition of Russia and Turkey to keep a navy on the Black Sea and have arsenals and military fortifications on the shores of this sea;
Russia's refusal to patronize Orthodox subjects of the Sultan;
concession by Russia in favor of Moldova of the section of Bessarabia adjacent to the Danube.


A few days later, Alexander II received a letter from Friedrich Wilhelm IV, who urged the Russian emperor to accept the Austrian terms, hinting that otherwise Prussia might join the anti-Russian coalition. Thus, Russia found itself in complete diplomatic isolation, which, in the face of depleted resources and defeats inflicted by the allies, put it in an extremely difficult position.

On the evening of December 20, 1855 (January 1, 1856), a meeting convened by him took place in the tsar's office. It was decided to invite Austria to delete the 5th paragraph. Austria rejected this proposal. Then Alexander II convened a secondary meeting on January 15 (27), 1855. The assembly unanimously decided to accept the ultimatum as preconditions for peace.

On February 13 (25), 1856, the Paris Congress began, and on March 18 (30) a peace treaty was signed.

Russia returned the city of Kars with a fortress to the Ottomans, receiving in exchange Sevastopol, Balaklava and other Crimean cities captured from it.
The Black Sea was declared neutral (that is, open to commercial and closed to military ships in peacetime), with the prohibition of Russia and the Ottoman Empire to have navies and arsenals there.
Navigation along the Danube was declared free, for which the Russian borders were moved away from the river and part of Russian Bessarabia with the mouth of the Danube was annexed to Moldavia.
Russia was deprived of the protectorate over Moldavia and Wallachia granted to it by the Kyuchuk-Kaynardzhysky peace of 1774 and the exclusive protection of Russia over the Christian subjects of the Ottoman Empire.
Russia pledged not to build fortifications on the Aland Islands.

During the war, the members of the anti-Russian coalition failed to achieve all their goals, but managed to prevent the strengthening of Russia in the Balkans and deprive it of the Black Sea Fleet for 15 years.

Consequences of the war

The war brought disorder financial system Russian Empire(Russia spent 800 million rubles on the war, Britain 76 million pounds): to finance military spending, the government had to resort to printing unsecured credit notes, which led to a decrease in their silver cover from 45% in 1853 to 19% in 1858, then there is actually more than a twofold depreciation of the ruble.
Again, Russia was able to reach a deficit-free state budget only in 1870, that is, 14 years after the end of the war. It was possible to establish a stable exchange rate of the ruble against gold and restore its international conversion in 1897, during the monetary reform of Witte.
The war was the impetus for economic reforms and, in the future, to the abolition of serfdom.
The experience of the Crimean War partly formed the basis for the military reforms of the 1860s and 1870s in Russia (the replacement of the obsolete 25-year military service, etc.).

In 1871, Russia achieved the abolition of the ban on keeping the navy in the Black Sea under the London Convention. In 1878, Russia was able to return the lost territories under the Treaty of Berlin, signed as part of the Berlin Congress, held following the results of Russian-Turkish war 1877—1878.

The government of the Russian Empire begins to review its policy in the field of railway construction, which previously manifested itself in the repeated blocking of private construction projects railways, including to Kremenchug, Kharkov and Odessa and upholding the unprofitability and uselessness of building railways in southbound from Moscow. In September 1854, an order was issued to begin research on the line Moscow - Kharkov - Kremenchug - Elizavetgrad - Olviopol - Odessa. In October 1854, an order was received to start surveys on the Kharkiv-Feodosia line, in February 1855 - on a branch from the Kharkov-Feodosia line to the Donbass, in June 1855 - on the Genichesk-Simferopol-Bakhchisarai-Sevastopol line. On January 26, 1857, the Supreme Decree was issued on the creation of the first railway network.

... railways, the need for which many had doubts for another ten years, are now recognized by all estates as a necessity for the Empire and have become a need of the people, a common desire, urgent. In this deep conviction, we, following the first cessation of hostilities, ordered the means to better satisfy this urgent need ... turn to private industry, both domestic and foreign ... in order to take advantage of the considerable experience acquired in the construction of many thousands of miles of railways in Western Europe .

Britannia

Military setbacks led to the resignation of the British government of Aberdeen, who was replaced in his post by Palmerston. The viciousness of the official system of selling officer ranks for money, which was preserved in british army from medieval times.

Ottoman Empire

During Eastern Campaign The Ottoman Empire made £7 million in England. In 1858, the bankruptcy of the Sultan's treasury was declared.

In February 1856, Sultan Abdulmejid I was forced to issue a hatt-i-sherif (decree), which proclaimed freedom of religion and equality of the subjects of the empire, regardless of nationality.

The Crimean War gave impetus to the development armed forces, military and naval art of states. In many countries, a transition began from smooth-bore weapons to rifled ones, from a sailing wooden fleet to a steam-powered armored one, and positional forms of warfare were born.

AT ground forces the role of small arms and, accordingly, the fire preparation of an attack increased, a new battle formation appeared - a small arms chain, which was also the result of a sharply increased capabilities of small arms. Over time, she completely replaced the columns and the loose system.

Sea barrage mines were invented and used for the first time.
The use of the telegraph for military purposes began.
Florence Nightingale laid the foundations for modern sanitation and care of the wounded in hospitals - in less than six months after her arrival in Turkey, the death rate in hospitals fell from 42 to 2.2%.
For the first time in the history of wars, sisters of mercy were involved in caring for the wounded.
Nikolai Pirogov, for the first time in Russian field medicine, used a plaster cast, which made it possible to speed up the healing process of fractures and saved the wounded from ugly curvature of the limbs.

One of the early manifestations of the information war is documented, when immediately after Sinop battle English newspapers in reports on the battle wrote that the Russians were shooting the wounded Turks floating in the sea.
On March 1, 1854, a new asteroid was discovered by the German astronomer Robert Luther at the Düsseldorf Observatory, Germany. This asteroid was named (28) Bellona in honor of Bellona, ​​the ancient Roman goddess of war, part of the retinue of Mars. The name was proposed by the German astronomer Johann Encke and symbolized the beginning of the Crimean War.
On March 31, 1856, the German astronomer Hermann Goldschmidt discovered an asteroid named (40) Harmony. The name was chosen to commemorate the end of the Crimean War.
For the first time photography is widely used to cover the course of the war. In particular, a collection of photographs taken by Roger Fenton and numbering 363 images was purchased by the US Library of Congress.
The practice of continuous weather forecasting emerges, first in Europe and then around the world. The storm on November 14, 1854, which inflicted heavy losses on the Allied fleet, as well as the fact that these losses could have been prevented, forced the Emperor of France, Napoleon III, to personally instruct the leading astronomer of his country, W. Le Verrier, to create an effective weather forecast service. Already on February 19, 1855, just three months after the storm in Balaklava, the first forecast map was created, a prototype of those that we see in the weather news, and in 1856, 13 weather stations were already operating in France.
Cigarettes are invented: the habit of wrapping tobacco crumbs in old newspapers was copied by the British and French troops in the Crimea from Turkish comrades.
All-Russian fame is gained by the young author Leo Tolstoy with the Sevastopol Stories published in the press from the scene. Here he also created a song criticizing the actions of the command in the battle on the Black River.

According to estimates of military losses, total number 160-170 thousand people died in battle, as well as those who died from wounds and diseases in the Allied army, and 100-110 thousand people in the Russian army. According to other estimates, the total number of deaths in the war, including non-combat losses, was approximately 250 thousand on the part of Russia and the Allies.

In the UK, the Crimean Medal was established to reward distinguished soldiers, and the Baltic Medal was established to reward those who distinguished themselves in the Baltic in the Royal Navy and Marine Corps. In 1856, to reward those who distinguished themselves during the Crimean War, the Victoria Cross medal was established, which to this day is the highest military award in Great Britain.

In the Russian Empire, on November 26, 1856, Emperor Alexander II established the medal "In memory of the war of 1853-1856", as well as the medal "For the defense of Sevastopol" and ordered Mint execute 100,000 copies of the medal.
On August 26, 1856 Alexander II granted the population of Taurida a “Letter of Gratitude”.

The article briefly describes the Crimean War of 1853-1856, which influenced further development Russia and became the immediate reason for the reforms of Alexander II. The war revealed a significant gap between Russia and Europe both in the military field and in all spheres of government.

1. Causes of the Crimean War
2. Course of the Crimean War
3. Results of the Crimean War

Causes of the Crimean War

• The reason for the Crimean War was the aggravation by the middle of the 19th century. eastern question. The Western powers showed an increased interest in the territories of the weakening Ottoman Empire in Europe, and plans were made for the possible division of these territories. Russia was interested in seizing control over the Black Sea straits, which was necessary in economic terms. The strengthening of Russia would allow it to expand its influence in this region, which worried Western countries. They adhered to the policy of maintaining a weak Turkey as a source of constant danger to the Russian Empire. Turkey was promised the Crimea and the Caucasus as a reward for a successful war with Russia.
• The central reason for the war was the struggle of the Russian and French clergy for the possession of holy places in Palestine. Nicholas I, in the form of an ultimatum, declared to the government of Turkey that he recognized the right of the Russian emperor to provide assistance to all Orthodox subjects of the Ottoman Empire (mainly the Balkan region). Hoping for the support and promises of Western powers, Turkey rejected the ultimatum. It became clear that war could no longer be avoided.

Course of the Crimean War

• In June 1853, Russia brings troops into the territory of Moldavia and Wallachia. The pretext is the protection of the Slavic population. In response to this, Turkey declares war on Russia in the fall.
• Until the end of the year, Russia's military operations are successful. It expands its sphere of influence on the Danube, wins victories in the Caucasus, the Russian squadron blocks the Turkish ports on the Black Sea.
• Russian victories are worrisome in the West. The situation changes in 1854, when the fleet of England and France enters the Black Sea. Russia declares war on them. After that, European squadrons are sent to blockade Russian ports in the Baltic and the Far East. The blockades were demonstrative in nature, landing attempts ended in failure.
• Russia's successes in Moldavia and Wallachia ended under pressure from Austria, which forced the withdrawal of the Russian army and itself occupied the Danubian principalities. There is a real threat of creating a pan-European coalition against Russia. Nicholas I was forced to concentrate the main forces on the western border.
• Meanwhile, Crimea is becoming the main arena of the war. The allies block the Russian fleet in Sevastopol. Then there is a landing and the defeat of the Russian army on the river. Alma. In the autumn of 1854 the heroic defense of Sevastopol began.
• The Russian army is still winning victories in Transcaucasia, but it is already becoming clear that the war is lost.
• By the end of 1855, the besiegers of Sevastopol managed to capture southern part city, which does not lead, however, to the surrender of the fortress. Great amount casualties forces the allies to abandon further assault attempts. The fighting actually stops.
• In 1856, a peace treaty was signed in Paris, which is a black page in the history of Russian diplomacy. Russia was losing the Black Sea Fleet and all the bases on the Black Sea coast. Only Sevastopol remained in the hands of Russia in exchange for the Turkish fortress Kars captured in the Caucasus.

Results of the Crimean War

• In addition to territorial concessions and losses to Russia, a serious moral blow was inflicted. Having shown its backwardness during the war, Russia was excluded from the ranks of the great powers for a long time, and was no longer perceived in Europe as a serious adversary.
• Nevertheless, the war became a necessary lesson for Russia, exposing all its shortcomings. In society, there was an understanding of the need for significant changes. The reforms of Alexander II were a natural consequence of the defeat.

The middle of the 19th century for the Russian Empire was marked by a tense diplomatic struggle for the Black Sea straits. Attempts to resolve the issue through diplomacy failed and led to a conflict altogether. In 1853, the Russian Empire went to war against the Ottoman Empire for dominance in the Black Sea straits. 1853-1856, in short, is a clash of interests of European states in the Middle East and the Balkans. The leading European states formed an anti-Russian coalition, which included Turkey, Sardinia and Great Britain. The Crimean War of 1853-1856 covered large territories and stretched for many kilometers. Active fighting proceeded in several directions at once. The Russian Empire was forced to fight not only directly in the Crimea, but also in the Balkans, the Caucasus and Far East. Significant were also clashes on the seas - Black, White and Baltic.

Causes of the conflict

The causes of the Crimean War of 1853-1856 are defined differently by historians. Yes, British scientists main reason wars consider an unprecedented increase in the aggressiveness of Nikolaev Russia, the emperor led to the Middle East and the Balkans. Turkish historians, on the other hand, define the main reason for the war as Russia's desire to establish its dominance over the Black Sea straits, which would make the Black Sea an internal reservoir of the empire. The dominant causes of the Crimean War of 1853-1856 are illuminated by Russian historiography, which claims that Russia's desire to improve its shaky position in the international arena prompted the clash. According to most historians, the war led whole complex causal events, and for each of the participating countries, the prerequisites for the war were their own. Therefore, until now, scientists in the current conflict of interest have not come to a single definition of the cause of the Crimean War of 1853-1856.

Conflict of Interest

Having considered the causes of the Crimean War of 1853-1856, let's move on to the beginning of hostilities. The reason for this was the conflict between the Orthodox and Catholics for control over the Church of the Holy Sepulcher, which was under the jurisdiction of the Ottoman Empire. Russia's ultimatum demand to give her the keys to the temple provoked a protest from the Ottomans, who were actively supported by France and Great Britain. Russia, not resigned to the failure of its plans in the Middle East, decided to switch to the Balkans and introduced its units into the Danubian principalities.

Course of the Crimean War 1853-1856

It would be appropriate to divide the conflict into two periods. The first stage (November 1953 - April 1854) is directly the Russian-Turkish conflict, during which Russia's hopes for support from Great Britain and Austria did not come true. Two fronts were formed - in Transcaucasia and Crimea. The only significant victory for Russia was the Sinop naval battle in November 1853, during which the Black Sea fleet of the Turks was defeated.

and the battle of Inkerman

The second period lasted until February 1856 and was marked by the struggle of the union of European states with Turkey. The landing of the Allied troops in the Crimea forced the Russian troops to withdraw deep into the peninsula. Sevastopol became the only impregnable citadel. In the autumn of 1854, the brave defense of Sevastopol began. The mediocre command of the Russian army hindered rather than helped the defenders of the city. For 11 months, sailors led by Nakhimov P., Istomin V., Kornilov V. fought off enemy attacks. And only after it became impractical to hold the city, the defenders, leaving, blew up the weapons depots and burned everything that could burn, thereby frustrating the plans of the Allied forces to take over the naval base.

Russian troops attempted to divert the attention of the allies from Sevastopol. But they all turned out to be unsuccessful. Clash near Inkerman, offensive to the Evpatoria region, the battle on the Black River was not brought Russian army glory, but showed its backwardness, outdated weapons and inability to properly conduct military operations. All these actions brought Russia's defeat in the war closer. But it is worth noting that the allied forces also got it. The forces of England and France were exhausted by the end of 1855, and there was no point in transferring new forces to the Crimea.

Caucasian and Balkan fronts

The Crimean War of 1853-1856, which we tried to briefly describe, also covered the Caucasian front, the events on which developed somewhat differently. The situation there was more favorable for Russia. Attempts to invade Transcaucasia were unsuccessful. And Russian troops were even able to advance deep into the Ottoman Empire and capture the Turkish fortresses of Bayazet in 1854 and Kare in 1855. The actions of the allies in the Baltic and White Seas and in the Far East did not have significant strategic success. And rather, they depleted the military forces of both the allies and the Russian Empire. Therefore, the end of 1855 was marked by the virtual cessation of hostilities on all fronts. The belligerents sat down at the negotiating table to sum up the results of the Crimean War of 1853-1856.

Completion and results

Negotiations between Russia and the allies in Paris ended with the conclusion of a peace treaty. Under the pressure of internal problems, the hostile attitude of Prussia, Austria and Sweden, Russia was forced to accept the demands of the allies to neutralize the Black Sea. The prohibition to justify naval bases and the fleet deprived Russia of all the achievements of previous wars with Turkey. In addition, Russia pledged not to build fortifications on the Aland Islands and was forced to give control of the Danubian principalities into the hands of the allies. Bessarabia was transferred to the Ottoman Empire.

In general, the results of the Crimean War of 1853-1856. were ambiguous. The conflict pushed the European world to the total rearmament of its armies. And this meant that the production of new weapons was being activated and the strategy and tactics of warfare were radically changing.

Having spent millions of pounds sterling on the Crimean War, it led the country's budget to complete bankruptcy. Debts to England forced the Turkish sultan to agree to the freedom of religious worship and the equality of all, regardless of nationality. Great Britain dismissed the Aberdeen cabinet and formed a new one led by Palmerston, who canceled the sale of officer ranks.

The results of the Crimean War of 1853-1856 forced Russia to turn to reforms. Otherwise, she could slide into the abyss social problems which, in turn, would lead to a popular revolt, the result of which no one would undertake to predict. The experience of the war was used in the military reform.

The Crimean War (1853-1856), the defense of Sevastopol and other events of this conflict left a significant mark on history, literature and painting. Writers, poets and artists in their works tried to reflect all the heroism of the soldiers who defended the Sevastopol citadel, and the great significance of the war for the Russian Empire.