Anaximander origin of life. "Boundless" and "infinite" in the philosophy of Anaximander

Ancient Greek philosophy.
Milesian school: Thales, Anaximander and Anaximenes
- Find the invisible unity of the world -

The specificity of ancient Greek philosophy, especially in the initial period of its development, is the desire to understand the essence of nature, space, the world as a whole. Early thinkers are looking for some origin from which everything came. They consider the cosmos as a continuously changing whole, in which the unchanging and self-identical origin appears in various forms experiencing all sorts of transformations.

The Milesians made a breakthrough with their views, in which the question was clearly posed: “ What is everything from?» Their answers are different, but it was they who laid the foundation for a proper philosophical approach to the question of the origin of things: to the idea of ​​substance, that is, to the fundamental principle, to the essence of all things and phenomena of the universe.

The first school in Greek philosophy was founded by the thinker Thales, who lived in the city of Miletus (on the coast of Asia Minor). The school was named Milesian. The disciples of Thales and the successors of his ideas were Anaximenes and Anaximander.

Thinking about the structure of the universe, the Milesian philosophers said the following: we are surrounded by completely different things (essences), and their diversity is infinite. None of them is like any other: a plant is not a stone, an animal is not a plant, the ocean is not a planet, air is not fire, and so on ad infinitum. But after all, despite this variety of things, we call everything that exists the surrounding world or the universe, or the Universe, thereby assuming the unity of all things. The world is still one and whole, which means that the world's diversity there is a certain common basis, the same for all different entities. Despite the difference between the things of the world, it is still one and whole, which means that the world's diversity has a certain common basis, the same for all different objects. Behind the visible diversity of things lies their invisible unity. Just as there are only three dozen letters in the alphabet, which generate millions of words through all sorts of combinations. There are only seven notes in music, but their various combinations create an immense world of sound harmony. Finally, we know that there is a relatively small set of elementary particles, and their various combinations lead to an infinite variety of things and objects. These are examples from contemporary life and could be continued; the fact that different things have the same basis is obvious. The Milesian philosophers correctly grasped this regularity of the universe and tried to find this basis or unity, to which all world differences are reduced and which unfolds into an infinite world diversity. They sought to calculate the basic principle of the world, ordering and explaining everything, and called it Arche (the beginning).

The Milesian philosophers were the first to express a very important philosophical idea: what we see around us and what really exists are not the same thing. This idea is one of the eternal philosophical problems- what is the world in itself: the way we see it, or is it completely different, but we do not see it and therefore do not know about it? Thales, for example, says that we see various objects around us: trees, flowers, mountains, rivers, and much more. In fact, all these objects are different states of one world substance - water. A tree is one state of water, a mountain is another, a bird is a third, and so on. Do we see this single world substance? No, we do not see; we see only its state, or production, or form. How then do we know what it is? Thanks to the mind, for what cannot be perceived by the eye can be comprehended by thought.

This idea about the different abilities of the senses (sight, hearing, touch, smell and taste) and the mind is also one of the main ones in philosophy. Many thinkers believed that the mind is much more perfect than the senses and more capable of knowing the world than the senses. This point of view is called rationalism (from Latin rationalis - reasonable). But there were other thinkers who believed that one should trust the senses (sense organs) to a greater extent, and not the mind, which can fantasize anything and therefore is quite capable of being mistaken. This point of view is called sensationalism (from Latin sensus - feeling, sensation). Please note that the term “feelings” has two meanings: the first is human emotions (joy, sadness, anger, love, etc.), the second is the sense organs with which we perceive the world around us (sight, hearing, touch, smell, taste). On these pages it was about feelings, of course, in the second meaning of the word.

From thinking within the framework of myth (mythological thinking), it began to be transformed into thinking within the framework of logos (logical thinking). Thales freed thinking both from the fetters of mythological tradition and from the chains that tied it to direct sensory impressions.

It was the Greeks who managed to develop the concepts of rational proof and theory as its focus. The theory claims to receive a generalizing truth, which is not simply proclaimed from nowhere, but appears through argumentation. At the same time, both the theory and the truth obtained with its help must withstand public tests of counterarguments. The Greeks had the ingenious idea that one should look for not only collections of isolated fragments of knowledge, as was already done on a mythical basis in Babylon and Egypt. The Greeks began to search for universal and systematic theories that substantiated individual fragments of knowledge in terms of generally valid evidence (or universal principles) as the basis for the conclusion of specific knowledge.

Thales, Anaximander and Anaximenes are called Milesian natural philosophers. They belonged to the first generation of Greek philosophers.

Miletus is one of the Greek policies located on the eastern border of the Hellenic civilization, in Asia Minor. It was here that the rethinking of mythological ideas about the beginning of the world first of all acquired the character of philosophical reasoning about how the diversity of phenomena surrounding us arose from one source - the primordial element, the beginning - arche. It was natural philosophy, or the philosophy of nature.

The world is unchanging, indivisible and immovable, represents eternal stability and absolute stability.

Thales (7th-6th centuries BC)
1. Everything starts from water and returns to it, all things originated from water.
2. Water is the essence of every single thing, water is in all things, and even the sun and heavenly bodies are nourished by the vapors of water.
3. The destruction of the world after the expiration of the "world cycle" will mean the immersion of all things in the ocean.

Thales argued that "everything is water." And with this statement, as it is believed, philosophy begins.

Thales pushing the idea of ​​substance - the fundamental principle of everything , having generalized all the diversity into a consubstantial and seeing the beginning of everything is in WATER (in moisture): because it permeates everything. Aristotle said that Thales first tried to find a physical beginning without the mediation of myths. Moisture is indeed an ubiquitous element: Everything comes from water and turns into water. Water as a natural principle is the carrier of all changes and transformations.

In the position “everything from water”, the Olympian, that is, pagan, gods were “resigned”, ultimately mythological thinking, and the path to a natural explanation of nature was continued. What else is the genius of the father of European philosophy? He first came up with the idea of ​​the unity of the universe.

Thales considered water to be the basis of all things: there is only water, and everything else is its creations, forms and modifications. It is clear that its water is not quite similar to what we mean by this word today. He has her a certain universal substance from which everything is born and formed.

Thales, like his successors, stood on the point of view hylozoism- the view that life is an immanent property of matter, being itself is moving, and at the same time animated. Thales believed that the soul is poured into everything that exists. Thales considered the soul as something spontaneously active. Thales called God the universal intellect: God is the mind of the world.

Thales was a figure who combined interest in requests practical life with a deep interest in questions about the structure of the universe. As a merchant, he used trade trips to expand his scientific knowledge. He was a hydroengineer, famous for his work, a versatile scientist and thinker, an inventor of astronomical instruments. As a scientist, he became widely famous in Greece, making a successful prediction of a solar eclipse observed in Greece in 585 BC. e. For this prediction, Thales used the astronomical information he obtained in Egypt or in Phoenicia, which goes back to the observations and generalizations of Babylonian science. Thales tied his geographical, astronomical and physical knowledge into a coherent philosophical idea of ​​the world, materialistic in the basis, despite the clear traces of mythological ideas. Thales believed that the existing arose from some kind of wet primary substance, or "water". Everything is constantly born from this “single source. The Earth itself rests on water and is surrounded on all sides by the ocean. She is on the water, like a disk or a board floating on the surface of a reservoir. At the same time, the material principle of “water” and all the nature that originated from it are not dead, not devoid of animation. Everything in the universe is full of gods, everything is animated. Thales saw an example and proof of universal animation in the properties of a magnet and amber; since the magnet and amber are able to set bodies in motion, therefore, they have a soul.

Thales belongs to an attempt to understand the structure of the universe surrounding the Earth, to determine in what order the celestial bodies are located in relation to the Earth: the Moon, the Sun, the stars. And in this matter, Thales relied on the results of Babylonian science. But he imagined the order of the luminaries to be the opposite of that which exists in reality: he believed that the closest to the Earth is the so-called sky of fixed stars, and the furthest away is the Sun. This error was corrected by his successors. His philosophical view of the world is full of echoes of mythology.

“Thales is believed to have lived between 624 and 546 BC. Part of this assumption is based on the statement of Herodotus (c. 484-430/420 BC), who wrote that Thales predicted a solar eclipse of 585 BC.
Other sources report Thales traveling through Egypt, which was quite unusual for the Greeks of his time. It is also reported that Thales solved the problem of calculating the height of the pyramids by measuring the length of the shadow from the pyramid when his own shadow was equal to the size of his height. The story that Thales predicted a solar eclipse indicates that he possessed astronomical knowledge that may have come from Babylon. He also had knowledge of geometry, a branch of mathematics that had been developed by the Greeks.

Thales is said to have taken part in political life Miletus. He used his mathematical knowledge to improve navigation equipment. He was the first to accurately determine the time using a sundial. And, finally, Thales became rich by predicting a dry lean year, on the eve of which he prepared in advance, and then profitably sold olive oil.

Little can be said about his works, since all of them have come down to us in transcriptions. Therefore, we are compelled to adhere in their presentation to what other authors report about them. Aristotle in Metaphysics says that Thales was the founder of this kind of philosophy, which raises questions about the beginning, from which everything that exists, that is, that which exists, and where everything then returns. Aristotle also says that Thales believed that such a beginning is water (or liquid).

Thales asked questions about what remains constant in change and what is the source of unity in diversity. It seems plausible that Thales proceeded from the fact that changes exist and that there is some kind of one beginning that remains a constant element in all changes. It is the building block of the universe. Such a "permanent element" is usually called the first principle, the "primal foundation" from which the world is made (Greek arche)."

Thales, like others, observed many things that arise from water and that disappear in water. Water turns into steam and ice. Fish are born in water and then die in it. Many substances, like salt and honey, dissolve in water. Moreover, water is essential for life. These and similar simple observations could lead Thales to assert that water is a fundamental element that remains constant in all changes and transformations.

All other objects arise from water, and they turn into water.

1) Thales raised the question of what is the fundamental "building block" of the universe. Substance (original) represents an unchanging element in nature and unity in diversity. Since that time, the problem of substance has become one of the fundamental problems of Greek philosophy;
2) Thales gave an indirect answer to the question of how changes occur: the fundamental principle (water) is transformed from one state to another. The problem of change also became another fundamental problem of Greek philosophy."

For him, nature, physis, was self-moving ("living"). He did not distinguish between spirit and matter. For Thales, the concept of "nature", physis, seems to have been very broad and most closely related to the modern concept of "being".

Raising the question of water as the only foundation of the world and the beginning of all things, Thales thereby solved the question of the essence of the world, all the diversity of which is derived (originates) from a single basis (substance). Water is what subsequently many philosophers began to call matter, the "mother" of all things and phenomena of the surrounding world.

Anaximander (c. 610 - 546 BC) the first to rise to original idea of ​​infinity of worlds. For the fundamental principle of existence, he took apeiron — indefinite and infinite substance: its parts change, but the whole remains unchanged. This infinite principle is characterized as a divine, creative and moving principle: it is inaccessible to sensory perception, but is comprehensible by reason. Since this beginning is infinite, it is inexhaustible in its possibilities for the formation of concrete realities. This is an ever-living source of new formations: everything in it is in an indefinite state, as a real possibility. Everything that exists is, as it were, scattered in the form of tiny slices. So small grains of gold form whole ingots, and particles of earth form its concrete arrays.

Apeiron is not associated with any specific substance, it gives rise to a variety of objects, living beings, people. Apeiron is boundless, eternal, always active and in motion. Being the beginning of the Cosmos, apeiron distinguishes from itself opposites - wet and dry, cold and warm. Their combinations result in earth (dry and cold), water (wet and cold), air (wet and hot), and fire (dry and hot).

Anaximander expands the concept of the beginning to the concept of "arche", i.e., to the beginning (substance) of everything that exists. This beginning Anaximander calls apeiron. The main characteristic of apeiron is that it " boundless, limitless, endless ". Although apeiron is material, nothing can be said about him, except that he "does not know old age", being in eternal activity, in perpetual motion. Apeiron is not only the substantive, but also the genetic beginning of the cosmos. He is the only cause of birth and death, from which the birth of everything that exists, at the same time disappears of necessity. One of the fathers of the Middle Ages complained that Anaximander "left nothing to the divine mind" with his cosmological concept. Apeiron is self-sufficient. He embraces everything and controls everything.

Anaximander decided not to name the fundamental principle of the world by the name of any element (water, air, fire or earth) and considered the only property of the original world substance, which forms everything, its infinity, omnipotence and irreducibility to any particular element, and therefore - uncertainty. It stands on the other side of all the elements, all of them includes and is called Apeiron (Boundless, infinite world substance).

Anaximander recognized that the single and constant source of the birth of all things was no longer “water” and not any separate substance in general, but the primary substance from which the opposites of warm and cold are separated, giving rise to all substances. It is a principle different from other substances (and in this sense indefinite), has no boundaries and therefore there is boundless» (apeiron). After the isolation of the warm and cold from it, a fiery shell arose, cloaking the air above the earth. The inflowing air broke through the fiery shell and formed three rings, inside of which a certain amount of fire broke out. So there were three circles: the circle of the stars, the sun and the moon. The earth, similar in shape to the cut of a column, occupies the middle of the world and is motionless; animals and people formed from the sediments of the dried seabed and changed forms when they moved to land. Everything detached from the infinite must return to it for its “guilt”. Therefore, the world is not eternal, but after its destruction, a new world emerges from the infinite, and this change of worlds has no end.

Only one fragment attributed to Anaximander has survived to our times. In addition, there are comments by other authors, such as Aristotle, who lived two centuries later.

Anaximander did not find a convincing basis for the assertion that water is an unchanging fundamental principle. If water is transformed into earth, earth into water, water into air, and air into water, etc., this means that anything is transformed into anything. Therefore, it is logically arbitrary to say that water or earth (or whatever) is "the first principle." Anaximander preferred to assert that the fundamental principle is apeiron (apeiron), indefinite, boundless (in space and time). In this way, he apparently avoided objections similar to those mentioned above. However, from our point of view, he "lost" something important. Namely, unlike water apeiron is not observable. As a result, Anaximander must explain the sensible (objects and the changes occurring in them) with the help of the sensually imperceptible apeiron. From the point of view of experimental science, such an explanation is a shortcoming, although such an assessment is, of course, an anachronism, since Anaximander is unlikely to have had a modern understanding of the empirical requirements of science. Perhaps most important for Anaximander was to find a theoretical argument against Thales' answer. And yet Anaximander, analyzing the universal theoretical statements of Thales and demonstrating the polemical possibilities of their discussion, called him "the first philosopher."

The Cosmos has its own order, not created by the gods. Anaximander suggested that life originated on the border of the sea and land from silt under the influence of heavenly fire. Over time, man also descended from animals, having been born and developed to an adult state from fish.

Anaximenes (c. 585-525 BC) believed that the origin of all things is air ("apeiros") : all things come from it by condensation or rarefaction. He thought of it as infinite and saw in it the ease of change and transmutability of things. According to Anaximenes, all things arose from the air and are its modifications, formed by its condensation and discharge. Discharging, the air becomes fire, condensing - water, earth, things. Air is more formless than anything. He is less body than water. We do not see it, but only feel it.

The rarefied air is fire, the thicker air is atmospheric, even thicker is water, then earth, and finally stones.

The last in the line of Milesian philosophers, Anaximenes, who had reached maturity by the time of the conquest of Miletus by the Persians, developed new ideas about the world. Taking air as the primary substance, he introduced a new and important idea about the process of rarefaction and condensation, through which all substances are formed from the air: water, earth, stones and fire. “Air” for him is a breath that embraces the whole world. just as our soul, being the breath, holds us. By its nature, "air" is a kind of vapor or dark cloud and is akin to emptiness. The earth is a flat disk supported by air, just as the flat disks of luminaries hovering in it, consisting of fire. Anaximenes corrected the teachings of Anaximander on the order of the arrangement of the Moon, the Sun and the stars in world space. Contemporaries and subsequent Greek philosophers gave Anaximenes more importance than other Milesian philosophers. The Pythagoreans adopted his teaching that the world breathes air (or emptiness) into itself, as well as some of his teaching about heavenly bodies.

Only three small fragments have survived from Anaximenes, one of which is probably not genuine.

Anaximenes, the third natural philosopher from Miletus, drew attention to another weak point in the teachings of Thales. How is water transformed from its undifferentiated state into water in its differentiated states? As far as we know, Thales did not answer this question. As an answer, Anaximenes argued that the air, which he considered as the "primordial principle", condenses into water when cooled, and condenses into ice (and earth!). When heated, air liquefies and becomes fire. Thus, Anaximenes created a certain physical theory of transitions. Using modern terms, it can be argued that, according to this theory, different aggregate states (steam or air, actually water, ice or earth) are determined by temperature and density, changes in which lead to abrupt transitions between them. This thesis is an example of the generalizations so characteristic of the early Greek philosophers.

Anaximenes points to all four substances, which were later "called" four principles (elements) ". These are earth, air, fire and water.

The soul also consists of air."Just as our soul, being air, restrains us, so breath and air embrace the whole world." Air has the property of infinity. Anaximenes associated its condensation with cooling, and rarefaction - with heating. Being the source of both the soul and the body, and the entire cosmos, air is primary even in relation to the gods. The gods did not create the air, but they themselves from the air, just like our soul, the air supports everything and controls everything.

Summarizing the views of the representatives of the Milesian school, we note that philosophy here arises as a rationalization of myth. The world is explained on the basis of itself, on the basis of material principles, without the participation of supernatural forces in its creation. The Milesians were hylozoists (Greek hyle and zoe - matter and life - a philosophical position, according to which any material body has a soul), i.e. they talked about the animation of matter, believing that all things move due to the presence of a soul in them. They were also pantheists (Greek pan - everything and theos - God - a philosophical doctrine, according to which "God" and "nature" are identified) and tried to identify the natural content of the gods, understanding by this actually natural forces. In man, the Milesians saw, first of all, not biological, but physical nature, bringing it out of water, air, apeiron.

Alexander Georgievich Spirkin. "Philosophy." Gardariki, 2004.
Vladimir Vasilievich Mironov. "Philosophy: Textbook for universities." Norma, 2005.

All things arise from the infinite...

Anaximander

The idea of ​​neutral matter

Thales, with his idea of ​​the systematic development of the natural sciences, became for the Greeks a great pioneer in the field of thought. But modern scholars would rather choose his successor, the more poetic and passionate Anaximander, as their hero. He can truly be called the first real philosopher.

Anaximander went beyond the brilliant but simple assertion that all things are made of the same matter, and showed how deeply the means of objective analysis must penetrate into the real world. He made four well-defined major contributions to people's understanding of the world:

1. He realized that neither water nor any other ordinary substance like it can be the basic form of matter. He imagined this basic form - rather vaguely, though - as a more complex boundless something (which he called "apeiron"). His theory has served science for twenty-five centuries.

2. He transferred the concept of law from human society to the physical world, and this was a complete break with previous ideas about the capricious anarchist nature.

3. He was the first to think of using mechanical models to facilitate the understanding of complex natural phenomena.

4. He concluded in rudimentary form that the earth changes over time and that higher forms of life could develop from lower ones.

Each of these contributions by Anaximander is a discovery of the first magnitude. We can get an idea of ​​how important they are if we mentally remove from our modern method thinking everything that is connected with the concepts of what is neutral matter, the laws of nature, the computing apparatus of scales and models, and what is evolution. In this case, little would be left of science and even of our common sense.

Anaximander was from Miletus and was born about forty years after Thales (hence, his mature activity should have begun around 540 BC). They wrote about him that he was a student of Thales and replaced his teacher in the Milesian school of philosophy. But both the date and this information are based on later reports, which are not chronologically accurate and transfer the idea of ​​schools organized according to a certain system to the early period of ancient Greek thought, when in reality there were no such formal associations of philosophers and scientists. However, we can be sure that Anaximander was a junior countryman of Thales, realized and highly appreciated the novelty of his ideas and developed them - exactly as has already been said. Anaximander was a philosopher in the sense that, among the things that interested him, he dealt with philosophical questions; but in that early period philosophy and science were not yet divided into separate areas. It is better for us to consider Anaximander an amateur than to follow the assumptions of later historians, who carried over their idea of ​​a professional philosopher.

We can add little to the already mentioned information about his hometown, time of life and acquaintance with Thales. Anaximander was versatile and practical person. The Milesians chose him as the head of the new colony, which indicates his important role in political life. It is believed that he traveled widely, and this may be confirmed by three facts of his biography: he was the first Greek geographer to draw a map; one of his trips - from Ionia to the Peloponnese - is confirmed by evidence that he created in Sparta new tool in the shape of sundial, which measured the length of the seasons; the fact that he saw fossilized fish high in the mountains suggests that he probably climbed the mountains of Asia Minor and carefully peered at what he saw around. Adding to this the tradition of Miletus, the birthplace of engineers, and the fact that Anaximander applied technological methods when he designed tools, maps and models, we can also assume that he, like Thales, was at least an expert in engineering, and possibly even professional engineer.

Anaximander's first major contribution to science was his new method of analysis and the concept of "matter". He agreed with Thales that everything in the world consists of a single substance, but believed that it could not be any substance familiar to humans like water, rather it was a “limitless something” (apeiron), in which initially contained all the forms and properties of things, but which itself did not have any specific features characteristic of it.

At this point, Anaximander made an interesting move in his reasoning: if everything that exists in reality is matter with certain properties, this matter should be able to be hot in some cases, cold in others, sometimes wet, and sometimes dry. Anaximander believed that all properties of matter are grouped into pairs of opposites. If we identify matter with one property from such a pair, as Thales did when he said “all things are water”, then the conclusion will follow from this: “to be means to be wet. What then happens when things become dry? If the matter of which they are composed is always wet (as Anaximander defined the Thales word guidor), desiccation would destroy the matter in things, they would become immaterial and cease to exist. In the same way, matter cannot be identified with any one quality and thus exclude its opposite. From this it follows that matter is something boundless, neutral and indefinable. From this "reservoir" opposite qualities are singled out: all concrete things arise from the infinite and return to it when they cease to exist.

This is a movement of philosophical thought from the primitive definition of matter as guidor(water) to understanding matter as an infinite substance is a huge step forward. Indeed, until the 20th century, in the science and philosophy of modern times, matter was often described as a "neutral substance", which is very similar to Anaximander's "apeiron". But between modern idea and its ancient progenitor there is one fundamental difference: Anaximander did not yet know the difference between the image that the imagination creates and the abstract mental construction. The truly abstract concept of matter did not appear until two hundred years after Anaximander, when the atomistic theory was created. Anaximander could well associate the infinite with the image of a gray fog or a dark haze at sunset, or hills of indefinite outlines on the horizon. Nevertheless, this attempt to define matter - the basis of all physical reality - led directly to those later, more perfect schemes that we find when materialism arises as a fully developed philosophical system.

Anaximander's input of models into astronomical and geographical research was an equally important turning point in the development of science. Very few people understand how important models are, although we all use them and cannot do without them. Anaximander tried to design objects by reproducing their inherent linear relationships, but on a smaller scale. One result of this was a pair of maps: a map of the earth and a map of the stars. The map shows the distances to various places and the direction in which you need to move to them. If people had to find out where other cities and countries are from the diaries of travelers and their own impressions, then travel, trade and geographical research would be very difficult activities. Anaximander also built a model that reproduced the movements of the stars and planets; it consisted of wheels rotating at different speeds. Like projections in our modern planetariums, this model made it possible to accelerate the apparent movement of the planets along their trajectories and find patterns and certain speed ratios in it. To briefly explain how much we owe to the use of models, it suffices to recall that Bohr's atomic model played a key role in physics and that even a chemical experiment in a test tube or an experiment on rats in biology is an application of modeling techniques.

The first astronomical model was quite simple and unsophisticated, but for all its primitiveness, it was the progenitor of the modern planetarium, mechanical clocks, and many other related inventions. Anaximander suggested that the earth was disc-shaped, located at the center of the world, and surrounded by hollow tubular rings (a modern chimney is a good imitation of what he had in mind) of various sizes, which rotate at different speeds. Each tubular ring is full of fire, but itself consists of a hard shell like a shell or bark (this shell Anaximander calls floyon), which allows the fire to burst out only from a few holes (breathing holes from which the fire bursts out as if blown by blacksmith bellows); these holes are what we see as the sun, moon and planets; they move across the sky as the circles revolve. Between the round wheels and the earth are dark clouds that cause eclipses: an eclipse occurs when they close the holes in the pipes from our eyes. This whole system as a whole rotates, making a revolution in one day, and, in addition, each wheel moves by itself.

It is not entirely clear whether this model had such an interpretation for fixed stars as well. It seems that Anaximander constructed a globe of the sky, but we do not know how this expansion of the technique of maps and models was connected with the moving mechanism of rings and fire.

Anaximander. First card

This map is a reconstruction of what is believed to be the first geographical map ever drawn. Its center is Delphi, where a stone called "the navel of the earth" (in Greek "omphalos") marked the exact center of the earth. The cartographer who created it was Anaximander, a Greek philosopher who lived from about 611 to 547 BC. e. Early maps were all round. Half a century later, Herodotus commented as follows: “I find it funny to see that so many people still draw maps of the Earth, but not one of them depicted it even tolerably: after all, they drew the Earth round, as if it were made with a compass, and surrounded it ocean river.

Anaximander's great contribution to science was the general conception of models, which he applied in the same way that we apply them now. In drawing the first map of the world known to him, he showed the same combination of technical ingenuity and scientific intuition. Just as a moving model can show the ratios of long astronomical periods on a smaller scale where they are easy to observe and control, a map is a model of the distances between objects and their relative position on a smaller scale, so that a person can take in it all at a glance; the map saves him from having to travel for long months or trying to sort through scattered notes where travelers described their routes in order to determine the location of places, distances and direction of movement.

The idea of ​​a map is in itself an indication of the love of clarity and symmetry that was characteristic of Greek science and of later classical maps and models. Anaximander's world had the form of a circle centered on Delphi (where the sacred stone omphalos, as the Greeks believed, marked the exact center of the universe) and was surrounded by the ocean. Like the wheels - "chimneys", this map became the primitive ancestor of a huge offspring: it is the progenitor of maps and drawings that made possible the existence of modern navigation, survey work in geography and geology. The "Map of the Stars" is perhaps an even clearer example of how this original, scientific, ancient mind worked: the thought of charting the sky instead of looking at the patterns the stars form as omens or ornaments implies, that terrestrial and celestial phenomena are of the same nature, and signifies an attempt to understand the world not by means of aesthetic fantasy and not by the irresponsible way of religious superstition.

But this use of models to duplicate the studied patterns of nature, however enormous their role has been over the centuries since then, is just a side addition to the more general idea that nature is regular and predictable. Anaximander expressed this idea in his definition of natural law: "All things arise from the infinite ... they compensate each other for damage, and one pays the other for her guilt before her when she commits injustice, according to the account of time."

Although Anaximander seems to be repeating the ideas of high tragedy, in which "hybris" (excess of pride) inevitably leads to "nemesis" (fall-retribution), he speaks in purely legal language, borrowed from judicial practice where the harm that one person causes to another is compensated by the payment of money. Here he uses as a model for the periodic change of natural phenomena not a clock, but a pendulum. “All the things” that break the law in turn and pay the price for it are those opposite qualities that are “singled out” from the infinite. Events in nature, in fact, often take the form of a constant movement from one extreme state to another, opposite, and back; clear examples of this are ebb and flow, winter and summer. This movement became the model for Anaximander's "laws of nature": one quality tries to develop more than it should, displacing its opposite, and therefore "justice" throws it back, punishing for intrusion into someone else's territory. But over time, that of the opposites that lost at the beginning becomes stronger, in turn crosses the forbidden line and, "according to the account of time", must be returned to its legal limits.

This was a huge advance compared to the world of Thales, where the individual "psyches" of things were responsible for change and movement, although the tendency to endow everything with human properties and mythological thinking did not completely die out. From a historical point of view, it is interesting that the definition of the law of nature arose as a transfer to another area of ​​​​the idea of ​​\u200b\u200bjurisprudence already established in society: we would rather expect the opposite, since nature seems to us much more ordered than human society. However, the code of laws seemed to Anaximander to be the best model he could find to explain his new intuitive idea of ​​the exact periodicity and regularity of the natural order.

The idea of ​​evolution of Anaximander was led by acquaintance with the fossilized remains of fossil animals and observation of babies. High in the mountains of Asia Minor, he saw fossilized marine animals in the thickness of the stone. From this, he concluded that these mountains were once in the sea, under water, and that the level of the ocean was gradually lowering. We see that this was a special case of his law of alternation of opposites: the spill and drying of spilled water. He correctly reasoned that if once the whole earth was covered with water, then life must have originated in this ancient ocean. He said that the first and simplest animals were "sharks". We have no explanation why they were, but probably because, firstly, sharks seemed to him similar to the fossil fish that he saw, and, secondly, the very tough skin of sharks seemed to him a sign of primitiveness. Looking at human children - he had at least one son of his own - he came to the conclusion that no such helpless living creature could survive in nature without a protective environment. Life on land evolved from sea life: as the water dried up, the animals adapted to it by growing spiny hides. But people, because of their long helplessness in childhood, needed some additional process. But before this task, Anaximander was at an impasse: he could only assume that people, perhaps, developed inside the sharks and were released from them when the sharks died, and by that time they themselves had become more capable of independent life.

In his reflections on biological and botanical topics, Anaximander expressed another original idea: that in all nature, beings that grow do so in the same way. They grow in concentric rings, the outermost of which hardens and turns into "bark" - tree bark, shark skin, dark shells around fiery wheels in the sky. It was a way to bring together developmental phenomena found separately in astronomy, zoology and botany; but this "shell" theory, unlike the other ideas we have considered here, has never been taken seriously. Later philosophers and men of science, from ancient Greeks to modern Americans, took either physics or zoology as their model of what science should be (extreme cases: respectively the simplest and most difficult subject to study). And Anaximander's statement is more like a generalizing conclusion from botany.

Anaximander, who combined the inquisitiveness of a scientist, the rich imagination of a poet, and the ingenious bold intuition, can undoubtedly share with Thales the honor of standing at the origins of Greek philosophy. After Anaximander, Greek thinkers were able to see that the new questions posed by Thales implied something that went far beyond the answers offered by both Thales and Anaximander himself. We seem to see how science and philosophy froze for a moment in front of a new world that had just opened up for them - the world of abstract thought, which was waiting for its researchers.

is given the question of what such a higher principle of things should be, and comes to the conclusion that only “apeiron” (infinite) can be such. The thought that guided Anaximander when designating the beginning with the word "infinite" is best conveyed in Plutarch's Stromata (10): "the infinite is every cause of every birth and destruction."

What is Anaximander's origin "apeiron" - this is a question that was already solved in antiquity in different ways. In modern times, he gave rise to a whole literature, which received the special name "Anaximander's question."

In our opinion, the answer lies in the very name of the first principle "limitless". Anaximander understands the “infinity” of the first principle primarily in the sense of its inexhaustibility. creative power that creates worlds2. This inexhaustibility of the first principle in the formation of things entails its other properties, and above all its qualitative and quantitative "unlimitedness". Initially there is primary matter, not yet differentiated and therefore qualitatively indeterminate. In the depths of it reigns the balance of opposites. This qualitative uncertainty and indifference of opposites is the second main property of the original

1 "Anaximander's question" in exactly the same way. as the even more famous Platonic Question, was first raised by Schleiermacher (Ueber Anaximandros, 1811).

2 Strumple; Seidel, Teichmüller and Tannery believe that the term "infinite" points primarily to qualitative indeterminacy; Neugeuser. Zeller and J. Bernet relate it primarily to spatial infinity: Natorp - to space-time infinity.

81chala (the first is the inexhaustibility of his creative power). Its third main property is its quantitative infinity (infinity in terms of volume and mass of matter. "Apeiron" Anaximandra is a body with infinite extension; it "embraces" (in the bodily sense) all things, surrounds them from all sides and concludes in Fourthly, it is infinite in time (i.e., eternal). It has not arisen, will not perish, and not only eternal, but also unchangeable (“does not grow old”). , by the absence of qualitative certainty, by the mass of matter and by volume, infinitely in space and time. "Apeiron" means infinity (absence of boundaries) in all conceivable respects. Anaximander strives for the concept of the infinite in a positive sense, i.e., for the concept of the absolute And he combines1 in his "apeiron" the following concepts: qualitative uncertainty, quantitative unlimitedness, spatial immeasurability, inexhaustibility of creative power, eternity and immutability, and even ubiquitous. Apeiron is something more than the first substance from which everything arose, since it is an unchanging, abiding beginning, "which embraces everything and rules everything." It is the source of being and life of the universe. According to the author's intention, apeiron is "absolute"; however, in fact, it does not coincide with the latter concept, since it remains a material, cosmic being.

1 F.Michelis. De Anaximandri infinito disputatio, 1874, as well as N. Hartmann. Platos Logik des Seins, 1909, p. 14-17.

82 "Infinite" is one. It is matter, but not a dead substance, but a living, animate body. Thus, the well-known Aristotelian reproach is also unfair with respect to Anaximander: he puts the driving principle into matter itself, and does not leave it unattended.

Usually there are four main solutions to the Anaximander Question.1

First decision: Anaximander's apeiron is a mechanical mixture (mHMB) of all things. Anaximander only transformed the mythological representation of Chaos (just as Thales proceeded from the mythological image of the Ocean). In ancient times, Bl. Augustine and Irenaeus believed that Anaximander's apeiron is nothing but "migma". In modern times, the main representative of this view is Ritter. Busgen2, Teichmüller, Or. Novitsky, S. Gogotsky and others.

However, it is difficult to reconcile with this understanding the unity and simplicity of Anaximandre's primary substance. If such a mixture can still be represented as a single, homogeneous mass, then it is simply impossible to imagine it as a living whole, as an organic unity.

The second solution: Anaximander's apeiron is something in between the elements, something between the elements (fi mefboe). Aristotle mentions 1) the average between water and air, 2) the average between fire and air, and 3) the average between fire and water as the “average”, taken for the first substance. All these three formulas have found a pre-

1 Historical development of this question, with a detailed reference to the literature, cf. at Lutz. Ueber das bursin Anaximanders, 1878.

2 Busgen. Web. das bursin Anaximanders, 1867.

83providers in the understanding of Anaximander's theory of primordial matter. In ancient times, Alexander Aphrodite, Themistius and Asclepius took Anaximander's beginning as a mean between water and air. In modern times, Tidemann, Bule, Krug, Marbach, Heim, Kern, Lutze, architect. Gabriel and others understand the beginning of Anaximander as a bodily, sensually perceived, homogeneous substance, intermediate between water and air. Tannery, according to which Anaximander's apeiron is a gaseous matter saturated with water vapor, can be attributed to the same category. If we proceed from the fact that Anaximander is a student of Thales and a teacher of Anaximenes, then, in fact, the position arises that his apeiron is a substance intermediate between water and air. However, in the historical reconstruction of reality, such a priori constructions are of little value.

The statement that Anaximander's apeiron is a substance intermediate between fire and air, we find in A. Galich, M. Kariysky, Prince. S. Trubetskoy in his "History of Ancient Philosophy", and others. M. Carii, who owns the only Russian special study on Anaximander,1 distinguishes in ancient testimonies a simple middle principle, intermediate between water and air, which he attributes to Arche-lai, and a compound middle principle, intermediate between fire and air, which, in his opinion, should be attributed to Anaximander.

Neugeuser also belongs to the representatives of the theory of "metaksyu". And in his opinion, apeiron

1 M. Carian. Infinite Anaximander. 1890 (Journal of the Min. Nar. Proev. 1890 No. 4-6 and otg. Reviews by E. Radlov in R. Ob. 1890, No. 9 and A. Vvedensky in Questions of Philology and Psychology, book 9).

Anaximander is a simple body that has its own sensuous qualities. Namely, it is the "middle" between the two "first opposites." Such primary opposites in Anaximander are: 1) nature is warm, fiery and light, and 2) nature is cold, wet and dark.

Schleiermacher's controversy was directed mainly against the understanding of the primary substance of Anaximander as "average" between the elements, and after it the number of supporters of this understanding is significantly thinning.

Third solution: Anaximander's apeiron is the future Platonic-Aristotelian matter (elz), which contains all things with their infinite properties potentially (not in reality, but only in possibility). In ancient times, Anaximander Plutarch understood the beginning in this way, in modern times abbe de Canaye, Herbart and his school (apeiron is “pure substance”, according to Strümpel), Krishet, Brandis, Reingold, Beumker, Kinkel, Natorp, etc. Natorp accepts this view on apeiron, as on “gyul”, with the proviso that Anaximander has only the grain of that thought that received a completely definite formula only from Aristotle. This understanding of Anaximander's primary principle, which brings it closer to Plato-Aristotelian matter, suffers from the significant drawback that it loses sight of the main motive of Anaximander's theory of primordial matter: Anaximander strives for the concept of "infinite" in a positive sense, while the Plato-Aristotelian concept of matter ( Z1?) contains the exact opposite motive.

To a large extent, Schlei-

85ermacher, according to which apeiron is a qualityless matter, inaccessible to sensory perception. But Schleiermacher clearly emphasizes the corporeality of Anaximander's primary matter, while Platonic-Aristotelian matter is incorporeal.

J.Burnet also considers Anaximander's apeiron a concept related to Aristotelian matter, but at the same time emphasizes the essential differences between them. Apeiron of Anaximander is bodily and accessible to sensory perception, although it is a certain prior in relation to all the opposites that form our sensory world.

Fourth decision: Anaximander does not qualitatively define his beginning at all, his apeiron is something completely indeterminate (zeuyt bsiufint). Such a view was held in antiquity by Theophrastus, Cicero, Galen, Sextus Empiricus, Diogenes Laertius, Porfiry, Eusebius, Theodoret, and others; in modern times, Brucker, Windelband, Vorlender, Zeller, and others. According to Zeller, Anaximander simply put forward the position that before all individual things there was an infinite substance, without expressing more definitely about its quality.

These are the four main solutions of the "Anaximander Question" (of which the last one can hardly even be called a "solution", it is rather a rejection of any solution). Each of them refers to Aristotle, each had representatives already in antiquity, and each counts in its ranks outstanding modern historians of philosophy. The fault of such a divergence of views lies primarily with Aristotle, with his vague, confused reports about Anaximander.

There were other, already clearly untenable solutions to the "Anaximander Question". So, Röth says

86that Anaximander's apeiron is nothing but water; author of an article in "Acta phil" XIV St. 1723 and F. Gentskeny say that it is air; Dickinson identifies this principle with atoms, and so on. There were also attempts at an eclectic solution, which found part of the truth in different understandings of Anaximandre's primary matter (Tennemann, Dühring, and others).

Criticism of the various solutions to our problem must proceed primarily from the question of whether the concepts of a later time are not applied to the teaching of Anaximander. With such a study, already the evidence of Aristotle will undergo a radical cleansing. It must be remembered that Anaximander did not yet realize the opposition between mechanism and dynamism, that the problem of the one and the many was first posed by the Eleates, that Anaximander was alien to the Aristotelian distinction between actual and potential, that the concept of a thing and its quality had not yet been quite clearly developed, so that the latter could be denied in the former, that Anaximander did not yet know the four elements, and therefore could not speak of an average between them. Rather, Anaximandrov's "theory of the elements" consisted in the fact that he opposed warm to cold, considering them primary qualities-things (he has not yet differentiated these two concepts). Of course, it would be quite legitimate to raise such questions: how best to translate Anaximander's teaching into the language of the theory of the four elements, or how to express his teaching in terms of the Aristotelian system, or where to attribute this teaching from the point of view of an era in which the opposition between mechanical and dynamic views of nature, and other similar questions

87 questions, if at the same time they were always aware that points of view and concepts alien to it are attached to a given doctrine. So, none of the four main solutions of Anaximander's question ("migma", "metaksyu", "field" and "fusis aoristos") does not seem to us completely satisfactory. In our opinion, the main tendency that guided Anaximander in his theory of the beginning was to escape from the circle of limited qualities-things to the "infinite".

Before parting with Anaximander's theory of primordial matter, we must dwell on one more question: how do all things arise from the "infinite"? Aleiron "selects" them from his bowels. "Isolation" is a purely internal process that takes place in the very first substance, which itself remains unchanged. This process, by means of which the finite emerges from the "infinite", we, together with Kinkel1, are inclined to understand as a phenomenon of spatio-temporal and qualitative determination). Anaximander defines this process neither as a qualitative change in the primary substance, nor as its spatial movement2. However, most historians of philosophy identify it with spatial movement, which they recognize as disorderly; Teichmüller goes even further, accepting the eternal rotary motion Anaximandrov's origin. This view of Teichmüller stands in connection with the data given by him

1 W.Kinkel. Gesch. Der Phil. I Bd. 1906, p.57.

2 The "perpetual motion" of which the doxographers speak is rather an Aristotelian expression for "singling out" and is meant only to oppose Anaximander's teaching to the Eleatics, who completely denied any process in the universe. See J. Burnet, p. 62 and Neuhäuser. an. M., p. 282.

a radically new understanding of Anaximander's "infinite" according to which it is nothing but a world ball, revolving like a wheel; around its axis. Tannery joined Teichmüller. which also identifies the perpetual motion of the "infinite" with the daily rotation of the sky. Unfortunately, these witty hypotheses lack any historical basis.

Everything that is released from the first substance, after a certain period of time, returns back to its mother's womb. Everything finite, individual, emerging from the universal "infinite", is again absorbed by it. In the only fragment of Anaximander that has come down to us, this thought is given an ethical coloring: the return of everything to the infinite is defined as a punishment for guilt. On the question of what is the fault of individual existence, the opinions of historians differ1, and this depends primarily on the discrepancy between the manuscripts2. The most common is the following interpretation: independent individual existence, as such, is an injustice in relation to the "infinite", and for this guilt isolated things pay with death. So, according to the interpretation of the book. S. Trubetskoy3, “everything that is born, arises, everything that is isolated from the universal generic element is guilty by virtue of its very separation and

1 G. Spicker specifically investigates this issue. Dedicto quodam Anaximandri philosophi, 1883 and Th.Zeigler. Ein Wort von An. (Arch. f. g. d. Ph. I., 1888, pp. 16-27).

2 Namely, on whether the manuscript is accepted, in which the word: llulnyt is, or the one in which it is absent.

3 In his Met. in other Greece”; in ancient history. philosophy he adjoins another look. In general, the image of Anaximander in these two works of the prince is very different.

89everything will die, everything will return to her.” According to Schleiermacher, every thing pays for the joy of its existence with death. According to this view, everything individual contains injustice in its very existence. But the reason for the existence of individual things is in the infinite. This is his fault.

If individual things are punished not for what they themselves have done, but for their very existence, then they rather atone for the guilt of the first principle, which consists in the ever-living, never ceasing desire in it to give birth to all new things. Neugeuser already partially notices this side, according to which the emergence of individual things is the mutual injustice of the primary substance in relation to the things distinguished by it and the latter in relation to the primary substance from which they are isolated. The origin is to blame for letting them out of itself, while the things are guilty for the fact that they stood out from the original unity. Mutual guilt must be redeemed by both parties: the punishment of things is that they return to their original unity, the punishment of the beginning is that it takes them back into itself. The religious and metaphysical interpretation of Anaximander's fragments is also given by Teichmüller, according to whom Anaximander portrayed the entire world development as a divine tragedy in the spirit of patripassianism.

Another group of historians of philosophy holds the view that Anaximander's fragment deals with the injustice and guilt of individual things in relation to each other (blüllum). For most of them, the meaning of the fragment is not religious-metaphysical, and not even moral, but purely cosmic, and the very words "injustice"

They tend to understand "guilt" and "punishment" as poetic metaphors. Thus, Spicker conveys the meaning of the fragment as follows - all things return, according to the necessity lying in their nature, to that from which they arose, so that an equation of opposites constantly occurs. According to J. Burnet, Anaximander in his doctrine of primordial matter proceeds from opposition and struggle between things. The predominance of any thing would be injustice. Justice requires a balance between all opposites. According to Ritter, the injustice of separating elements from the infinite lies in the uneven distribution of heterogeneous elements (some elements seem to be offended by others). According to Byck "y, the injustice of individual existence consists in the elevation of one part above the other. According to Schwegler, the existence, life and activity of independent finite things is a violation of the calm, harmonious coexistence of things in the fundamental principle and consists in their mutual enmity. Also, according to Zeller, the fragment speaks of the mutual injustice of things relative to each other. A very special position is taken by Ziegler, who believes that all things are punished for human injustice. Thus, according to his interpretation, all nature is punished for the guilt of people. Understanding the fragment in a purely moral sense, Ziegler deduces from this the consequence that Anaximander was the first of the pre-Socratics to connect metaphysical speculation with ethical reflection. We would prefer to follow the best handwritten tradition adopted by G. Diels, which retains the word llulpit, but at the same time we think that the religious-metaphysical

The meaning corresponds more to the general spirit of Anaximander's teaching than the cosmic and purely moral one. And so we interpret the meaning of the fragment as follows: individual things receive punishment and retribution from each other for their wickedness. For Anaximander, the sensible world is a world of opposites that destroy each other. So, first of all, primary elements destroy each other - “cold” and “warm”, also “light” and “dark”, “fiery” and “wet”, etc. (for Anaximander every quality is an eo ipso thing). Animals eat each other. A thing that disappeared in this way (moreover, any change in quality is considered as the disappearance of some thing) was not completely destroyed, but it did not pass into another sensible thing either. She returned to the omnipresent origin, which instead of her singled out another thing from its bowels - quality. Thus, "llulpit" indicates only a method of punishment, and not the basis of guilt, which Anaximander saw rather in the individual isolation of a thing both from the original principle and from other things, the consequence of which is also the mutual enmity of all things among themselves and their wickedness in relation to to the divine source.

The never-ending process of "allocation" and "absorption" of everything constitutes the life of the universe, which Anaximander imagines as a huge animal (typn). Similarly, different parts of the universe: separate worlds, luminous

1 In Greek, “to be punished by someone” is equally well rendered dYachzn didnby fyanya and er fynpt. Thus, our understanding deviates from G. Diels, according to which llylpit is dativus commodi.

92la, etc., are animals (thus, he calls our sky a fiery bird).

These are the main philosophical views of Anaximander. His merits in the field of individual sciences are as follows.

In mathematics, Anaximander did not make any new discoveries; he is only credited with systematizing all the positions of geometry established before him (the first "outline of geometry").

In cosmology, his doctrine of innumerable worlds should be noted. In contrast to those historians (Zeller, Teichmüller, Tannery) who see here an indication of an infinite series of worlds following each other in time (and at any moment there is only one world), we believe that here we are talking about an infinite number of simultaneously coexisting worlds separate from each other. This is precisely how the teachings of Anaximander were understood in antiquity (Simplicius, Augustine, and others), and among the latest historians, Busgen, Nenhauser, J. Burnet, and others adhere to this view.

In astronomy, the beginnings of the Pythagorean theory of spheres go back to Anaximander. He taught that three rings of fire2 surround the earth, which occupies a central place in our world: the solar ring, which is farthest from the earth, the lunar one, located in the middle, and the stellar one, closest to the earth. These rings are covered with air

1 This, of course, does not exclude the idea of ​​an endless periodic change of individual worlds, arising and collapsing, which is also found in Anaximander.

2 According to Brandis and Zeller, these are not circles (as other historians think), but cylinders that look like wheels.

3 Anaximander arranges them according to the strength of light, believing that the brightest, like the purest fire, should be located farthest from the earth and closest to the periphery of our world.

93 shells that hide the fire contained in them. But there are round holes in the rings through which the fire enclosed in them escapes; these streams of fire are the essence of the sun, moon and stars that we see. Solar and lunar eclipses, and likewise the phases of the moon are explained by the temporary blockage of these openings. Anaximander calculates the diameters of the celestial rings, the distances of the stars, their magnitude and movement. According to Diels1, all these numerical calculations come from the religious and poetic mysticism of numbers, so that here scientific motives are intricately intertwined with religious and mythological ideas. In Anaximander we find the first sketch of the theory of spheres, according to which the celestial spheres revolve around the earth, as the center of the world, carrying away the luminaries that are on them. This geocentric theory of spheres, which prevailed in antiquity and the Middle Ages, we are accustomed to consider as a brake on the movement of scientific thought, bearing in mind the heliocentric theory that appeared to replace it. However, I will ask the reader to put aside this preconceived notion here and judge it by the distance that separates it from the astronomical notions that preceded it. Anaximander, on the other hand, had to depart from the following

1 H. Diels. Web. Anaximanders Kosmos (Arch. f. G. d. Ph. X, 1987, pp. 232ff.)

2 According to Sartorius "a (Die Entwickiung der Astronomic beiden Griechen bis Anaxogoras und Empedocles, 1883, p. 29), Anaximander attributed two kinds of movement to the solar ring at the same time: 1) around the world center - the earth from east to west and 2) annual movement around its center, due to which the sun, located on the periphery of the solar ring, deviates either north or south of the equator (to explain the solstices).

94the future picture of the world that prevailed before him1. The earth is a flat disk; around it flows the Ocean, which in its form is a steep, closed in itself, of relatively small width. Above the earth - the sky, which has the shape of a hemisphere. The radius of the celestial hemisphere is equal to the radius of the earth (therefore, the Ethiopians, who live in the extreme east and west, are black from the proximity of the sun). The sky is motionless, the luminaries on it rotate: they rise from the Ocean, pass through the sky and again plunge into the waters of the Ocean.

If we compare the astronomical theory of Anaximander with those ideas from which he had to start, then such a historical assessment of it, we think, will be high.

In addition to a number of other astronomical discoveries (of which his idea of ​​\u200b\u200bthe large sizes of celestial bodies is especially remarkable), Anaximander also owns an attempt to explain meteorological phenomena: wind, rain, lightning and thunder. According to legend, he predicted an earthquake in Lacedaemon.

He is also credited with the introduction in Greece of the gnomon (an instrument used to determine the noon and solstice) and the sundial. Likewise, he was the first to make a model of the celestial sphere.

Anaximander also has important merits in the field of geography. He owns the first geographical map, which was an image of the entire surface of the earth according to the then

1 See Sartorius I., pp. 14 et seq., Tannery, p. 78. Homer, Hesiod, and Thales equally share this view of the world. The whole difference between them is that, according to Homer and Hesiod, Tartarus is under the earth, while Thales thought that the earth rests on water.

95 ideas about her. Based on this work of Anaximander, half a century later, Hecataeus wrote the first essay on geography. According to Anaximander, the earth is a flattened ball or cylinder, the height of which is equal to a third of the base (it looks like a drum in shape). The earth hangs motionless in the center of the world due to the fact that it is equally separated from all ends of the world. Thus, Anaximander first expressed the idea that the earth, surrounded on all sides by air, hangs freely, without any support. He already knows that there is no absolute up and down in the world.

Finally, a very important phenomenon in the history of thought is the cosmogony of Anaximander. In him we find a purely natural explanation of the formation of our entire universe, and thus his cosmogony is the first forerunner of the Canto-Laplace hypothesis. In the doctrine of the origin of man, Anaximander is the forerunner of Darwin. The first animals, according to his teachings, arose from the water and were covered with scales. Later, some of them, having moved to the land, were transformed according to the new conditions of life. And the race of people arose from another species of animals, the proof of which, according to Anaximander, is the long childhood of man, during which he is helpless. According to legend, Anaximander forbade the eating of fish, "since the fish is our progenitor.

In addition to the philosophical essay "On Nature",; Anaximander was credited with several works on astronomy.

1 It is expounded in detail by Neugeuser, Teichmüller and Tannery.

961. Diogenes Laertius II 1-2 (1). Anaximander of Miletus, son of Praxias. He said1 that the beginning and element (element) is the Infinite2, without defining it either as air, or as water, or as anything else. He taught that the parts change, but the whole remains the same. The earth rests in the middle, occupying the center of the world, and is spherical in shape. (The moon has a borrowed light, namely, its light from the sun3, but the sun does not less land and there is the purest fire.)

(As Favorinus reports in his History of Miscellaneous Things, he was the first to discover the gnomon4, indicating the solstices and equinoxes, and installed it in Lacedaemon on a plane grasping the shadow, and also built a sundial.)

(2) Likewise, he was the first to draw the surface of the earth and the sea, and he also built the (celestial) sphere (globe).

He compiled a summary of his positions, which, probably, was still in the hands of Apollodorus of Athens. Namely, the latter says in his "Chronicle" that Anaximander was 64 years old in the second year of the 58th Olympiad5 and that he died soon after (the heyday of

1 The beginning (before brackets) is a superficial excerpt from Theophrastus.

2 Since there is no member in the Russian language, then to indicate the difference between the “infinite”, as a principle (fi breyspn), from a similar adjective, we will write it with a capital letter.

5 This teaching of Anaxagoras about the light of the moon is erroneously attributed by Laertius to Anaximander

4 Gnomon - a vertical rod, mounted on a horizontal plane.

5 In the work of Anaximander, autobiographical information was given, which was used by Apollodorus.

97his forces completely coincided with the tyranny of Polycrates of Samos1).

(They say that once the children laughed at his singing, but he, having learned about this, said: “So, for the sake of the children, we must sing better” 2.)

There was another Anaximander, a historian, also a Milesian who wrote in the Ionian dialect.

2. Seida. Anaximander, son of Praxias, Milesian philosopher, relative, disciple and successor of Thales. He was the first to discover the equinox, the solstice and the sundial, and the first to state that the earth lies in the very center. He also introduced the gnomon and gave a general outline of all geometry. He wrote essays: "On Nature", "Map of the Earth", "On the Fixed Stars", "Globe" and some others.

3. Aelius V. H.III 17. Anaximander led the migration from Miletus to Apollonia [on Pontus].

4. Eusebius P.E.X 14. 11. The disciple of Thales is Anaximander, the son of Praxias, also a Milesian by birth. He was the first to build gnomons that serve to determine the solstices, times, hours and equinoxes.

Wed. Herodotus II 109 (translated by F. Mishchenko). As for the sundial, the solar indicator, and the division of the day into twelve parts, the Hellenes borrowed all this from the Babylonians.

5. Pliny N.H.II 31. According to legend, Anaximander of Miletus was the first in the 58th Olympiad to comprehend the inclination of the zodiac and thus laid the first foundation for its knowledge, then Cleostratus discovered the signs of the zodiac, and it was precisely the former

1 According to G. Diels, the last message should be attributed to Pythagoras.

2 Diels considers this anecdote to be fiction.

Most of all, the signs of Aries and Sagittarius, the very (heavenly) sphere was discovered much earlier by Atlas.

5a. Cicero de div. 150.112. The physicist Anaximander persuaded the Lacedaemonians to leave their homes and city and settle down in the field in view of the imminent onset of an earthquake. It was the same earthquake when the whole city was destroyed, and the top like a stern was torn off Mount Taygetus.

6. Agathemer I 1 (from Eratosthenes). Anaximander of Miletus, a disciple of Thales, was the first to dare to draw the earth on a board, and after him Hecateus of Miletus, a wandering husband, did the same with the greatest care, so that his work aroused (general) surprise.

Strabo I p. 7. Eratosthenes says that the first (geographers) after Homer were the following two persons: Anaximander, friend and fellow citizen of Thales, and Hecateus of Miletus. Namely, Anaximander published the first geographical map Hecateus left behind a work (on geography), whose belonging to him is certified from his other work.

7. Themistius or. 36r. 317. Of those Hellenes whom we know, he was the first to dare to publish a written essay on nature.

Z. Diogenes VII 70. Diodorus of Ephesus writes about Anaximander that [Empedocles] imitated him, embellishing (his work) with high-flown vague expressions and wearing magnificent clothes.

9. Simplicius pbys. 24, 13 (from Theophrastus Opinions of the Physicists, fr. 2 Doc. 476). Of those who taught that (the beginning) is a single moving infinite, Anaximander of Miletus, the son of Praxias, the successor and student of Thales, expressed (the position) that the beginning (principle) and element (element) of being

99 is the Infinite, the first to introduce such a name for the beginning. He says that the beginning is not water, and in general none of the so-called elements (elements), but some other infinite nature from which all the heavens and all the worlds in them arise. “And from which all things arise, in the same they are resolved according to necessity. For they are punished for their wickedness and receive retribution from each other at the appointed time,” he says in overly poetic terms. Obviously, noticing that the four elements turn into one another, he did not consider it possible to recognize any one of them underlying the others, but accepted (as a substratum) something different from them. According to his own teaching, the emergence of things does not come from a qualitative change in the element (element), but due to the fact that opposites stand out due to perpetual motion. That is why Aristotle placed him next to the followers of Anaxagoras. 150. 24. The opposites are warm and cold, dry and wet, and so on.

Wed. Aristotle pbys. A 4 187 a 20. Others believe that the opposites contained in it stand out from the one. Thus says Anaximander and all who acknowledge the One and the Many, such as Empedocles and Anaxagoras. For, according to them, everything else stands out from the mixture.

In the passage cited by Simplicius, the fragment of Anaximander with all the features of his style is preserved. Simplicius only gave it the form of indirect speech. Here are two other Russian translations of the fragment.

1 Most people mistranslate this passage: “the first one to enter the word beginning.”

100Per. book. S. Trubetskoy1. “To those beginnings from which all things have their origin, to those same they are destroyed by necessity, in punishment and expiation, which they pay each other for untruth, according to a certain order of time.”

Per. G. Tsereteli. From this (beginning) all things receive birth and, according to necessity, destruction, because at a certain time they undergo punishment and (bear) retribution for mutual injustice.

9a. Simplicius Pbys. 154, 14- And Theophrastus brings Anaxagoras closer to Anaximander and interprets the teaching of Anaxagoras in such a way that it turns out that the latter could speak of the substratum as of a single nature. Namely, he writes in the History of Physics the following:

“So, with such an interpretation of his (Anaxagoras) teaching, one might think he considers material causes to be infinite (in number), as mentioned above, and the cause of movement and birth is one. But if we accept that the mixture of all things is a single nature, indefinite in form and magnitude - and this, apparently, he wants to say - then we will have to attribute to it two principles: the nature of the infinite and the mind, and thus it will turn out to be that he represents the material elements in exactly the same way as Anaxi-mander.

10. [Plutarch] Stromata 2 (D. 5 79; from Theophrastus). After him [Thales], Anaximander, a friend of Thales, asserted that in the Indivisible lies every cause of creation and destruction.

1 According to the book. S. Trubetskoy, individual things return to their elements and only the latter are absorbed by the infinite.

Chapter 3. Philosophy of the ancient world

Philosophy Ancient Greece

What was the ancient Greek state?

Greece for many centuries was not a single state. There were city-states, separated from each other by natural boundaries. In each policy they spoke their own dialect, preferred the cult of one or another God or hero. Despite regional differences, ancient culture is a single whole.

What concept was the main one for the ancient Greek citizen?

The concept of freedom. Freedom meant life together in accordance with the common law for all. All emerging problems had to be resolved through open public discussion.

What did the ancient Greeks understand by virtue?

Virtue is the ability of a person to find a place in society, to realize his destiny.

What did the ancient Greeks see as a manifestation of wisdom?

Wisdom is manifested in the art of mastering the word. The word shapes the thoughts of a person. Beautiful thoughts should sound beautiful. Therefore, in ancient Greece, the concept of logos was developed.

What is meant by logos?

Logos is a word, a language. Later, the logos began to be understood as thought, reason, the world law, which stands even above the gods.

What ideas became fundamental in Greek philosophy?

Ideas of harmony, order that dominate nature and society.

What were the goals of the ancient Greek philosophers?

Find "arche" - the fundamental principle of the world and the root cause of all phenomena. The second is to develop universal methods of thinking, not limited by anything external - primarily by faith and sensory experience.

Philosophy of Thales

Years of life around 624-547. BC. Thales was born and lived in the city of Miletus. A merchant, philosopher, mathematician, astronomer and politician, he took part in public affairs, traveled a lot and applied his theoretical knowledge in practice: Thales built bridges, invented hydraulic clocks.

What is the main thing in the teachings of Thales?

Thales considered water to be the basis of all things. Everything starts with water and returns to it. Evaporation of water nourishes the heavenly fires - the sun and other heavenly bodies, then in the rain the water returns and passes into the earth, etc. According to the ideas of the thinker, water is an eternal, infinite moving matter.

For Thales, the goal of philosophical reflection is to find the fundamental principle of the world - "arche".

Philosophy of Anaximander

Years of life: 610-546 BC. Anaximander was born in the city of Miletus, for which he received the nickname of Miletus. He was a student and follower of Thales. Anaximander is credited with the device of a sundial - a gnomon. He was the first to make a geographical map. According to Anaximander, the earth is cylindrical and floats freely in the air, unsupported by anything. The eternal rotational motion of the earth is a source of heat and cold.

His scientific work "On Nature" has not survived to our times.

What lies at the basis of the universe?

Trying to explain the origin of the world, Anaximander believed that the basis of the universe is some kind of abstract and boundless substance that cannot be defined. Anaximander called this substance "apeiron", literally "limitless", "endless". Thanks to the “apeiron” movement, some things are born, others die.

How did Anaximander think the world came into being?

The emergence of the world Anaximander associated with the struggle of opposites, primarily the struggle of heat and cold inside the "apeiron". According to Anaximander, the world went through three stages in the process of emergence:

1. He stood out from the world germ - "apeiron".

2. There was a separation and polarization of opposites.

3. Interaction and struggle between heat and cold gave rise to a decorated world.

What ideas about the world did Anaximander have?

He taught that parts change, but the whole - the fundamental principle of the world - remains unchanged. Anaximander for the first time in history suggested that the moon does not shine with its own light, it borrows it from the sun, and man is the result of evolution that began with fish.

Philosophy of Anaximenes of Miletus

Anaximenes lived from 585-524. BC e. He was born in the city of Miletus, was a student of Anaximander. Anaximenes tried to determine the distance between the planets. His works have not survived to this day. We know about the philosophical concepts of Anaximenes only from the later writings of the ancient Greeks. There is a legend that once, walking in a shady grove, Anaximenes was talking with his student. “Tell me,” the young man asked, “why do doubts so often overcome you? You have lived a long life, wise with experience and learned from the great Hellenes. How is it that there are so many unclear questions left for you?”

In thought, the philosopher drew two circles with a staff in front of him: a small one and a large one. “Your knowledge is a small circle, and mine is a large one. But everything that remains outside these circles is unknown. The small circle has little contact with the unknown. The wider the circle of your knowledge, the greater its border with the unknown. And henceforth, the more you learn new things, the more questions you will have.

What, according to Anaximenes, is the fundamental principle of the world?

Air. Air is infinite, and determined by its qualities. He is always in motion, which gives rise to the diversity of things. As it discharges, the air becomes fire; when it condenses, it turns into wind, then into a cloud, becomes water, then earth, stones, and other things. Anaximenes assumed that the living world comes from the non-living.

Philosophy of Democritus

Democritus was born around 470-460. BC. The rich inheritance of his father gave him the opportunity to make a long journey, and he visited Babylon, Persia, Egypt, and spent many years in Athens.

It is known that Democritus wrote dozens of works covering almost all areas of knowledge of that time, but not a single work has completely survived to this day, now about 200 fragments from his works “Medical Science”, “About what is after death”, “ On the Structure of Nature”, “On Mathematics”, “On Rhythm and Harmony”, etc. The date of Democritus' death is unknown.

What, according to Democritus, is the fundamental principle of the world?

At the heart of the world are the smallest bodies - atoms. An atom is an "indivisible essence", emptiness allows this "indivisible essence" to move when a vortex arises. Atoms are indivisible and differ in shape: they are convex, concave, spherical, square, etc. Atoms differ from each other in size. The main property of atoms is the movement inherent in them by nature and existing in various forms - vortex, evaporation, chaotic movement.

How did the world emerge from the primordial atomic chaos?

The universe is infinite, and the number of worlds in it is infinite. Worlds arise as a result of an atomic vortex, which generates a spherical mass. From this spherical mass is separated something like a shell, which in the form of the sky extends over the whole world. The sun burns due to the speed of movement.

How do things come from atoms?

Colliding in motion, the atoms "cling" to each other and form things. Therefore, things appeared due to the interaction of atoms. Things disappear when the atoms that form them move away from each other.

The movement of atoms is determined by mechanical causes and does not depend on the divine mind.

What was Democritus' view of man?

Man is a "small world" that has a soul. The human soul is a combination of fiery atoms. Man originated naturally from inanimate nature - from warm mud - without the participation of the creator.

Can a person know the world around him?

A person is able to know the world around him through feelings and thoughts. Democritus distinguished two kinds of knowledge - sensual (dark) and rational (true). According to Democritus, the finest images “flow out” from the surface of objects, which are captured by our senses, resulting in sensations. But such "dark" knowledge is not capable of giving knowledge to a person by itself. True knowledge occurs with the participation of the mind, which corrects, classifies and discovers what is not perceived by the senses.

Why are errors possible in the process of cognition?

Errors are possible because the atoms of the sense organ can be in disorder, or because the atoms on the way from the object to the sense organs, colliding with each other, deliver distorted information to the atoms of the sense organs.

How did Democritus view the problem of life and death?

The life and death of living organisms depend on the connection and separation of atoms. The human soul is mortal: when the body dies, the atoms of the soul leave it, dispersing into space.

What, according to Democritus, should be the goal of human life?

Earthly happiness, which the scientist understood as a reasonable satisfaction of needs. This state can be achieved through education and training. Democritus noted that "education is an ornament in happiness and a refuge in misfortune."

Philosophy of Pythagoras

Pythagoras supposedly lived in 571-497. BC. He was born on the island of Samos. Pythagoras is not a name, but a nickname, which means persuasive speech, because Pythagoras spoke the truth as constantly as the Delphic oracle. After leaving his homeland because of tyranny, he went to Egypt, where he studied for 22 years with the Egyptian priests. When Egypt was captured by the Persians, Pythagoras was sent as a prisoner to the East, where he lived for 12 years and got acquainted with the teachings of the Babylonian priests. Returning to Greece, he founded the Pythagorean Union in the city of Croton. Pythagoras died in the city of Metapontus.

Pythagoras is credited with only three works that have not survived to this day: “On Nature”, “On Education”, “On the State”.

How was the training in the Pythagorean Union?

Education was based on the following principle: a student is not a vessel to be filled, but a torch to be lit. The School did not try to attract students, on the contrary, Pythagoras usually advised to wait and come to the School in three years. If a person then returned, this confirmed his true desire to learn. After admission, a person was not yet considered a student and was called an "acousmatic", that is, a listener. For five or seven years, a person attended classes that were conducted by the older students of Pythagoras. Philosophical reflections alternated with simple physical work. After many years of work on himself, the “acousmatician” became a real student. Now he bore the name of a mathematician - "knowing". In the classes conducted by Pythagoras himself, mathematicians were given ideas about the general picture of the world, the structure of man and nature. The training of mathematicians also went on for several years, and it was also only a preparation for choosing a “specialty”. Some began to study medicine, others the ability to take care of property. The highest level in the Pythagorean school was the training of politicians - people capable of governing based on the higher principles and laws of human society.

A conspiracy was arranged against the school, many Pythagoreans were killed, and the survivors were forced to flee.

What, according to Pythagoras, underlies the world?

Pythagoras believed that the basis of the world is mathematical relations. The cosmos is an ordered, harmonious whole expressed in numbers. The circular motion of celestial bodies demonstrated that these bodies obey the laws of mathematics. Things disappear, but mathematical concepts remain unchanged. The number gives things proportion and mystery. Both the world and the human soul ultimately have a quantitative dimension.

What did Pythagoras understand by the universe?

Pythagoras imagined the universe in the form of the cosmos, which, connecting with the infinite "pneuma", that is, "infinite breath", gives rise to the world. Pythagoras was the first to call the Universe "cosmos" because order is inherent in it: in Greek "cosmos" means "order", "holistic structure". Cosmos, according to the teachings of Pythagoras, "breathes pneuma" and gives rise to individual things.

What gives a person knowledge of mathematics?

Mathematics allows you to know the world around you and take care of your soul. Caring for the soul involves an ascetic lifestyle and the acquisition of scientific knowledge. Man's well-being consists in being in harmony with himself.

How does the true worldview of a person arise?

The true worldview, according to Pythagoras, rests on three foundations, these are morality, religion and knowledge. Pythagoras tried to subordinate the tasks of science to the interests of religion, which should coincide with morality.

Philosophy of Xenophanes

Xenophanes lived in the 6th-5th centuries. BC. He was born in the city of Colophon, from which he was expelled. He wandered for a long time. Xenophanes expounded his philosophical views in poetic form. Separate excerpts from his poem "On Nature" have been preserved.

What underlies the philosophical teachings of Xenophanes?

At the center of philosophical doctrine is the idea of ​​the unity of the world. The world for Xenophanes is not a creation of God, the world is not created, but eternal and indestructible. The universal world is eternal and motionless, but its parts are changeable, appear and are destroyed.

How did the sun and earth originate?

The sun and other luminaries arose from the inflamed clouds. Clouds arise from moist vapors, water is their source. The earth was originally covered with water and gradually freed from it.

Can a person know the world?

It is possible to cognize the world, but one cannot confine oneself to sensual contemplation, since it does not allow one to cognize the essence of things. A person receives true knowledge only in the process of reflection.

Philosophy of Empedocles

Years of life: approx. 483-423 BC. Empedocles was born and lived in Sicily. In the ancient world, he was famous as a philosopher, poet, orator, doctor, active political figure, supporter of democracy. As a physician, Empedocles was the founder of the Italian medical school. Empedocles is credited with two philosophical poems: "On Nature" and "Purifications". Of these, about 450 lines have been preserved.

What, according to Empedocles, is the basis of the world?

Empedocles believed that the world is material, that its diversity is reduced to four "roots". He called the roots of things the elements that, mechanically combined, form all objects. These roots are earth, water, air and fire. The roots of things are eternal, unchanging and indivisible.

How is the development of the world going?

Empedocles distinguished four periods in world development. First there was a starting point with a complete unity of elements. The second period is the emergence of individual things. In the third period, a complete separation of the elements occurs. Finally, in the fourth period, the elements recombine. Thus, there is a cyclic development of the universe. The cosmogonic process consists of eternally repeating, eternally renewing four world periods.

What is a person?

Man and the external world consist of the same elements, the subject and object are qualitatively homogeneous, as a result of which a person is able to cognize the external world.

Knowledge is possible through the senses. Recognizing the paramount importance of sensations for cognition, Empedocles came to the conclusion that it is necessary to check and regulate sensations with the mind.

Philosophy of Socrates

Socrates lived in 470-399. BC. A man of humble origin and not rich, he never sought to improve his financial situation. His active philosophical activity unfolded in the period 450-400 years. BC. Due to circumstances, it was believed that he was a danger to Athenian society. Socrates was tried and sentenced to death, which he accepted by drinking poison.

Socrates did not write anything, his teaching has come down to us thanks to other authors, mainly Plato, in whose dialogues Socrates plays the main role.

What did Socrates bring to ancient philosophy?

He first raised the question of what wisdom is in general. Socrates also sought to build a holistic doctrine of man.

Socrates developed a philosophical method based on questions and answers: by asking a series of questions, you expose the interlocutor in contradictions. With this method, Socrates created the doctrine of man. In his teaching, he emphasized that we cannot investigate the nature of man in the same way that we reveal the nature of physical phenomena.

What, according to Socrates, determines the value of human life?

Critical, testing, cognizing attitude to life. "And without testing ... life is not life for a person."

What should a person care about in the first place?

About your soul. “After all, all I do is go around and convince each of you, young and old, to take care sooner and stronger not about your bodies or money, but about your soul, so that it is as good as possible ...”

Caring for the soul means that a person must cultivate virtue and morally reasonable behavior. Socrates believed that the main ability of the soul is the mind, which is opposed by passions coming from the body and provoked outside world. Through reason, one can gain control over one's passions.

Man cognizes the world and himself too with the help of his soul. The life of the soul is self-knowledge, the search for answers to questions, understanding the world.

What did Socrates mean by reason?

The ability of a person to think logically, to reason. It is the mind that is the source of self-control, which gives power over vital-elemental impulses. With the help of self-control, a person comes to power over himself.

What does power over oneself mean?

Such power means freedom. From the point of view of Socrates, the one who knows how to control passions is free. “Shouldn't everyone be imbued with the conviction that abstinence is the basis of virtue, and first of all store it in the soul? What slave of sensual pleasures does not bring both body and soul to a shameful state?

What is the wisdom of man?

Wisdom consists in the ability to distinguish between good and bad, useful and harmful. From Socrates' point of view, the real hero is the wise man who has conquered his inner enemies.

The main duty for a reasonable person is to avoid the bad and strive for the good.

What is a blessing?

The desire for the good, Socrates believed, should be the main aspiration of man.

Good combines certain qualities. It:

1. Good health and bodily strength, because they contribute to the moral life.

2. Spiritual health, mental abilities.

3. Arts and sciences, because they are useful for a happy life.

4. Consent between parents, children, brothers, because they are created for mutual help.

5. Civil community or state, because if they are well-organized, they provide citizens with great benefits.

How can a person achieve goodness?

Cultivating virtue.

Socrates identified three main virtues: self-control, courage, justice. Taken together, they are nothing but wisdom. Virtue is always knowledge, vice is always ignorance.

Philosophy of Plato

Years of life: 427-347 BC Born in Athens. An aristocrat named Aristocles, he was nicknamed Plato for his powerful figure. He was a student of Socrates, and the death of his teacher deeply shocked him. Plato set himself the task of revealing the principles on which a reasonable policy of the state can be built. He tried to put his political ideas into practice - in the city of Syracuse during the reign of Dionysius I (430-367 BC) and his son Dionysius II (367-344 BC). These attempts were a complete fiasco, and Plato miraculously managed to return to Athens. In 388, he founded his school near Athens, calling it the Academy. Above the entrance to the Academy there was a saying: "Without knowledge of geometry, no one enters." About 30 dialogues have survived to our time, as well as a number of Plato's letters.

What is Plato's ideal state?

In an ideal state, everything is built according to a clear plan that cannot be violated by any of the citizens. In such a state, law and justice reign.

A just society is one in which everyone is engaged in the business that suits him best.

To create an ideal state, it is necessary to transfer power to the hands of philosophers. To achieve this goal, a universal educational system is needed in which every citizen can find a place corresponding to his abilities.

What should be the education system in an ideal state?

All children, regardless of background, have the same opportunity to learn. From 10 to 20 years, everyone receives the same education, after which the best students are selected to continue their education. The rest should become artisans, farmers and merchants. At the age of 30, a second selection is provided, and those who pass it study philosophy for another 5 years. Those who do not pass the second selection become warriors (guardians). Those who have passed all three stages must participate in the practical life of society for another 15 years, acquiring management skills. When they turn 50, they can become rulers.

Such a system of education, according to Plato, made it possible to divide society into 3 classes not by origin, but by abilities.

What did Plato see as the task of philosophy?

The task of philosophy, according to Plato, is to generalize the accumulated ideas and create new approach to knowledge of the world. You can know the world with your mind. The mind must recheck sense impressions. Plato noted: “He who approaches every thing by means of thought alone, without attracting in the course of reflection either sight or any other feeling, and not taking a single one of them as companions of reason, he will know the truth.”

What underlies the existing world?

Plato believed that the basis of the world is "one thing" - a kind of animated "order" created by the demiurge, that is, the creator, from "disorder".

Plato believed that there is also a world that is inaccessible to human senses: he placed the entire set of supersensible objects separately from the visible world, in a special place - in the "heavenly" region. Plato emphasized: "This area is colorless, without outlines, intangible essence, truly existing, visible only to the helmsman of the soul - the mind, and the true kind of knowledge is directed at it."

The philosopher called this region of supersensible objects the world of ideas.

What did Plato mean by idea?

An idea is an ideal prototype of a thing. Every thing has its perfect pattern. A thing is an imperfect copy of an idea, and an idea is an unattainable pattern towards which a thing aspires.

How did Plato represent the world of ideas?

Ideas can be more or less general, so the world of ideas is a hierarchically organized system. There is a common idea that sits at the top of the hierarchy. This is the idea of ​​the good. It generates all other ideas in all their multitude and diversity. At the beginning there are five common ideas born of good. This is being, rest, movement, identity, difference. The rank below is equality, inequality, similarity, dissimilarity. Another step down in the hierarchical structure of the world of ideas are mathematical and geometric objects.

Why did Plato create his scheme of the world of ideas?

To explain the world accessible to the senses. In the sensually perceived world, everything happens according to the same scheme as in the world of ideas, but in a coarsened form. The world of ideas is the plan, the sensually perceived world is the realization of the plan.

When a person cognizes the world around him, his soul “remembers” what it saw in the world of ideas, where it lived before the birth of a person.

What did Plato consider the highest moral duty of man?

Like Socrates, care for the soul. Caring for the soul involves cleansing it from sensual attachment to the body. By leading a virtuous life, a person purifies his soul. For the concept of "purification of the soul" Plato introduced a special term - "catharsis". In Plato's interpretation, "catharsis" is achievable with rational-logical knowledge, and it consists in the fact that passions are enlightened by the light of the mind. That is why the main means of "catharsis" is science.

Why did Plato consider the body to be the root of all evil?

The body is the source of the passions that breed hostility, ignorance and disagreement. Evil can be defeated only through caring for the eternal soul.

Caring for the soul transforms a person and ultimately frees him from the world of the senses.

Plato argued that the soul lives forever. It is able to cognize the immovable and eternal - the world of ideas - and therefore has the same nature as the ideal world. Otherwise, everything eternal would remain inaccessible to the soul.

Philosophy of Aristotle

Years of life: 384-322 BC. Aristotle was born in Macedonia. At the age of 17-18 he came to Athens and became a student of Plato's Academy and stayed there for 20 years. After the death of Plato, he made several travels and for more than 3 years was the mentor of Alexander, who later became known as Alexander the Great. After Alexander came to power, he moved to Athens and founded in 335 BC. own school - Lyceum. Aristotle's school also had another name - peripatetic, because learning took place during walks: "peri" means "around", the verb "patein" is "to walk". In the mornings, Aristotle held classes in a close circle of his closest students (acroamatic lectures), and in the afternoon he read public (exoteric) lectures. In 62, Aristotle was forced to move to the city of Chalkis on Euboea, where he soon died.

Why is Aristotle considered an encyclopedist?

His works contain knowledge in all branches of science of that time. The most famous of those that have survived to this day: "Physics", "On the Sky", "On the Soul", "Politics", "Rhetoric", "Poetics", "History of Animals", "On the Origin of Animals".

What is the specificity of the Aristotelian type of philosophizing?

Aristotle asserted the principle of the historical approach, according to which, before expressing one's own opinion, one should carefully study what was expressed by this subject predecessors and only then challenge something from the known or add something new. He strove to be systematic and methodical. Only a gradual movement along the steps of knowledge will make it possible to discover the truth. Aristotle, in contrast to Plato, believed that for knowledge it is necessary to single out the general in things. Cognition is a continuous detailing, in the process of which we discover the laws of the formation of things.

What classification of sciences did Aristotle propose?

Aristotle divided the sciences that existed in Ancient Greece into three groups:

1. Theoretical, or "speculative" - ​​philosophy, mathematics, physics.

2. Practical, or "reasonable" - ethics and politics.

3. Creative, or "productive" - ​​arts, crafts.

Aristotle believed that the main sciences are creative: relying on them, a person can go to more general, theoretical knowledge.

How, according to Aristotle, did the world come into being?

The world arose and began to develop thanks to the "first mover" - the divine "Nus". "Nous" (nous) in Greek "mind". Nous is the pinnacle of the entire universe. It contains the plan of the world and comprehends the world, increasing its fullness and richness. The activity of "Nusa" is life in all its manifestations. He is the "prime mover" of the world, and everything that moves is contained in him.

What is the relationship between the real world and Noosom?

The world is striving for "Nus" as an unattainable perfection.

What did Aristotle think of the Platonic world of ideas?

Aristotle believed that there is no separately existing world of ideas. An idea cannot exist separately from a thing: the idea of ​​a thing is in itself, without an idea it is impossible to understand what a given thing is.

Aristotle replaced the immobility of Platonic ideas with the activity of the Mind: in his teaching, "Nus" not only contains the plan of the world, but also thinks it. Comprehending ideas, "Nous" improves them.

Why do things exist?

Aristotle taught that every thing exists because of form and matter. All things have a form, moreover, they are made of matter. If we take away from matter the appearance that constitutes its form, it will turn into non-existence. In reality, only formed matter exists. Aristotle identified four principles for the existence of any thing as an organism: matter, form, effective cause, purpose.

How does a person know the world?

Initial knowledge is based on sensory experience. Then a person must, relying on reason, make the transition from the knowledge of the individual to the knowledge of the general. This allows you to get true knowledge.

To understand the phenomena of the surrounding world, you need to know the reasons that made the world the way it is.

What did Aristotle say about the soul?

Animated beings have a soul.

Life involves the choice of functions, therefore, the soul must have parts responsible for the performance of certain functions. Aristotle divided the fundamental functions of life into three groups:

1. Vegetative functions - birth, nutrition, growth.

2. Sensory-motor functions - sensations and movements.

3. Mental functions - knowledge, self-determination, choice.

Based on this, Aristotle divided the soul into three parts: the vegetative soul, the sensual soul and the rational soul.

The vegetative and sensual souls are originally present in man, the rational soul comes from "Nus". It has a supercorporeal and supersensible nature, it is the divine part in man.

What did Aristotle consider the highest human virtue?

Justice. Justice is associated with reasonable measure in all matters. Man must find a middle path between extremes.

Judgment and wisdom are necessary to determine a reasonable measure. Discretion determines what is good and what is harmful, which habits are useful and which are harmful. With the help of wisdom one can know the ultimate reality.

Philosophy of Epicurus

Years of life: 341-270 years. BC. Epicurus was born on the island of Samos. From the age of 14 he began to study science and philosophy. Lived in Athens, then in different cities Asia Minor, where he became acquainted with the teachings of Democritus. At the age of thirty, Epicurus began teaching philosophy. In 307 BC. he returned to Athens and founded his own school, the "Garden of Epicurus". The inscription on the gate above the entrance to the "Garden of Epicurus" read: "Wanderer, here you will feel good, here the highest blessing is pleasure." Everyone could visit the "Garden", including women and slaves. The writings of Epicurus have not come down to us. Only three of his letters have survived, in which the main provisions of his teaching are concisely stated.

What, according to Epicurus, is the goal of philosophy?

The goal of philosophy is for a person to achieve happiness. In order to be happy, a person must know the laws of nature. Epicurus wrote that "without natural science one cannot acquire unalloyed pleasures."

Philosophy in the understanding of Epicurus is a practical activity that is aimed at creating a happy life for a person.

What is happiness?

Happiness is the absence of suffering. Happiness is possible only when you live reasonably, morally and justly. Happiness is a state of wisdom and equanimity of spirit.

What is freedom?

Epicurus believed that the most important thing for a person is freedom, it is she who makes it possible to be happy. Freedom lies in the fact that a person makes his own choice. The gods should not interfere in people's lives.

How was it supposed to ensure the happiness of each person?

Life must have the right balance between pleasure and pain. To do this, a person must calculate their actions. According to Epicurus, it is wiser to give up short-term pleasure, which can be followed by long-term suffering. The beginning of the greatest good is prudence.

What pleasures should a person strive for?

Only to the reasonable. Epicurus believed that literature, science, and friendship between people are reasonable pleasures. Only spiritual pleasures and blessings can be truly lasting and durable: knowledge, friendship. The highest form of bliss is spiritual peace, equanimity. Wisdom and happiness consist in the fact that a person achieves independence and peace of mind, avoids everything that brings him displeasure.

What role should public laws play?

The laws that exist in society must regulate the receipt of pleasure. Fear of punishment is necessary to keep the law.

What is a soul?

The soul is the thinnest body scattered throughout the human body.

How did our world come about?

The world has always been basically the way it is now. The Universe consists of bodies and emptiness. Bodies are made up of indivisible and immutable atoms. The world itself is boundless and infinite. The cosmos as a whole and all the variety of phenomena exist thanks to mechanical movement primary material particles-atoms in empty space.

Atoms are eternal, indestructible, immutable and indivisible, they are in constant motion.

Philosophy of Ancient Rome

What were the main questions in the system of ancient Roman philosophy?

The philosophers of ancient Rome, as well as Greece, were interested in questions about the origin, development of the world and man. Unlike ancient Greece, philosophers in ancient Rome paid much attention to legal problems.

The most famous ancient Roman philosophers were Lucretius, Seneca, Marcus Aurelius, Cicero and Plotinus.

Philosophy of Titus Lucretius Cara

Years of life: 95-51 years. BC. (according to other sources - 99-55). Little is known about the life of Lucretius. Almost 500 years after his death, the Christian theologian Eugene Jerome in his "Chronology" wrote about the year 95 BC that the poet Lucretius was born in this year, who committed suicide at the age of 44.

Titus Lucretius was a supporter of atomism. His main work is the philosophical poem "On the Nature of Things".

What was the purpose of Lucretius when he wrote his poem?

He wanted to describe nature as it really is, and thereby banish fear and superstition from the human soul. Lucretius sought to build a worldview based on nature itself and its laws.

What did Lucretius say about man?

Man is a part of the world, not its goal and master. He is entirely subject to the laws of nature and cannot transcend them. The main value of a person is his mind.

How can a person know the world?

Attaching great importance to the senses, Lucretius saw their limitations. This incompleteness of sensory cognition must be filled by thought. Thought is infinite, like the universe. Free soaring of the mind, not breaking with common sense and sensory perceptions, gives a person true knowledge about the world.

What is the fundamental principle of the world?

Indivisible beginnings (atoms), which are eternal and unchanging. They are invisible, but nevertheless corporeal. The origins differ from each other in form, movements, gaps between them. They form various combinations- things.

How did life originate on Earth?

Living, sensual, according to Kara, is born from the inanimate due to the combination and movement of primary bodies (atoms).

What did Lucretius write about death?

Death is not the transition of being into non-existence, but the disintegration into the beginning, as a result of which the living becomes inanimate. Death and life are inseparable.

Philosophy of Lucius Annaeus Seneca

Seneca lived in 6-65 years. AD He was born into an aristocratic family and received a versatile education. At the insistence of his father, Seneca became a lawyer and in this capacity gained great fame. For his sympathy with the republican ideas, Seneca was expelled from Rome to Corsica. After an eight-year exile, he returned to Rome, received the post of praetor and became the tutor of the twelve-year-old Nero. In 57, Seneca received the position of consul - the highest in the Roman Empire. In 65 he was accused of conspiracy and sentenced to death. Died by suicide.

The largest works of Seneca are "Letters to Lucilius", "On Anger", "On Mercy". He outlined his views on nature in the work "Natural Historical Questions".

What image of the world was created in the teachings of Seneca?

The world is a cycle of animated matter. In the general cycle, everything is subject to strict necessity, and everything repeats itself after a certain time. Material world- the body of the Mind-God, and God is the source of life. Everything happens with inevitability, an inexorable fate dominates the world.

What did Seneca understand by fate?

Fate is not a blind cosmic force, it has intelligence and consciousness. Seneca characterizes fate as something all-good, wise and omnipresent. Pieces of destiny are in every person. Fate is the deity that rules over all things and events. Nothing can change her. "The fates lead the one who wants, and drag the one who does not want."

What is human happiness?

The happiness of man lies in living according to nature and adhering to the reasonable necessity that is inherent in nature. A happy person is one who knows how to voluntarily submit to life's adversities. Happiness, according to Seneca, is within a person, and not outside of him.

In what did Seneca see the virtue of man?

Virtue is to obey fate. A moral, virtuous person is one who obeys fate. Seneca considered any misfortune to be only an excuse for a person to improve in virtue.

What is the purpose of life?

The main goal in life is to develop absolute equanimity of spirit. To do this, you need to overcome the feeling of fear of death. Death is rest and peace, because it frees from suffering. Death is not a punishment, it is the lot of all people and is fair before the law of nature.

What are the responsibilities of a person?

The first duty is not to harm members of society, since all people are parts of a single body. A person must take care of others, show them love and compassion.

How to resist the existing evil?

Through self-restraint and moderation. Seneca wrote: “We cannot change world relations. We can only do one thing: to acquire high courage, worthy of a virtuous person, and with its help endure all that fate brings us.”

Philosophy Plotinus

Plotinus lived around 203-269. AD He was born in Egypt, which was at that time a Roman province. Plotinus became interested in philosophy. He spent 11 years in the teachings of Ammonius Sakkaasu, then joined the army of the Roman emperor Gordian III in order to get to Persia and get acquainted with the worldviews of the Persians. The army was defeated, Plotinus fled to Rome, where he founded his school. After the death of Plotinus, 54 works remained, which were bequeathed to his student Porfiry. Porfiry did not preserve the chronological order of the manuscripts, he divided them thematically into six themes and gave them titles. There were 9 essays in each topic. So it turned out six nines - "ennad". Hence the name of the works of Plotinus as a whole - "Ennads".

What concept is central to Plotinus' philosophy?

The concept of the One. The One is the supreme principle of all that exists, it is the highest divine essence. The One cannot be limited or enclosed in itself. An excess of fullness leads to the fact that the One "expires", goes beyond the boundaries of itself and thus gives rise to the world.

How is the world?

The world is a product of the One, the highest essence.

The world includes the One, the Mind, the World Soul and the Cosmos.

The mind is the supracosmic consciousness, the ideal semantic structure of the Cosmos. The World Soul is an eternally mobile, dynamic principle, which serves as a source of eternal activity for the world as a whole and for each element separately. Cosmos is a concrete embodiment and realization of the World Soul and Mind.

How did nature come about?

Nature arose from matter, into which the divine principle penetrated. Comparing this principle with light, Plotinus likened matter to darkness: the world is formed from matter due to the fact that light radiated by the divine One penetrated into it.

What did Plotinus mean by matter?

Matter is the result of the extinction of light. Where the luminosity of the One fades away, where the darkness closes in, this is how matter arises. For Plotinus, all the evil of the world lies in matter. Unlike the One, matter is cognizable by man.

What, according to Plotinus, is a person?

Man consists of three parts, this is the intelligible soul, closest to the deity, the sensual soul and, finally, the body.

What is the purpose of human life?

The goal is to achieve ecstasy, in which one merges with the deity. Ecstasy is achievable with the help of catharsis, that is, purification from the bodily and base. Purified, the soul can be freed from the body and merge with the One. Thus, the One is available to man.

Detail of The School of Athens by Raphael (1509)

Anaximander Quotes: 1. Ayperon is one and absolute, immortal and indestructible, which encompasses everything and rules everything. 2. The Infinite (iperon) is every cause of every birth and destruction. 3. From the one, the opposites contained in it stand out. 4. The infinite is the beginning of being. For everything is born from it and everything is resolved into it. That is why an infinite number of worlds arise and resolve back into that from which it arises. 5. The number of worlds is infinite and each of the worlds (arises) from this infinite element. 6. Countless heavens (worlds) are gods. 7. Parts change, but the whole is unchanged. 8. The first animals were born in moisture and were covered with prickly scales; upon reaching a certain age, they began to go out on land, and there, when the scales began to burst, they soon changed their way of life.

Achievements:

Professional, social position: Anaximander was a Greek philosopher, a pre-Socratic, who lived in Miletus, a city in Ionia.
Main contribution (what is known): Anaximander was one of the greatest minds that ever lived on earth. He is considered the first metaphysician. He also pioneered the application of scientific and mathematical principles to the study of astronomy and geography.
Contributions: He proposed the first transcendental and dialectical approach to nature and a new level of conceptual abstraction. He argued that physical forces, not supernatural entities, create order in the universe.
Neither water, nor any other elements, are first principles. At the heart of everything is "apeiron" - ("unlimited" or "indefinable"), an infinite, unperceivable substance from which all the heavens and numerous worlds within them arise.
Apeiron always existed, filled all space, encompassed everything and was in constant motion, dividing from the inside into opposites, for example, into hot and cold, wet and dry. Opposite states have a common basis, being concentrated in a certain unity, from which they are all singled out.
The first version of the law of conservation of energy."Apeiron" causes the movement of things, many forms and differences are produced from it. These multiple forms return to infinity, to the diffuse immensity from which they arose. This endless process of arising and disintegration is inexorably carried out throughout the ages.
Cosmology. He argued that the Earth remained unsupported at the center of the universe because there was no reason to move it in any direction.
He discovered the tilt of the ecliptic, the celestial globe, the gnomon (to determine the solstice), and also invented the sundial.
Cosmogony. He suggested that the worlds arose from an unchanging and eternal reservoir, in which they are eventually absorbed. In addition, he anticipated the theory of evolution. He said that man himself man and animals arose in the process of transmutation and adaptation to the environment.
His new ideas:
Apeiron is the first element and principle.
He never gave a precise definition of apeiron, and he, in general (for example, Aristotle and St. Augustine) was understood as some kind of primitive chaos. In some respects, this concept is analogous to the concept of "abyss", which occurs in the cosmogony of the East.
He first proposed the theory of Multiple Worlds and populated them with various gods.
According to him, man has reached his state of the art by adapting to the environment, he believed that life developed from moisture and that man originated from fish.
He said that the earth has a cylindrical shape, and the depth of the cylinder is equal to the third part of its width.
According to Themistius, he was "the first known Greek to publish a written document on nature".
Anaximander was the first Greek to draw a geographical map of the Earth.
He was the first to introduce the term "law", applying the concept of social practice to nature and science.
He was the first to lay the foundation for the dialectical concepts of subsequent philosophy - he proposed the law of "the unity and struggle of opposites." In his opinion, apeiron, as a result of a vortex-like process, is divided into physical opposites hot and cold, wet and dry.
Main works:"On Nature" (547 BC) - the first written document in Western philosophy. Earth rotation, Sphere, Geometric measurements, Map of Greece, Map of the World.

Life:

Origin: Anaximander, son of Praxiades, was born at Miletus during the third year of the 42nd Olympias (610 BC).
Education: He was a student and companion of Thales. He was influenced by Thales's theory that everything comes from water.
Influenced on: Thales
The main stages of professional activity: He was a student and companion of Thales and the second master of the Miletus school, where Anaximenes and Pythagoras were his students.
Anaximander took part in the creation of Apollonia on the Black Sea and traveled to Sparta.
He also took part in the political life of Miletus and was sent as a legislator to the Miletian colony of Apollonia, located on the Black Sea coast (now Sozopol, Bulgaria).
The main stages of personal life: Only a small part of his life and work is known to researchers today. He may have traveled a lot. He exhibited stately manners and wore pompous clothes.
Zest: He believed that things for a while, "in debt", acquire their being and composition, and then, according to the law, at a certain time, return the debts to the principles that gave rise to them. It is believed that Thales may have been his uncle.