Crib: Reforms of Catherine II. The main reforms of Catherine II the Great - reasons, goals, significance

The Petrine Senate was restored to its former rights. The previously liquidated Berg Collegium, the Manufactory Collegium, and the Chief Magistrate resumed business.

As before, the rulers created in their person institutions that stood above all others, from close and trusted figures. This is the Elizabethan High Court Conference.

Further centralization and bureaucratization of administration found expression in liquidation. An important moment in politics "enlightened absolutism"- Convocation in 1767 of the Commission to draw up a new Code. After Cathedral Code of 1649 a large number of decrees of the tsar and the Boyar Duma, imperial manifestos and decrees accumulated. Finally, a committee was called.

The order for the laid commission was written by Catherine II herself. It was a compilation of the works of the French enlighteners of the 18th century. (Montesquieu and others), other thinkers. The Senate sent it to institutions, central and local. More than 500 deputies from the nobility, the trade and craft population, state peasants, Cossacks, and non-Russian peoples gathered in Moscow. They sent their deputies to the board.

The commission opened at the end of July 1767. The predominance of representatives of the nobility and the loyal feelings of the majority of deputies explain the fact that at the beginning of its work, the Commission decided to give the empress a title “Great, Wise and Mother of the Fatherland”. It received the force of law, which was the only direct result of the work of the Commission.

In connection with the outbreak of war with Turkey, the Commission was dissolved in January 1769. True, private commissions continued to work on materials on the organization of administration and courts, and they were used later, in the course of the regional reform and the preparation of letters of commendation to the nobility and cities: the Decree of December 4, 1774 announced the final abolition of the Legislative Commission.

Further reforms of Catherine II . In subsequent years, the empress and her entourage, the Senate and other departments pursued a policy of further strengthening absolutism, centralization and bureaucratization of administration, and took measures in the interests of various estates. Nobles receive generous grants - land and serfs. At the same time, manifestos were issued that promoted entrepreneurship and trade, and this was in the interests of nobles, merchants, artisans and peasants. One of the decrees (1775) spoke of the freedom to open industrial enterprises. Another decree (1779) doubled the wages of bonded peasants in factories, and their owners, which was much more significant, freed them from the mandatory supply of iron and shells to the treasury. The government maneuvered, gave benefits not only to the nobility and wealthy merchants, but also to the craft, peasant classes.

Catherine II also carried out a reform of government in the main territory of Russia. "Institution about provinces" 1775 heralded the emergence of 50 provinces, smaller than the previously existing 23 extensive provinces. Each of them was headed by a governor, and a group of two or three provinces, or vicegerency, was headed by a viceroy, or governor-general. The provinces were divided into districts headed by police captains. Cities were special administrative units headed by governors, or commandants; only in both capitals, St. Petersburg and Moscow, were chief police chiefs at the head of the administration.

The regional reform, in fact, transferred collegiate orders from the center to the provinces. A more uniform and harmonious bureaucratic system was created, subordinate to the governors and governors, the central collegiums and the empress.

In the 80s. liquidated a number of colleges. In 1785 letters of commendation were issued to the nobility and cities. The first of them brought together all the privileges of the ruling class, first of all proclaimed their monopoly right to land and peasants; further - the right of the class court, the right to set up factories and trade, organize corporations in provinces and districts, elect officials, etc.

According to the second charter, the townspeople were divided into six categories: merchants and petty bourgeois, nobles and officials, and clergy.

End of an era "enlightened absolutism" . With the death of the Empress (November 7, 1796), an entire era of Russian history ended.

Under Catherine II, the territory of the country, the population (by 75%), and income (more than four times) increased significantly. Victories on land and sea glorified Russian weapons and military art. Equally impressive are the successes in the economy and culture. But it is impossible not to see with all this the difficult situation of the working strata of the population. Not without reason, during the reign of Catherine II, the most powerful popular uprising in the history of feudal Russia took place, led by E. I. Pugachev.

The reign of Catherine II lasted more than three and a half decades (1762-1796). It is filled with many events in internal and external affairs, the implementation of plans that continued what was being done during.

In her policy, Catherine II relied on Russian nobility, especially her "cream"- guard. No wonder the Russian nobles, both during her lifetime and after her death, spoke and wrote about the golden age of Catherine the Great, mother empress, wise ruler. This wreath of glory was also woven by Russian ode writers, writers - Derzhavin and others, and foreign correspondents, primarily French philosophers of the Enlightenment.

XVIII century - era "enlightened absolutism", "union of philosophers and monarchs".

Reforms of Catherine II (briefly)

Provincial reform:

Judicial reform:

Secularization reform:

Senate Reform:

City Reform:

Police reform:

Education reform

Monetary reform

The main reforms of Peter I.

1. 1708-1710 - regional reform (reform of local government). As early as 1702, the positions of provincial elders were destroyed and replaced by governors. In 1708, the country was divided into provinces and districts. The regional administration changed many times in particulars. In 1719, it took the following final forms: the state was divided into 12 provinces, provinces - into provinces (about 50), provinces - into counties. The governor is at the head of the province, the governor or vice-governor is at the head of the province, in the counties the financial and police administration is entrusted to the zemstvo commissars. Attempts to separate the court from the administration were unsuccessful, and since 1722 the administration is again involved in the business of the court.

2. The Boyar Duma was dissolved under Peter - this marks the transition from a class-representative monarchy to an absolute one. In 1711, the Senate was established, which is at the head of the entire administration (Senators - Count Musin-Pushkin, Tikhon Streshnev, Prince Pyotr Golitsyn, Prince Mikhail Dolgorukov, Grigory Plemyannikov, Prince Grigory Volkonsky, Mikhail Somarin, Vasily Apukhtin). The Senate became the highest governmental and judicial body, controlled the administration and colleges. In 1721, the position of Prosecutor General was established - this is the most powerful person in the administration.

3. 1718-1720 - the formation of 12 collegiums instead of orders headed by prosecutors: foreign affairs, military, admiralty (marine), staff collegium (department of expenses), chamber collegium (department of income), justice collegium, audit collegium, commercial collegium (trade), manufactories Collegia (industry), Chief Magistrate (city administration), Berg Collegium (mining), patrimonial collegium (industry). Along with the collegiums, there were some offices and orders (for example, the Siberian order). The colleges were subordinate to the Senate. Despite the new forms and names, the basis administrative system the old one remained - all management remained exclusively in the hands of the nobility.

4. The measures taken by Peter regarding the estates did not change their position in the state, the organization of the estates and the organization of duties changed somewhat. 1714, 1723 - the introduction of primary compulsory education for the nobility. 1722 - "Table of Ranks" - a ladder of official ranks, including 14 ranks. Priority of personal merit. The legislation of Peter turned the old estates into fiefdoms, i.e. hereditary property. By a decree of 1714, Peter forbade the nobles to split up land when bequeathing to their sons (the law on uniform inheritance was canceled in 1731 at the insistence of the nobles).

The urban estate received new organization. In 1699 the cities were given self-government. In 1720, the chief magistrate was established, in charge of the urban estate. It is divided into guilds, the higher ones are exempted from recruitment duty. 1718-1722 - a population census was carried out, a per capita taxation system was introduced. Despite the absence of direct laws, the peasants everywhere, according to custom, were equated with serfs (except for the black-haired, monastic, palace, ascribed). 1721 - Peter's decree allowing breeders to buy peasants.

5. The military reforms of Peter I were aimed at strengthening the beginnings of a regular army. In 1715, the Senate decided as a norm to take one recruit from 75 households of the owner's peasants and townspeople. Mandatory service of the nobility. By 1725 Russian regular army consisted of 210 thousand people, 100 thousand Cossack troops. In the fleet - 48 battleships, 787 galleys and small craft and 28 thousand people.

6. He made great efforts in the development of industry, the development of ore and other deposits, the training of specialists, and the development of trade. Under Peter, more than 200 factories were founded and entire industries were founded.

7. Encouragement of sciences and education. 1725 - St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences was opened. 1712 - the capital was transferred from Moscow to St. Petersburg. Significantly increased book printing, which Peter personally followed. In 1703, the first Russian newspaper, Vedomosti, began to appear regularly. Setting up museums and libraries. 1714 - opening of the Kunstkamera. Research of Siberia.

8. 1721 - "Charter on the inheritance of the throne" - the definition of heritage was given to the will of the sovereign.

9. 1722 - establishment of the police in Moscow.

10. For more than 20 years (1700-1721) the church was governed without a patriarch. February 14, 1721 - establishment of the Synod. This spiritual college replaced the patriarchal authority and consisted of 11 people. With the establishment of the Synod, the church became dependent not on the sovereign, as before, but on the state. The administration of the church was introduced into the general administrative order. The reform preserved authoritative power in the Russian church, but deprived it of the political influence that the patriarchs had. Church jurisdiction is also limited. The mass of cases from ecclesiastical courts passed into secular courts. Part of the immovable church property was withdrawn from the economic management of the clergy. Its management was transferred to the Monastic order. In the era of Peter there is a great religious tolerance. In 1721, marriages with Catholics and Protestants were allowed. With regard to the Russian schism, Peter was at first religiously tolerant, but when he saw that religious conservatism leads to civil conservatism (resistance to its reforms), restrictions on the rights of schismatics and their repression followed.

The main reforms of Catherine II.

Catherine II (1729-1796) - Russian empress, one of the most educated women of her time. liberally minded, practical activities guided by Russian national traditions. In the first year of her reign, she restored the Senate (1762), which she divided into 6 departments. It was a central administrative-judicial institution, but without legislative functions. She took over the development of new legislation, working on the principles of the future code for two years. By 1767, the Nakaz written by her appeared. When discussing with the statesmen around her, she repeatedly corrected it, and in the final version it bore little resemblance to the initial work. The order became a statement of principles by which a statesman should be guided. On December 14, 1766, representatives of estates and government offices were convened in Moscow to draw up the code with a manifesto. Their meeting of 567 people was called the "Commission for drafting a new code." They brought with them more than 10,000 deputy mandates. Despite the complete failure of the work of the Commission (1767-1768) and Catherine's refusal to undertake a general reform of legislation, the significance of the Commission lies in the fact that it provided rich material from the field and influenced all of Catherine's activities (certain parts of the Commission worked until 1784) . Catherine began to carry out her reform plan piece by piece.

1. 1775 - "Institutions for the administrations of the provinces". The country was divided into 51 provinces with an approximately equal population of 300-400 thousand people. The provinces were divided into counties of 20-30 thousand inhabitants. Catherine sought to increase the strength of the administration, delimit departments and involve zemstvo elements in the administration. In each provincial city were established: 1) Governor's board headed by the governor; it had an administrative character and represented government authority in the province; 2) the criminal and civil chambers - the highest bodies of the court in the province; 3) Chamber of Treasury - body financial management; 4) the Upper Zemsky Court - a judicial place for noble litigation; 5) Provincial magistrate - a judicial seat for persons of the urban class; 6) Upper massacre - a judicial place for single-palaces and state peasants; 7) Conscientious Court; 8) Order of public charity - for the construction of schools, almshouses, shelters. A similar structure was in the counties. The principle of separation of departments and authorities is maintained: administrative-judicial-financial institutions. On the basis of the class principle, local societies received wide participation in the affairs of local government: the nobility, the townspeople, and even people from the lower strata filled the new institutions with their representatives. The center of gravity of all management was transferred to the regions, only general leadership and supervision remained in the center. With the flourishing of local government, the central administration was completely upset and already under Alexander I ministries were formed. The institution of 1775 gave the nobility self-government and internal organization. The nobility of each county became a whole cohesive society and through its representatives managed all the affairs of the county. Thus, the whole of Russia, from the highest to the lowest levels, began to be ruled by the nobility.

2. Later, Catherine set forth the same facts established by her, as well as the previous rights and advantages of the nobles, in a special Letter of Complaint to the nobility of 1785. This is not a new law on the nobility, but a systematic presentation of the rights and advantages of the nobles. The charter established that a nobleman could not, except by court order, lose his rank, pass it on to his wife and children; judged only by equals; free from taxes and corporal punishment; free from public service, but for elections to positions of nobility must have an "officer rank"; owns as inalienable property everything that is in his estate. Thus, the nobility by the end of the XVIII century. received exclusive personal rights, broad rights of estate self-government and a strong influence on local government.

3. The peasant in the reign of Catherine is actually equated with a serf. However, in the eyes of the law, he was both a slave and a citizen: the peasants continued to be considered a taxable estate, had the right to seek in courts and be witnesses in court, could enter into civil obligations and even sign up as merchants with the consent of the landowner, the treasury allowed them to pay off for surety landowner. However, in fact, the age of Catherine was the time of the greatest development of serfdom.

4. Numerous measures for the organization of education, art, medicine, trade and industry: 1) The device of Orphanages in Moscow (1763) and St. Petersburg (1767), closed institutions for noblewomen and city girls (since 1764 ), cadet corps. 2) Small public schools were opened in each county town, Main public schools were opened in each provincial town, several new universities were supposed to be opened. 3) In 1763, the Medical Commission was established. Each city and county had to arrange hospitals and hospitals, shelters (charitable institutions), take care of the education of doctors and surgeons, establish pharmacies and factories of surgical instruments. 4) 1785 - Letter of grant to cities - confirmed the right of city self-government. 5) The State Loan Bank was established with large capital and low (6%) interest. 6) Catherine destroyed the organs of state control over industry and trade and allowed them to develop freely. Factories of steel products, tanneries, manufactories were built. Breeding silkworms. 7) Equipment for sea expeditions to the Pacific and Arctic oceans, to the shores of Asia and America.

5. Foreign policy. Peter solved only the Swedish question. Catherine faced Polish and Turkish questions. As a result of two Russian-Turkish wars (1768-1774, 1787-1791), Russia received the shores of the Black Sea and the Sea of ​​Azov, annexed the Crimea, received Ochakov. As a result of an active policy in the West and three sections of the Commonwealth, Russia received Belarus under the first section, another 4,500 square miles under the second section, Lithuania and Courland under the third. Russian lands, for many centuries under the rule of Lithuania and Poland, returned to Russia. Only Galicia was not returned. Under Catherine II, prominent military leaders came to the fore: A.V. Suvorov (1729-1800), F.F. Ushakov (1744-1817), P.A. Rumyantsev (1725-1796), G.A. Potemkin (1739-1791).

Wanderers. In the 2nd quarter of the XIX century. the gradual assertion of realism in all types of Russian art begins. In painting, paintings appear on everyday topics that do not fit into the strict framework prescribed by the Imperial Academy of Arts. In 1870, on the initiative of I.N. They familiarized society with Russian art, made it accessible to the Russian provinces. The plots of the paintings are modern Russian life, native nature, the history of the Russian people. TPHV has become a symbol of democratic art, receptive to the new. At different times, it included I. Repin, V. Surikov, V. Makovsky, A. Savrasov, I. Shishkin, A. and V. Vasnetsov, A. Kuindzhi, V. Polenov, N. Yaroshenko, I. Levitan, V.Serov. An important role in the development of the artistic activity of the Wanderers was played by P.M. Tretyakov, acquiring their canvases for his gallery. TPHV broke up in 1923.

Tax estates- in Russia XVIII-XIX centuries. a group of the population (peasants and philistines) who paid the poll tax, were subjected to corporal punishment, and performed recruiting and other natural duties.

Household taxation- direct taxes from each yard.

Poll tax- in the XVIII-XIX centuries. the main direct tax was levied on all men ("souls") of taxable estates.

Posad people- in Russia, the commercial and industrial urban population.

Enlightened absolutism- the policy of absolutism in a number of European countries in the second half. XVIII century, expressed in the destruction "from above" and in the transformation of the most obsolete forms of feudal institutions (the abolition of some estate privileges, the subordination of the church to the state, reforms - peasant, judicial, administration, schooling, mitigation of censorship, etc.). Representatives - Joseph II in Austria, Frederick II in Prussia, Catherine II in Russia. Using the popularity of the ideas of the French Enlightenment, they portrayed their activities as "an alliance of philosophers and sovereigns." Enlightened absolutism was aimed at strengthening the rule of the nobility, although some reforms contributed to the development of the capitalist order.

Reduction- (from lat. - return) the seizure of lands from the feudal aristocracy, which are leased, while the peasants are freed from serfdom, was carried out by Charles XI - the king of Sweden in the second half of the 17th century.

Respectable- venerable, respectable.

Russia and the Caucasus in the XIX century. In the 19th century Russia is pursuing an active policy in the Caucasus. In 1801, the Manifesto of Paul I was issued on the annexation of Georgia to Russia. In 1802-1806. Russia included: the Cuban and Talysh khanates, Mengrelia. The Russians conquered the Ganja khanate, included the Karabakh, Sheki and Shirvan khanates into Russia, took Baku and Derbent. In 1810-1813. Russia included Abkhazia, Imereti and Guria. Turkey recognized the fact that these territories became part of Russia. As a result of the war with Persia and Turkey under the Adrianople Peace Treaty of 1829, Russia secured Black Sea coast from the mouth of the Kuban to Poti. conquest North Caucasus lasted a long time: from 1817 to 1864 - this is the so-called Caucasian war. It begins with the advance of the Russians into Chechnya and Dagestan and is characterized by stubborn bloody battles. The main actors from the Russian side are the commanders of the Russian troops in the Caucasus, General Ermolov A.P., Field Marshal General Paskevich I.F., from the highlanders - Gazi Magomed, Shamil.

Russian terrorism- its emergence is connected in Russia with the social changes that occurred as a result of the great reforms of the 1860s. His strategy is associated with a tactical variety of forms and methods. Popular ideas of regicide, extermination of the "imperial" party. Combined with Machiavellianism and hoax. The political and ideological justification dates back to the 1860s; as a social phenomenon emerged in the 1870s, when the theory and practice of terrorism became politics. One of the features of Russian terrorism was the "female face" - a third of the first composition of the executive committee of "Narodnaya Volya", the famous terrorists V. Zasulich, S. Perovskaya, D. Brilliant and others. 1878-1882. can be called a "terrorist five-year period". The most famous terrorist acts are the attempt on M.T. Loris-Melikov. in 1880, the assassination of Alexander II in 1881, the assassination of P.A. Stolypin in 1911. Later it was actively used by the Socialist-Revolutionary Party.

"Holy Union"- the reactionary union of Austria, Prussia and Russia, concluded in Paris on September 26, 1815, after the fall of Napoleon I. In 1815, France and a number of European states joined it. The initiative in concluding an alliance belongs to Alexander. Monarchs pledged to remain in eternal peace; “give each other benefits, reinforcements and assistance”; govern subjects "like fathers of families"; v political relations be guided by the commandments of love, truth and peace. However, very soon Alexander's allies took advantage of this alliance for practical purposes. The obligation of sovereigns to help each other was interpreted in such a way that sovereigns should interfere in the internal affairs of other states and support them legal order(Especially this line was pursued by the Austrian diplomacy headed by Metternich). In fact, this resulted in the suppression of revolutionary and national liberation movements. The Holy Alliance sanctioned armed intervention and suppression of revolutions by Austrian troops in Naples (1820-1821), Piedmont (1821) and French troops in Spain (1820-1823). The contradictions between the European powers and the development of revolutionary movements shook the Holy Alliance, and in the early 30s it actually collapsed.

Senate- in Russia in 1711 - 1917. - The Governing Senate, the highest state body subordinate to the emperor, was established by Peter I as the highest body for legislation and public administration. Its composition was determined personally by the emperor from the civil and military ranks of the first three classes according to the Table of Ranks and was headed by the Prosecutor General. The Senate ex officio included the ministers, their comrades (deputy ministers), the chief prosecutor of the Synod. Consisted of 6 departments.

Synod- one of the highest state bodies in Russia 1721-1917. Introduced by Peter I instead of the abolished post of patriarch, he was in charge of affairs Orthodox Church. Headed by the chief prosecutor, appointed by the king. After 1917 - an advisory body under the Patriarch of Moscow and All Russia.

Slavophilism- the direction of Russian social thought ser. 19th century Main features:

1. They advocated a path of development for Russia that was different from the European one, based on its identity.

Similar information.

Table - State administrative and socio-economic reforms of Catherine II

To a lesser extent, the changes affected agriculture, the development of which was mainly of an extensive nature, i.e. It was mainly due to the development of new territories, while agricultural machinery, farming methods and, consequently, labor productivity remained practically unchanged. True, at this time the first enthusiasts of scientific agriculture appeared, to which the government contributed in every possible way. In 1765, the Free Economic Society was created to spread scientific knowledge in the field of management and, above all, in agronomy. The "Proceedings" published by the society were no less popular with the reading public than the works of the French enlighteners. All this, however, did not lead to serious shifts in agriculture, and could not lead, as long as the basis of agricultural production was serf pipes.

In general, despite all the difficulties and shortcomings, the Russian economy of the second half of the 18th century. developed quite successfully. Government decrees aimed at stimulating production and trade on the principles of free enterprise, as it were, opened the last floodgates, making it possible to fully use the potential of the feudal serf state. However, this potential could only be enough for a short time, since serfdom stood in the way of the normal development of the country as an insurmountable obstacle. What was the attitude of the empress towards serfdom and what happened in this area during her reign?

In her memoirs, Catherine spoke on this very clearly:

“The predisposition to despotism is instilled from a very early age in children who see the cruelty with which their parents treat their servants, because there is no house in which there would not be iron collars, chains and various other instruments for torture at the slightest offense of those whom nature has placed in this unfortunate class, which cannot break its chains without crime. You hardly dare say that they are people like us, and even when I say it myself, I run the risk of being thrown at me with stones; why did I not suffer from such a reckless and cruel society, when certain questions related to this subject began to be discussed in the commission for drawing up a new Code, and when the ignorant nobles, whose number was immeasurably greater than I could ever imagine, because it is too high evaluated those who surrounded me every day, began to guess that these questions could lead to some improvement in the present situation of the farmers.

In another document, written by the hand of the Empress, we read:

“The great engine of agriculture is freedom and property. When each peasant is sure that something that belongs to him does not belong to another, he will improve it. State taxes are not difficult for him, in view of the fact that they are very moderate, if the state does not need an increase in income at all, farmers can settle down as they like, as long as they have freedom and property.

Catherine was not far from the truth when she said that she could be stoned at the slightest attempt to raise the issue of abolishing serfdom. In protecting their main privilege, which formed the basis of their economic well-being, the nobility, which by this time had become a serious political force, was ready to go to the end, and the empress could easily lose the throne. However, one should not think that the views of Catherine II were unequivocally feudal in nature and are comparable in this respect with the views, for example, of the revolutionary democrats of the 19th century. The denial of serfdom by the empress as an inhumane phenomenon, contrary to the basic principles of the Enlightenment and harmful from an economic point of view, was combined with the idea, on the one hand, of the spiritual underdevelopment of the people and the need to educate them, and on the other hand, of the rather benign in general relations between the peasants and their owners. Such a view was characteristic not only of the empress, but also of many enlightened people of that time. So, for example, E.R. Dashkova, in a conversation with Denis Diderot, explained to him that the people remind her of a blind man who lives on top of a rock and does not know about it. Suddenly seeing the light, he will become deeply unhappy:

“Enlightenment leads to freedom, but freedom without enlightenment would only give rise to anarchy and disorder. When the lower classes of my compatriots are enlightened, then they will be worthy of freedom, since then they will only be able to use it without harming their fellow citizens and without destroying the order and relations that are inevitable in any form of government.

So, Catherine could not openly fight the feudal lords, although she had certain plans for changing the position of the peasantry. Meanwhile, the very phenomenon of serfdom, like any other phenomenon of social and political life, could not, of course, remain unchanged, but it changed in the direction of intensifying the exploitation of the peasants and worsening their situation.

It is clear, however, that Catherine could not complete the implementation of her program for the creation of estates in Russia, bypassing the most numerous estate - the peasants. Documents testify that a draft letter of commendation was also prepared for the peasants, but it was not approved. The letter was not addressed to all peasants, but only to the state, who were called in it "free villagers" and endowed with rights similar to those of townspeople. According to the draft charter, a new system of government was to appear in the villages - a village foreman, a headman and a "management chamber", similar in function to the provincial noble assembly and city society. Like other estates, the peasants were divided into six categories, the first two being exempt from corporal punishment.

Considering all three letters, the modern American historian David Griffiths concluded that together they form a "constitution in the pre-revolutionary sense of the word", meaning that originally, before the French Revolution of 1789, the word "constitution" meant in general a way devices, organization of something. A holistic examination of letters, from the point of view of D. Griffiths, “discovers a holistic political program, reflecting the clear and interconnected ideas of the empress about the form social structure. These are not liberal or conservative views, neither pro- nor anti-noble. These are notions of a well-regulated society by a class structure, characteristic of the beginning of the New Age.

However, as already mentioned, the third charter was never published. The reasons for this are clear: the resistance of the nobility, which Catherine was unable to overcome. Under these conditions, the empress realized her goal to the extent that it was generally possible without fear of causing serious social upheavals, and from this point of view, her reforms must be recognized as successful. It was from Catherine's time, according to historians, that we can talk about the emergence of full-fledged estates in Russia. But the Empress herself continued to work on legislation even after 1785 and, as the surviving archival documents testify, she did not abandon the idea of ​​creating a class system in full. So, she intended to establish a special body with the functions of the supreme court, consisting of elected representatives of the three estates: nobles, burghers and peasants. Her developments in the field of family, property, and criminal law have also been preserved. A new reform of the Senate was scheduled for 1797. Among the projects, one can also find reflections on ways to eliminate serfdom. So, in one of the notes we read:

“Here is a convenient way: to state that as soon as anyone sells land from now on, all serfs will be declared free from the moment of purchase by its new owner, and within a hundred years all or at least most of lands change owners, and now the people are free.

As you can see, Catherine did not hope for an early liberation of the peasants, and in general she considered the “abrupt coup” to be harmful. According to other sources, she was preparing a decree that declared free all the children of serfs born after 1785, however, all these were just projects. Real reforms seemed not only in the sphere of internal administration, estate organization and economy. Among the most important is the reform of education.

Being a diligent student of the Enlightenment philosophers, Catherine understood that the success of any social transformations depends on the level of enlightenment of the people, on their ability to perceive the new.

At the beginning, it was mentioned that the example of the empress, who was fond of reading and writing, had a beneficial effect on the development of Russian culture. It was that short period during which there was a kind of union between the state and culture, when culture was in dire need of state support.

Catherine's great merit is the rise of cultural life in the country. She was poorly versed in the fine arts, but during her reign the impressive basis of the collections of today's Hermitage arose: her art agents traveled around the impoverished courts of European rulers and sovereign persons, buying masterpieces and entire collections for northern Semiramis, as the French enlighteners called Catherine. The Empress, to put it mildly, did not really feel the musical harmony, but under her in St. Petersburg the opera troupe of Italians received a permanent “residence permit”, and the opera “The Barber of Seville” by Paisiello was performed for the first time in 1782 in the concert hall of the Hermitage, after his first trip to Russia in the sixty-sixth year, Catherine, when she happened to see and hear the singing of greeting cants, folk melodies and dances, drew attention to the education of the national musical shift. And this was expressed in concrete support for Russian musicians through the directorate of the imperial theaters.

The era of Catherine II is the heyday of Russian architecture. At that time, the architects R.P. Nikitin, Yu.M. Felten, J.B. Wallen - Delamotte, I.E. Starov, V.I. Bazhenov.

Special merit belongs to the Empress in the development of Russian journalism, which flourished in the 60-70s of the 18th century. In 1769, the empress founded the satirical magazine Vsyakaya Vsyachina, the official editor of which was her state secretary G.V. Kozitsky. This publication was necessary for Catherine to be able to express her point of view on socially significant problems. In the journal, she published several articles in which she explained in an allegorical manner the reasons for the failure of the Legislative Commission.

Katerina Druga, great empress, ruled our country for exactly 34 years. Tse majestic period of history, stretching out like a lot of the most manipulative podia.

In the mass community, the ruler is associated with a lady who is insatiable in love. Well, Catherine II, knowing her love interests, in rich historical novels you can read that the empress changed her favorites constantly. But let's marvel at the truth in our eyes: is it possible that all 34 fates of the bula were occupied exclusively by the tsim? Singingly dumb: the period of the reign of all Russian historians vvozhayut hour razkvitu vіtcheznyanoy literature, science and painting - the same thing "is the Russian opera and theatrical art develops at a slow pace.

Katerina 2 herself, the reforms that were thought out, important, and therefore protected, left a deep trace in the history of patrimonial diplomacy and legislation.

Do not forget about the bright victories. As long as the autocracy occupied the throne, Russia did not recognize the annual defeat of the war, in the wake of the previous periods. For example, in 1812 the troops defeated the French, although before that the victory on the battlefield lay with them. The hour of Katerina is characterized by the arrival of Krim, as well as by harsh "lessons" for the Polish gentry. Nareshti, guessing the reforms of Katerini 2.

Domestic policy

What was going on at that hour in the middle of the country? Podіy bulo chimalo, so like Katerina, on the vіdmіnu vіd vіd іt thе wealth оf thеіr successors, came tо vlady wіth а ready-made program dіy, wіth аll allowed їі іy wіll conduct a definitively effective policy. She herself positioned herself as “a faithful successor of philanthropists in the era of Enlightenment.” To be honest, Katerina was able to understand which of their theories are suitable for real life, and which are not.

So, in 1773, the famous Denis Diderot arrived in Russia on a visit, whom the reforms of the management of Katerini 2 had called forth. . If the philosopher asked a few objections, why is it so, Katerina said: “Paper can endure everything, but I can be brought to my mother right with people, the skin of which is much thinner than paper linen.”

Another important thought її hung up on the fact that, be it as if it were initiated, the next reform would be carried out step by step, allowing the state to succeed until they were accepted. It was obvious that Katerina was considered to be like the rulers of the state of the country, and so it was like the European monarchs, because, out of the interests of their followers, they practically didn’t get involved in such food.

Otzhe, what exactly did Empress Katherine 2 say? Reforms should be started to describe from the provincial.

provincial reform

Її it began to carry out without a hitch after the Pugachev rebellion, which shook the very foundations of the Empire and z "was a sort of slinger of the coming tragic podiums. On the front line of Mikoli II, Katerina Visnovki robited.

First of all, the very name of the transformation is absolutely incorrect. Everything is right in the fact that the essence of the reforms was much richer, being the creation of a practically new administrative system “on the missions”.

Bulo zaproponovano new podіl kraїni. There were 50 provinces in total, moreover, in a practically unchangeable appearance, it was saved right up to the collapse of the Empire in 1917. What does it mean? It seems simpler, in the country, a few more places of "federal" significance were born, but it was still a feast. For specific populations, the point of appointment is the governor, there is a direct mass of energetic, illuminated people. As a result, a quiet and "musty" povitovoe place without a hitch turned into a mystic center of a suspenseful and political life.

Response to Pugachev's rebellion

Here, a respectful reader can ask a question as a whole: “Is it here that I have poured into Pugachev’s rebellion”? It's simple: after all, Katerina wanted to, that the greater part of the majestic power was recruited from the natives of the city. It seems simpler, in the history of the house of Romanovs, the people having taken away the possibility of independently choosing quietly, who will govern them. Non-flowing rivok for quiet hours! The axis of which Katherine II became famous.

Vinikli organi self-rendering, like zvichni for our hour, ale buli marvelous for this era. Let’s immediately reconsider: everything theoretically came up to Katerina. Ale worked not purposefully, but only through the marriage of metropolitan officials, who could be established in the cities and villages of the non-assertive empire. The real improvements of all these organs were not small, obmezhuyuchis only the right to collect taxes and other mechanical operations. If you draw parallels with the latest hours, then the internal reforms of Katerini 2 were aimed at rebuilding the new ones.

All these transformations were later changed by the Empress in the fact that all rebellions are blamed through the lack of recognition of official officials to quickly “understand” the problems at the missions and virishuvati їх. In principle, such namіsnikіv and bazhannya did not have such a thing: it was important for them to say about the reach of the "people's p" yatirіchki "and the collection of tribute. They did not need any other kind of them, but the initiative of the head of the bula was punishable.

It is important to respect that after the fate of 1775, if the reform was carried out, there was no such (!) repetition of the Pugachov rebellion. Mіstseva vlada, even though they were awake for an hour all the same pragnennyam to swindle, all the same, they were more richly zatsіkavlenі in order to enrich the life of their native land. To put it simply, the sovereign reforms of Katerini 2 were effectively directed for the benefit of the country.

Vinnyknennya Gromadyanskaya self-confidence

A lot of historians agree on thoughts that from quiet fir they started to be weak, but still remember the figures of the hromada community and self-confidence. tsі koshti gymnasiums, libraries, temples and other things about social and spiritual spheres.

Until quiet fir such uzgodzhennosti and unity it was impossible to reveal. How far away was Didro's guesswork from the real solution of the future problems!

Senate reform

Obviously, Katerina 2 (the reforms that we describe here) was far from being a “chain of democracy”. Vaughn could not admit a nasty thing about those who want to encircle their power and weaken the institution of sovereign absolutism. So, bachachi, that the independence of the Senate was emboldened, the pani virishila took yoga “under the mistress of the sovereign wing”, in every possible way encircling whether the authority of the important authority was real.

In the beginning of 1763, the structure of the Senate was recognized as "not consistent with realities." Bula was given the role of the prosecutor general, which was appointed by the empress herself.

A. A. Vyazemsky was hung on the floor. In general, the people tse bov_domy: he was honored to make enemies for incompetence, honesty and jealousy in the right service of the Batkivshchyna. I recently informed Katerina about the work of the Senate, ordered all the provincial prosecutors, and also single-handedly passed a lot of functions, which until that time had been divided in the Senate. Zrozumilo, the role of this body gradually fell, although formally everything was not so.

All the functions of the Senate were suddenly divided between absolutely autonomous departments, which, in fact, were less than puppets and could no longer carry out a charitable sweeping policy.

Changing the structure of the community administration

At the same hour, more and more, the beginning of the beginning of the old system of Moscow's administration began to appear more and more inconsistently with the new powers of the state. The provincial reform of Katerini 2, which we have already described, shattered the skin of an absolutely independent administrative unit. For cherubanya їm vіdpovіdav mayor, whose status vіrіvnyanno virіs.

The wines were assigned to serve the military service of the nobles and the majesty of majesty. The police officers, and not only managerial functions, “hung” on this township person, and the man in this township is to blame for being enviable pracovity. The reform of the municipal administration of Katerini 2 immediately succeeded in restoring order in the municipalities.

Navpaki, town halls and magistrates have practically spent all their administrative significance, transforming into ship organ for merchants and industrialists. After the creations of a new magistrate, people were recruited for the recommendations of merchants and craftsmen. The management of this organ is the function of the human head. In addition, in the places there were hromadas and Syrian judges. From the very beginning, a lot of self-alignment was formed, on the creation of some sort of bulge of rich reforms of Katerini 2. Obviously, it was under constant supervision from the side of the central government, but all the same, it also broke through in the field of social and administrative sphere. In the meantime, there was no other way out for the government: the places grew intensively, there were no personal businesses, communities, lighting and other institutions. Katerini's reform 2.

The judiciary reform of Katerini

All of the above can be reduced to a whole simple visnovka: such a boisterous development of the social sphere would be impossible without normal court organs, as if it would be possible to correctly swear it would inevitably blame the rubbish and the superwomen, as well as between the okreme members of the society, and among the big groups.

It is also necessary that the court reform of Katerini 2 was based on a similar one initiated by Peter I, the axis of only the empress could know a better solution, and the program was not only instilled in life, but it gave even more results.

1775 rotations of publications have the first grade of official status. A lot of administrative judges were drawn up and fully formed. Nareshti buli clearly separated two gіlki vlady: the court and the administrative, as before, they were united. More than that, the administrative authorities preserved their unity of command, at that hour, as the courts, the bodies were treated collegially.

Understandably, the reforms of Katerini 2 were not famous. Briefly, their main significance for the ship system is described below.

respectful respect

The most important thing is to come to the city, call the civil and criminal divisions. In its own time, the very “atavizm” having taken over the administration of a normal justice, it was so coherent to adequately separate the guilt for administrative damage and just serious action. The lower instance became a district court. Razbiralis in the new help tribnі і neznachnі. Tim himself significantly lowered his interest in judgement, as he was engaged in something very important.

Despite the results of Katerini's reforms 2 in all areas, however, there was a sharp increase in the efficiency of the work and the richness of the galleys. Tse and at once zmushu venerate the empress for her extraordinary managerial talent. Ale, let's turn to the judges.

The povitovy body having examined the serious statements. On the vіdmіnu vіd vyscheopisannogo zemstvo, vіdmі і іn іdzhіdі sіdatelі recruited already zіmіshchikіv. The meetings were held exactly three times in the river, moreover, the prosecutor had already suspected that the work of this body had included the function of the “internal police”, so as to fix the violations of the law by the judges themselves and add about those “upstairs”.

On the equal provincial level, the head body of the ієrarchy became the Higher Zemstvo Court, which at the moment is located not only in the provincial, but also in the county district. Vіdteper in the dermal administrative center could have found a few sprats of such organs. At the dermal one, there were already ten judges each. Heads were elected exclusively by the Senate, and the head of the state was especially concerned with their decisions.

But not only were the reforms of Katerini 2 marked: briefly, judges became more specialized.

Structural subdivision of courts

The Upper Zemstvo Court fell on the criminal and administrative court. This was an important authority for the "young" organizations. In addition, yogo judges mali the right to look at folding documents. On the right, in the fact that even though the legislator had already enshrined the list of rights, representatives of the lower zemstvo and county courts, as well as members of the magistrate, could not see. Everything changed the development of nepotism at the missions.

The Provincial Court also had a public and criminal chamber. The skin buv has a bright head, as well as a pair of radniks and an assessor. The stench could also be selected exclusively by the Senate and confirmed by the Supreme Power. The whole court court instance was silent hours, in which the most folds were looked at, and all the hardest and unsafe mischiefs were also sorted out.

In a word, Katerini's reform of the courts 2 was big and big.

secularization reform

Before her, Katerina started in 1764. All the lands of the monasteries were officially transferred to the management of the Economic College. In the course of the reform, Katerina followed in the footsteps of Peter I, who did not favor the clergy. From one side, now the power of the bula goiters "was supposed to take over the Church ... but at the same time, the svіtsk vlada was already from the very beginning, how many monasteries and clergymen are needed in the country. The Collegium also has a small right to add "zayvі" lands to the fund of the state.

Transformation in the illuminating sphere

Vіdoma is also the reform of the illumination of Katerini 2. Golovne її zavdannya - the creation of vyhovnyh budinkіv, vyhovantsі yah otrimuvali penny security, povniy zmіst i osvіtu. As a result, the country repopulated the ranks of its hulks with a great number of illumined and sensible young people, as if they were recognized by the state and vihovani in the necessary moral and ethical soul.

Police reform

In 1782, the rozі buv affirmations "Statute of the Deanery". The council became the official government of the Moscow police department. At the warehouse there were: police officers, the police chief and the mayor, as well as the commissariat of the hulks, the warehouse, which was designated as a way of voting. The body of this moment imposes a fine or a condemnation, as well as the right to fence off certain types of activity.

What were the most important reforms of Katerini 2? The table will give us a clue to the food chain, and also add a sprat to mark the quiet entry, as we already looked at in this article.

Axis of other reforms of Katerini 2. The table is to report on the essence of the story.

results

Without further ado, we can say that all the events that took place were pretty good. Why did the reforms of Katerini 2 get hidden? Briefly (the table at this point is broken), apparently, the stench was directed at reaching two goals:

Remembrance of autocracy.

Economic freedom of the population, the ability to rise from the lower levels of the building people.

In the period of її rule, the threat of rebelliousness from the side of the Cossack freemen was practically completely liquidated. How else can you name the legacy of Katerini's reforms 2? The church was residually ordered by the will of the state, the ship's galuz became more of a bunny. Citizens, anyway, took away the opportunity to participate in the share of the powerful place to win the province.

The axis of what the reforms of Katerini 2 were meant to be.