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Today, few would deny Darwin's enormous contribution to biology. The name of this scientist is familiar to every adult. Many of you can say in a nutshell what Darwin's contribution to biology is. However, only a few will be able to tell in detail about the theory he created. After reading the article, you will be able to do it.
Achievements of the ancient Greeks
Before describing Darwin's contributions to biology, let us briefly describe the achievements of other scientists towards the discovery of the theory of evolution.
Anaximander, ancient Greek thinker, as early as the 6th century BC. e. He said that man is descended from animals. His ancestors were allegedly covered in scales and lived in water. A little later, in the 4th c. BC e., Aristotle noted that useful signs that appear randomly in animals, nature preserves in order to make them more viable in the future. And brothers who do not have these signs die. It is known that Aristotle created the "ladder of beings". He arranged the organisms in order from the simplest to the most complex. This staircase began with stones and ended with a man.
Transformation and creationism
The Englishman M. Hale in 1677 first used the term "evolution" (from Latin "deployment"). He designated by it the unity of the historical and individual development of organisms. In biology in the 18th century, the doctrine of how the different kinds plants and animals. It was opposed to creationism, according to which God created the world and all species remain unchanged. The supporters of transformism include the French scientist Georges Buffourt, as well as the English researcher Erasmus Darwin. The first theory of evolution was proposed by Jean-Baptiste Lamarck in his 1809 work "Philosophy of Zoology". However, it was Charles Darwin who revealed its true factors. The contribution to the biology of this scientist is invaluable.
Credit to Charles Darwin
He owns the evolutionary theory, justified scientifically. He expounded it in a work called The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection. This book was published by Darwin in 1859. Contributions to biology can be briefly described as follows. Darwin believed that - hereditary variability, as well as the struggle for existence. Under conditions of struggle, the inevitable result of this variability is natural selection, which represents the preferential survival of the fittest individuals of a particular species. Through their participation in reproduction, beneficial hereditary changes are accumulated and summarized, as Charles Darwin noted.
His contribution to biology was recognized by scientists who continued research in this direction. The development of science further confirmed that Darwin's theory was correct. Therefore, today the terms "evolutionary doctrine" and "Darwinism" are often used as synonyms.
So, we have briefly characterized the contribution of Darwin to biology. We propose to consider in more detail the theory he created.
Observations that prompted Darwin's theory of evolution
At first, Charles Darwin began to think about the reasons why there are certain similarities and differences between species. The contribution to biology, briefly described by us, he made not at once. First, it was necessary to study the achievements of the predecessors, as well as make several trips. It was they who prompted the scientist to important thoughts.
He made the main find in South America, in geological deposits. These are the skeletons of giant edentulous, very similar to modern sloths and armadillos. In addition, Darwin was greatly impressed by the study of animal species living on the Scientist discovered on these volcanic islands, which are of recent origin, close species of finches that are similar to mainland finches, but have adapted to various sources nutrition - flower nectar, insects, hard seeds. Charles Darwin concluded that these birds came to the island from the mainland. And the changes that have occurred to them are explained by adaptation to new conditions of existence.
Charles Darwin raised the question that environmental conditions play a certain role in speciation. The scientist observed a similar pattern off the coast of Africa. Living on animals, despite a certain similarity with the species inhabiting the mainland, nevertheless differ from them in very significant features.
Darwin could not explain the creation of species and the features of the development of the tuco-tuco rodent, which he described. These rodents live underground in burrows. They have sighted cubs, which subsequently go blind. All these and many other facts significantly shook the scientist's belief in the creation of species. Darwin, returning to England, set himself a massive task. He decided to solve the problem of the origin of species.
Major writings
Darwin's contribution to the development of biology is presented in several of his works. In 1859, in his work, he summarized the empirical material of breeding practice and biology, contemporary to him. In addition, he used the results of his observations made during his travels. Perfect for them circumnavigation shed light on different species.
Charles Darwin supplemented the main work "The Origin of Species ..." with factual materials in his next book, published in 1868. It is known as "Changing Pets and cultivated plants". In another work written in 1871, the scientist put forward the hypothesis that man is descended from an ape-like ancestor. Today, many agree with the assumption made by Charles Darwin. Contribution to biology allowed him to become a great authority in the scientific world. Many even they forget that the origin of man from apes is just a hypothesis, which, although very probable, is still not fully proven.
The property of heredity and its role in evolution
Note that the Darwinian theory is based on the property of heredity, that is, the ability of organisms to repeat the types of metabolism and, in general, individual development over a number of generations. Together with variability, heredity ensures the diversity and constancy of life forms. It is the basis of the evolution of the entire organic world.
Struggle for existence
"Struggle for existence" is a concept that is one of the main concepts in the theory of evolution. Charles used it to refer to the relationships between organisms. In addition, Darwin used it to describe the relationship between abiotic conditions and organisms. Abiotic conditions lead to the survival of the fittest individuals and to the death of the less fit.
Two forms of variability
With regard to variability, Darwin identified two main forms of it. The first of these is a certain variability. This is the ability of all individuals of a particular species, under certain environmental conditions, to respond in the same way to given conditions (soil, climate). The second form is indefinite variability. Its character does not correspond to the observed changes. external conditions. in modern terminology is called a mutation.
Mutation
Mutation, unlike the first form, is hereditary. According to Darwin, the slight changes observed in the first increase in subsequent generations. The scientist emphasized that the decisive role in evolution belongs to the indeterminate variability. It is usually associated with deleterious or neutral mutations, but there are also those that are called promising.
Mechanism of evolution
According to Darwin, the inevitable result of hereditary variability and the struggle for existence is the survival and reproduction of new organisms that are most adapted to living in the appropriate environment. And in the course of evolution, the death of the unfit occurs, that is, natural selection. Its mechanism operates in nature similarly to breeders, that is, indefinite and insignificant individual differences are added, from which the necessary adaptations in organisms are then formed, as well as differences between species.
Charles Darwin spoke and wrote about all this, as well as many other things. Contributions to biology, briefly described, are not limited to what we have talked about. However, in in general terms its main achievements were characterized. Now you can tell in detail about what contribution Darwin made to biology.
Shortly after his return, Darwin published a book known by the abbreviated title "A Naturalist's Journey Around the World on the Beagle"(1839). It was a great success, and the second, expanded edition (1845) was translated into many European languages and reprinted many times. Darwin also took part in writing the five-volume monograph The Zoology of Travel (1842). As a zoologist, Darwin chose barnacles as the object of his study, and soon became the world's best specialist in this group. He wrote and published a four-volume monograph called Barnacles (Monograph on the Cirripedia, 1851-1854), which zoologists still use today.
History of the writing and publication of The Origin of Species
From 1837, Darwin began to keep a diary in which he entered data on breeds of domestic animals and plant varieties, as well as considerations about natural selection. In 1842 he wrote the first essay on the origin of species. Beginning in 1855, Darwin corresponded with the American botanist A. Gray, to whom two years later he presented his ideas. In 1856, under the influence of the English geologist and naturalist C. Lyell, Darwin began to prepare a third, expanded version of the book. In June 1858, when the work was half done, I received a letter from the English naturalist A. R. Wallace with the manuscript of the latter's article. In this article, Darwin discovered an abridged exposition of his own theory of natural selection. The two naturalists independently and simultaneously developed identical theories. Both were influenced by T. R. Malthus' work on population; both were aware of Lyell's views, both studied the fauna, flora and geological formations of the island groups and found significant differences between the species inhabiting them. Darwin sent Wallace's manuscript to Lyell along with his own essay, as well as outlines of his second version (1844) and a copy of his letter to A. Gray (1857). Lyell turned to the English botanist Joseph Hooker for advice, and on July 1, 1858, they together presented both works to the Linnean Society in London. In 1859, Darwin published On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favored Races in the Struggle for Life, where he showed variability species of plants and animals, their natural origin from earlier species.
Later works (after On the Origin of Species)
In 1868, Darwin published his second work on the subject of evolution - "" (The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication), which included many examples of the evolution of organisms. In 1871, another important work by Darwin appeared - The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex, where Darwin argued in favor of the natural origin of man from animals (monkey-like ancestors). Other notable late works by Darwin include The Fertilization of Orchids (1862); "The expression of emotions in man and animals" (The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals, 1872); "The action of cross-pollination and self-pollination in flora» (The Effects of Cross- and Self-Fertilization in the Vegetable Kingdom, 1876).
Charles Robert Darwin is the grandson of the English natural philosopher, physician and poet Erasmus Darwin, author of the transformist works Zoonomy, or the Laws of Organic Life (1794-1796) and The Temple of Nature, or the Origin of Society. C. Darwin was born in 1809 in Shrewsbury. He graduated from classical school, entered the medical faculty of the University of Edinburgh, and two years later transferred to the University of Cambridge, where he studied theology and received a bachelor's degree. He makes his first scientific reports in 1826-1827. in the Pliny Society. He received his naturalistic education under the guidance of botanist J. Huxloe and geologist A. Sedgwick.
In 1831–1836 C. Darwin travels around the world on the ship "Beagle" as a naturalist, collecting the richest zoological, paleontological, botanical and geological collections.
In 1836, having returned from a trip, he left London due to illness and in 1842 moved to his suburb of Down, where he lived for all subsequent years. In 1839, C. Darwin published his famous Diary of Research, where he first described many South American and island animals. This book also touches upon questions of geology and problems of social and political life South American Indians and Blacks. Developed the theory of the origin of coral reefs.
In 1842, Darwin made the first draft of The Origin of Species, in which he laid the foundations for a future evolutionary theory, and in 1844 he developed this essay into a significant manuscript. But it will take another 15 years until Charles Darwin publishes final version his famous book - "The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection" (1859).
In 1868, C. Darwin published the second major work - "Change in Domestic Animals and Cultivated Plants", in which he cites a large additional material in support of the evolutionary idea. This work lays theoretical basis selection.
In 1871, Darwin's third fundamental work, The Origin of Man and Sexual Selection, was published. C. Darwin was a foreign member of the St. Petersburg (since 1876), Berlin (since 1878), Paris (since 1878) academies of sciences, an honorary member of many scientific societies, an honorary doctor of a number of universities. In 1864 he was awarded the medal. G. Copley of the Royal Society of London.
The scientist died on April 19, 1882 and was buried in Westminster Abbey, the burial place of many of the great scientists of England, next to Newton's grave.
2. Basic provisions evolutionary doctrine Ch. Darwin.
To give an idea of the main properties of living organisms - variability and heredity. As an example, consider kittens or puppies from the same litter. Variability is manifested in the fact that the cubs of each pair of animals differ in some features of the structure both from their parents and from each other. Explain the concept of heredity and natural selection.
Heredity is the ability of parents to transmit typical traits to their offspring. Natural selection- this is the survival of animals that are better than others adapted to the conditions of existence in the wild, possessing (in comparison with others) certain advantages of structure or behavior. The living conditions of animals are a selection factor.
Phenomena variability have been known for a long time. The ability of organisms to multiply exponentially has long been known. It was Charles Darwin who compared these two phenomena in nature and made a brilliant conclusion that seems so simple to us now: in the process of struggle for existence, only those organisms survive that differ in some features that are useful in given conditions. Consequently, the probability of survival of individuals is not the same: individuals that have at least a slight advantage over the rest are more likely to survive and leave offspring.
Ch. Darwin called the process of preserving the fittest natural selection.
The material for both natural and artificial selection are small hereditary changes that accumulate from generation to generation. Natural selection proceeds without interruption for many centuries and leads to the formation of forms that are best adapted to the environment.
Charles Darwin(Fig. 22) was born on February 12, 1809 in English city Shrewsbury in the family of a doctor. After leaving school, he entered the medical faculty of the University of Edinburgh. However, teaching many subjects in Latin and operating on patients without anesthesia turned him away from medicine. For this reason, he left the university and, on the advice of his father, entered the theological faculty of the University of Cambridge. Here Darwin, not particularly fond of religious dogmas, began to study natural Sciences under the guidance of professors D. Hooker and A. Sedgwick and actively participated in the expeditions organized by them.
From world travel Darwin returned with the conviction that species can change under the influence of the external environment.
The scientific facts of geology, paleontology, comparative anatomy, and embryology also testified to the inconstancy and variability of species. Despite this, many natural scientists, under the influence of the ideas prevailing at that time, referring to the fact that they did not observe the transformation of one species into another, did not recognize the evolution of the organic world. Therefore, young Darwin began his work by determining the mechanisms of the evolutionary process. He first of all studied the reasons for the diversity of domestic animals and varieties of cultivated plants.
Darwin not only proved the change in the organic world, but was also the first in the history of science to give a scientifically sound explanation of the origin of the fitness of organisms. Darwin emphasized that driving forces The evolution of the organic world are heredity, variability, struggle for existence and natural selection.
After the possibility of the domestication of wild animals and the cultivation of wild plants was clarified, as well as changes in the characteristics and properties of breeds and varieties through artificial selection, Darwin suggested that such a process could also occur in organisms living in natural conditions. However, to substantiate this assumption, it was necessary, firstly, to study the individual variability of plants and animals living in natural conditions, and secondly, to find out the presence in nature of a certain driving factor similar to human desire. material from the site
"Origin of Species"
Returning from a trip around the world, Darwin began to study collected material together with well-known British natural scientists. At the same time, he studied the experience of breeding new breeds of animals and plant varieties, and also got acquainted with the works of his predecessors and contemporaries. Based on this, in 1842 he first wrote treatise about the evolution of the organic world, which over the next 15 years expanded, deepened and enriched with reliable facts. Finally, in 1859, he published his famous On the Origin of Species.
Later works
Darwin wrote a number of other works, among which should be indicated "The Variability of Domestic Animals and Cultivated Plants" (1868), "The Descent of Man and Sexual Selection" (1871), "The Influence of Cross and Self-pollination in the Plant World" (1876). In them, the scientist brought a huge amount of factual material about the evolution of the organic world, outlined the results of research, the views and considerations of his predecessors and contemporaries in this area.
Charles Darwin is one of the most versatile explorers in human history. Naturalist, traveler, author of the theory of evolution - this is a small part of his extensive achievements and merits.
Childhood and youth
A short biography of Darwin will not describe the huge contribution of the scientist to the development of modern disciplines, but it begins in 1809.
The scientist was born on the twelfth of February in an English large family in Shrewsbury, Shropshire.
According to the data that Darwin left about himself, the biography reports that the boy's father was in finance. He was also a successful physician. The activities of Robert Darwin allowed the family to live comfortably. Subsequently, the father was proud that his son was Charles Darwin. A brief biography of the scientist confirms that father and son supported each other all their lives.
The boy's mother left our world in 1817, and very little information has been preserved about her.
A brief biography of Darwin tells us that Charles's grandfather, Erasmus, was a physician, philosopher, and writer. In general, all family members were people with high level intelligence and culture.
What was Darwin's education? The biography tells that in 1817 he began a course of study at a local day school, and a year later he was transferred to the Anglican.
Young Charles was a very intelligent child. But at the same time, he did not like to study at school and considered school curriculum extremely boring.
In his free time, he preferred to collect and study insects, shells, unusual stones. He observed natural processes - the flowering of trees and shrubs, the flow of rivers, the direction of the wind. He was fond of hunting and fishing.
Charles Darwin. Short biography. University education
In 1825, his father heeded his son's requests and sent him to study at the University of Edinburgh. Robert wanted to see the successor of the medical dynasty in the boy.
He devoted a lot of time to the study of biology, in particular, marine invertebrates and algae. He was fond of taxidermy, natural history and geology. He took an active part in the activities of the university museum, where the largest collection of plants in Europe was collected.
After two "terribly boring" years of study, he abandoned his studies.
At the insistence of an angry father, he decides to transfer to the theological faculty of Cambridge, where teachers will be able to find out the name that subsequently thundered all over the world - C. Darwin. The biography mentions that the applicant thoughtfully reads church books for admission. He studies individually with a teacher in his native Shrewsbury.
Darwin opens a new page in his life. The biography of this period in the life of the great scientist tells: immediately after the end of the Christmas holidays in 1828, he successfully passes the entrance exams.
The years of study were remembered by riding lessons, hunting, collecting beetles, studying literature, mathematics, physics, geography.
He graduated in 1831. Despite the fact that he did not shine with special success during his studies, the knowledge gained allowed Darwin to be on the list of the top ten graduates.
After graduating from the university, he began to doubt even more about the truth of the dogmas of Christianity.
Charles Darwin: a short biography. naturalistic activity
In an endless search for the realization of the potential, the scientist meets the famous botanist John Henslow, who accepted the graduate into a team of nature researchers South America on the Beagle. Subsequently, the eminent scientist was very happy that Charles Darwin went as part of the team. Biography, studied in detail by historians of science, confirms this statement.
Charles's father was against the trip, considering it a waste of time. It was only through the intervention of his uncle, Josiah Wedgwood II, that Robert Darwin gave in and gave his son a parting blessing.
For more than five years of travel, the team has traveled to Peru, Argentina, Chile, Brazil, Europe, Australia, Africa.
Conclusion
Charles Darwin became one of the most prominent scientists of all time. His works, proving the origin of living beings from common ancestors, are the basis of modern biology, as well as genetics.
Filmed by director John Amiel short autobiography Darwin - 2009 film "The Origin of Species".
Recognized as one of the most prominent Britons of all time.
