Justinian I the Great - biography, facts from life, photographs, background information.

Justinian I the Great - emperor of Byzantium from 527 to 565. Historians believe that Justinian was one of the greatest monarchs of late antiquity and the early Middle Ages.

Justinian was a reformer and general who made the transition from antiquity to the Middle Ages. Under him, the Roman system of government was discarded, which was replaced by a new one - the Byzantine one.

Under the emperor Justinian, the Byzantine Empire reaches its dawn, after a long period of decline, the monarch tried to restore the empire and return it to its former greatness.

Historians believe that main goal Justinian's foreign policy was the revival of the Roman Empire in its former borders, which was supposed to turn into a Christian state. As a result, all the wars conducted by the emperor were aimed at expanding their territories, especially to the west (the territories of the fallen Western Roman Empire).

Under Justinian, the territory Byzantine Empire reached its largest proportions for the entire existence of the empire. Justinian managed to almost completely restore the former borders of the Roman Empire.

After making peace in the East with Persia, Justinian secured himself against a blow from the rear and enabled Byzantium to launch a campaign to invade Western Europe. First of all, Justinian decided to declare war on the German kingdoms. It was a wise decision, because during this period there are wars between the barbarian kingdoms, and they were weakened before the invasion of Byzantium.

In 533, Justinian sends an army to conquer the kingdom of the Vandals. The war is going well for Byzantium and already in 534 Justinian wins a decisive victory. Then his eyes fell on the Ostrogoths of Italy. The war with the Ostrogoths was going well, and the king of the Ostrogoths had to turn to Persia for help.

Justinian captures Italy and almost the entire coast of North Africa, and the southeastern part of Spain. Thus, the territory of Byzantium doubles, but does not reach the former borders of the Roman Empire.

Already in 540, the Persians tore up the peace treaty and were preparing for war. Justinian found himself in a difficult position, because Byzantium could not withstand a war on two fronts.

In addition to an active foreign policy, Justinian also pursued a prudent domestic policy. Justinian was actively engaged in strengthening the state apparatus, and also tried to improve taxation. Under the emperor, civil and military positions were combined, and attempts were made to reduce corruption by increasing the pay of officials.

The people of Justinian were nicknamed the "sleepless emperor", as he worked day and night to reform the state.

Historians believe that Justinian's military successes were his main merit, but domestic politics, especially in the second half of his reign, made the state treasury practically empty, his ambitions could not be properly manifested.

Emperor Justinian left behind a huge architectural monument that still exists today - Hagia Sophia. This building is considered a symbol of the "golden age" in the empire. This cathedral is the second largest Christian temple in the world and second only to St. Paul's Cathedral in the Vatican. By this, the emperor achieved the location of the Pope and the entire Christian world.

During the reign of Justinian, the world's first plague pandemic broke out, which swept the entire Byzantine Empire. The largest number of victims was recorded in the capital of the empire, Constantinople, where 40% of the total population died. According to historians, the total number of victims of the plague reached about 30 million, and possibly more.

Imperial achievements under Justinian

As already mentioned, the greatest achievement of Justinian is considered to be an active foreign policy, which doubled the territory of Byzantium, almost returning all the lost lands after the fall of Rome in 476.

As a result of wars, the treasury of the state was depleted, and this led to riots and uprisings. However, the uprising prompted Justinian to make a huge architectural achievement - the construction of the Hagia Sophia.

The greatest legal achievement was the issuance of new laws that were to be in force throughout the empire. The emperor took Roman law and threw out the obsolete instructions from it, and thus left the most necessary ones. The set of these laws was called the Code of Civil Law.

A huge breakthrough occurred in military affairs. Justinian managed to create the largest professional mercenary army of the period. This army brought him many victories and expanded the borders. However, she exhausted the treasury.

The first half of the reign of Emperor Justinian is called the "golden age of Byzantium", while the second only caused discontent on the part of the people.

Justinian I the Great, whose full name sounds like Justinian Flavius ​​Peter Savvatius, is the Byzantine emperor (i.e. the ruler of the Eastern Roman Empire), one of the largest emperors of late antiquity, under which this era began to be replaced by the Middle Ages, and the Roman style of government gave way to the Byzantine. He went down in history as a major reformer.

Born around 482, was a native of Macedonia, a peasant son. A decisive role in the biography of Justinian was played by his uncle, who became Emperor Justin I. The childless monarch, who loved his nephew, brought him closer to him, contributed to education, promotion in society. Researchers suggest that Justinian could have arrived in Rome at about the age of 25, studied law and theology in the capital, and began his ascent to the top of the political Olympus with the rank of personal imperial bodyguard, head of the guard corps.

In 521, Justinian rose to the rank of consul and became a very popular person, not least due to the organization of luxurious circus performances. The Senate repeatedly offered Justin to make his nephew co-ruler, but the emperor took this step only in April 527, when his health deteriorated significantly. On August 1 of the same year, after the death of his uncle, Justinian became the sovereign ruler.

The newly-made emperor, nourishing ambitious plans, immediately set about strengthening the power of the country. In domestic policy, this was manifested, in particular, in the implementation of legal reform. The published 12 books of the Justinian Code and 50 of the Digest have remained relevant for more than a millennium. The laws of Justinian contributed to centralization, the expansion of the powers of the monarch, the strengthening of the state apparatus and the army, and the strengthening of control in certain areas, in particular, in trade.

The coming to power was marked by the onset of a period of large-scale construction. The Constantinopolitan Church of St. Sophia was rebuilt in such a way that it had no equal among Christian churches for many centuries.

Justinian I the Great pursued a fairly aggressive foreign policy aimed at conquering new territories. His commanders (the emperor himself was not in the habit of personally participating in hostilities) managed to conquer part of North Africa, the Iberian Peninsula, a significant part of the territory of the Western Roman Empire.

The reign of this emperor was marked by a number of riots, incl. the largest Nika uprising in Byzantine history: this is how the population reacted to the rigidity of the measures taken. In 529 Justinian closed the Academy of Plato, in 542 the consular post was abolished. He was given more and more honors, likened to a saint. Justinian himself, towards the end of his life, gradually lost interest in state concerns, preferring theology, dialogues with philosophers and clergy. He died in Constantinople in the autumn of 565.

Biography from Wikipedia

Flavius ​​Peter Savvaty Justinian(Latin Flavius ​​Petrus Sabbatius Iustinianus, Greek Φλάβιος Πέτρος Σαββάτιος Ιουστινιανός), better known as Justinian I(Greek Ιουστινιανός Α") or Justinian the Great(Greek Μέγας Ιουστινιανός; 483, Taurus, Upper Macedonia - November 14, 565, Constantinople) - Byzantine emperor from August 1, 527 until his death in 565. Justinian himself in the decrees called himself Caesar Flavius ​​Justinian of Alaman, Goth, Frank, German, Ant, Alan, Vandal, African.

Justinian, commander and reformer, is one of the most prominent monarchs of late antiquity. His reign marks milestone the transition from antiquity to the Middle Ages and, accordingly, the transition from Roman traditions to the Byzantine style of government. Justinian was full of ambition, but he failed to complete the "restoration of the empire" (Latin renovatio imperii). In the West, he managed to take over a large part of the lands of the Western Roman Empire, which collapsed after the Great Migration of Peoples, including the Apennine Peninsula, the southeastern part of the Iberian Peninsula and part of North Africa. Another important event is Justinian's order to revise Roman law, which resulted in a new set of laws - the code of Justinian (lat. Corpus iuris civilis). By decree of the emperor, who wanted to surpass Solomon and the legendary Jerusalem temple, the burned-out Hagia Sophia in Constantinople was completely rebuilt, striking in its beauty and splendor and remaining for a thousand years the most grandiose temple of the Christian world.

In 529, Justinian closed the Platonic Academy in Athens; in 542, the emperor abolished the office of consul, possibly for financial reasons. During the reign of Justinian, the first plague pandemic occurred in Byzantium and the largest rebellion in the history of Byzantium and Constantinople - the Nika revolt, provoked by tax oppression and the emperor's church policy.

Source Status

The most important source of Justinian's time is the work of Procopius of Caesarea, containing both apologetics and harsh criticism of his rule. From his youth, Procopius was an adviser to the commander Belisarius, accompanying him in all the wars that were fought in this reign. Written in the middle of the VI century History of wars is the main source about the events and foreign policy of Byzantium during the wars with Persia, the Vandals and the Goths. Panegyric written at the end of Justinian's reign About buildings contains valuable information about the construction activities of this emperor. Pamphlet secret history sheds light on the behind-the-scenes life of the rulers of the empire, although the reliability of the information reported in this work is controversial and in each case is the subject of separate studies. Agathius of Mirinei, who occupied the position of a petty lawyer, continued the works of Procopius and, after the death of Justinian, wrote an essay in five books. Having died young in 582, Agathias only had time to describe the events of 552-558. Unlike Procopius, who wrote during the reign of Justinian and was forced to hide his attitude to what was happening, Agathius is probably sincere in his positive assessment of the foreign policy of this emperor. At the same time, Agathius negatively assesses Justinian's domestic policy, especially at the end of his reign. From the historical notes of Menander the Protector, covering the period from 558 to 582, only fragments have survived in the compilation of Constantine Porphyrogenitus. Thanks to the same learned emperor of the 9th century, fragments of the works of the diplomat of the era of Justinian Peter Patricius, included in the treatise, have been preserved. About ceremonies. In a summary of Patriarch Photius, the book of another diplomat Justinin, Nonnoz, has been preserved. The chronicle of Hesychius of Miletus, dedicated to the reign of Justin I and the first years of the reign of Justinian, has not been almost completely preserved, although, perhaps, the introduction of the chronicle of the historian of the second half of the 6th century Theophanes of Byzantium contains borrowings from it. The early period of the reign of Justinian is captured by the chronicle of the Syrian John Malala, preserved in an abridged form, which tells in detail about the generosity of the emperor in relation to the cities of Asia Minor, as well as other events important for the inhabitants of his region. The "Ecclesiastical History" of the Antiochian jurist Evagrius Scholasticus, based in part on the writings of Procopius and Malala, also provides important information about the history of Syria during the reign of Justinian. From later sources in Greek, the chronicle of John of Antioch (7th century) has been fragmentarily preserved. Another 7th century source Easter chronicle sets out world history from the creation of the world to 629, until the reign of the emperor Mauritius (585-602) sets out events very briefly. Later sources, such as the annals of Theophanes the Confessor (IX century), George Kedrin (early XII century) and John Zonara (XII century), used to describe the events of the VI century, including sources that have not survived to our time and therefore also contain valuable details.

An important source of information about religious movements in the era of Justinian is hagiographic literature. The largest hagiographer of that time is Cyril of Scythopol (525-558), whose biography of Savva the Sanctified (439-532) is important for the reconstruction of the conflict in the Jerusalem Patriarchate in 529-530. The source of information about the life of monks and ascetics is Lemonar John Mosch. The biographies of the Patriarchs of Constantinople Mina (536-552) and Eutyches (552-565, 577-582) are known. From the point of view of the Eastern Miaphysites, events are described in church history John of Ephesus. Data on Justinian's ecclesiastical policy is also contained in the emperor's correspondence with the popes. Geographical information is contained in the treatise Synekdem(535) the geographer Hierocles and in Christian topography merchant and pilgrim Kosma Indikoplov. For the military history of the reign, military treatises are of value, some of which date back to the 6th century. An important work on the administrative history of the reign of Justinian is the work of an official of the VI century John Lida De Magistratibus reipublicae Romanae.

Latin sources are much less numerous and are devoted mainly to the problems of the western part of the empire. The chronicle of the Illyrian Marcellinus Komita covers the period from the accession to the throne of Emperor Theodosius I (379-395) to 534. Marcellinus reached the rank of senatorial under Justinian and lived for a long time in Constantinople and was an eyewitness to the unrest in the capital, including the uprising of Nika. The chronicle reflects the opinion of loyal pro-government circles; by an unknown successor, it was brought to 548. The chronicle of the African Bishop Victor of Tunnus, Justinian's opponent in the dispute over three chapters, covers events from 444 to 567. Close in time to the period under consideration is the chronicle of the Spanish Bishop John of Biclar, whose childhood was spent in Constantinople. Spanish events of the VI century are reflected in Stories ready Isidore of Seville. Byzantine relations with the Franks are touched upon by the chronicle of Mary of Avansh, going from 445 to 581, as well as History of the Franks Gregory of Tours. Historical works of the Gothic historian Jordanes ( Getica and De origine actibusque Romanorum) brought to 551. Compiled in the first half of the 6th century, a collection of papal biographies Liber Pontificalis contains important, although not always reliable, information about Justinian's relations with the Roman pontiffs.

Since the end of the 19th century, various sources in oriental languages, primarily Syriac, have been introduced into scientific circulation. The anonymous chronicle of the successor of Zechariah Rhetor was brought up to 569, probably in this year it was compiled. Like John of Ephesus mentioned earlier, this author reflected the position of the Syrian Miaphysites. An important source for the study of this direction in Christianity in the VI century is a collection of biographies of the saints of John of Ephesus. The Chronicle of Edessa, covering the period from 131 to 540, is attributed to the VI century. Until the end of the 7th century, the chronicle of the Egyptian historian John of Nikius was brought, which was preserved only in translation into the Ethiopian language. The lost Persian sources were used by the Arab historian of the 9th century at-Tabari.

In addition to historical chronicles, there is a large number of other sources. The legal heritage of the Justinian era is extremely extensive - Corpus iuris civilis (until 534) and the short stories that appeared later, as well as various monuments of church law. A separate category of sources are the works of Justinian himself - his letters and religious treatises. Finally, a variety of literature has been preserved from this time, helping to better understand the worldview of the people of the Justinian era, for example, the political treatise “Instruction” by Agapit, the poems of Corippus, epigraphic and architectural monuments.

Origin and youth

Origin

Regarding the origin of Justinian and his family, there are various versions and theories. Most of the sources, mostly Greek and Oriental (Syrian, Arabic, Armenian), as well as Slavic (wholly based on Greek), call Justinian a Thracian; some Greek sources and the Latin chronicle of Victor of Tunnunsky call him an Illyrian; finally, Procopius of Caesarea asserts that the province of Dardania was the birthplace of Justinian and Justin. According to the famous Byzantinist A. A. Vasiliev, in all these three definitions there is no contradiction between them. At the beginning of the 6th century, the civil administration of the Balkan Peninsula was divided between two prefectures. The Praetorian prefecture of Illyria, the smaller of them, included two dioceses - Dacia and Macedonia. Thus, when the sources write that Justin was Illyrian, they mean that he and his family were residents of the Illyrian prefecture. Ethnically, according to Vasiliev, they were Thracians. The Thracian theory of the origin of Justinian can also be confirmed by the fact that the name Sabbatius with a high probability comes from the name of the ancient Thracian deity Sabaziya. The German researcher of the era of Justinian I B. Rubin also admits that the Thracian or Illyrian origin of the Justinian dynasty mentioned in the sources has a geographical rather than an ethnic meaning and, in general, the issue cannot be resolved. Based on Justinian's own statement, it is known that his native language was Latin, but he did not speak it very well.

Until the end of the 19th century, the theory of the Slavic origin of Justinian I was popular, based on the work of a certain abbot Theophilus (Bogumil) published by Niccolò Alamanni under the title Iustiniani Vita. It introduces for Justinian and his relatives special names that have a Slavic sound. So, the father of Justinian, called Savvatius according to Byzantine sources, was named Bogomil Istokus, and the name of Justinian himself sounded like Upravda. Although the origin of the book published by Alleman was in doubt, the theories based on it were intensively developed until, in 1883, James Bryce did research on the original manuscript in the library of the Barberini Palace. In an article published in 1887, he substantiated the point of view that this document is of no historical value, and that Bogumil himself hardly existed. Currently Iustiniani Vita is considered as one of the legends connecting the Slavs with the great figures of the past, such as Alexander the Great and Justinian. Of the modern researchers of this theory, the Bulgarian historian G. Sotirov adheres to, whose book "Murder on Justinian's self-personality" (1974) was sharply criticized.

The date of Justinian's birth around 482 is established on the basis of Zonara's report. The main source of information about the birthplace of Justin and Justinian are the works of their contemporary Procopius of Caesarea. Regarding the birthplace of Justinian, Procopius in the panegyric “On Buildings” (mid-VI century) speaks quite definitely, placing him in a place called Tauresium (lat. Tauresium), next to the fort of Bederian (lat. Bederiana). In the "Secret History" of the same author, Bederian is called the birthplace of Justin, the same opinion is shared by John of Antioch. About Tauresia, Procopius reports that the city of Justiniana Prima was subsequently founded next to it, the ruins of which are now located in the south-east of Serbia. Procopius also reports that Justinian significantly strengthened and made numerous improvements in the city of Ulpiana, renaming it Justinian Secundus. Nearby, he erected another city, calling it Justinopolis, in honor of his uncle. Most of the cities of Dardania were destroyed during the reign of Emperor Anastasius I by a powerful earthquake in 518. Near the ruined capital of the province of Scoops, Justinopolis was built, a powerful wall with four towers was erected around Taurus, which Procopius calls Tetrapyrgia.

The names "Bederiana" and "Tavresia" were identified in 1858 by the Austrian traveler Johann Hahn as the modern villages of Bader and Taor near Skopje. Both these places were explored in 1885 by the English archaeologist Arthur Evans, who found rich numismatic material there, confirming the importance of the settlements located here after the 5th century. Evans concluded that the Skopje region was the birthplace of Justinian, confirming the identification of old settlements with modern villages. This theory was supported in 1931 by the Croatian specialist in onomastics Petar Skok, and later by A. Vasiliev. It is currently believed that Justiniana Prima was located in the Serbian Nis region and is identified with the Serb archaeological site. Caricin Grad, Caricin Grad.

Family of Justinian

The name of Justinian's mother, Justin's sister - Biglenica given in Iustiniani Vita, the unreliability of which was mentioned above. This name, however, could be a Slavicized form of the name Vigilantia - it is known that this was the name of Justinian's sister, the mother of his heir Justin II. The Czech historian Konstantin Irechek expressed doubt that the name Biglenica may be Slavic. Since there is no other information on this subject, it is believed that her name is unknown. The fact that the mother of Justinian was the sister of Justin is reported by Procopius of Caesarea in secret history, as well as a number of Syriac and Arabic sources.

Regarding Father Justinian, there is more reliable news. AT secret history Procopius gives the following story:

They say that his mother [Justiniana] used to tell someone close to him that he was not born from her husband Savvaty and not from any person. Before she became pregnant with him, a demon visited her, invisible, but left her with the impression that he was with her and had intercourse with her like a man with a woman, and then disappeared as in a dream.

The Secret History, XII, 18-19

From here we learn the name of the father of Justinian - Savvaty. Another source where this name is mentioned is the so-called "Acts on Kallopodius", included in the chronicle of Theophanes and the "Easter Chronicle" and relating to the events immediately preceding the uprising of Nick. There, the prasins, in the course of a conversation with the representative of the emperor, utter the phrase "It would be better if Savvaty had not been born, he would not have given birth to a murderous son."

Savvaty and his wife had two children, Peter Savvaty (lat. Petrus Sabbatius) and Vigilantia (lat. Vigilantia). Written sources never mention the real name of Justinian, only on consular diptychs. Two consular diptychs of Justinian are known, one of which is kept in the National Library of France, the other in the Metropolitan Museum of Art. The diptych of 521 bears the inscription lat. fl. Petr. Saturday. Justinian. v. i., com. mag. eqq. et p. praes., et c. od., meaning lat. Flavius ​​Petrus Sabbatius Justinianus, vir illustris, comes, magister equitum et peditum praesentalium et consul ordinarius. Of these names in the future, Justinian used only the first and last. Name Flavius, common in the military environment since the 2nd century, was intended to emphasize the continuity with Emperor Anastasius I (591-518), who also called himself Flavius.

Scandalous information about the turbulent youth of the future wife of the emperor Theodora (c. 497-548) is reported by Procopius of Caesarea in secret history, however, modern researchers prefer not to interpret them literally. John of Ephesus notes that "she came from a brothel", but the term he used to refer to the institution in which Theodora served does not indicate her profession. She may have been an actress or a dancer, although the author of a contemporary study of her, Robert Browning, admits the possibility that she was indeed a prostitute. Justinian's first meeting with Theodora took place around 522 in Constantinople. Then Theodora left the capital, spent some time in Alexandria. How their second meeting took place is not known for certain. It is known that wanting to marry Theodora, Justinian asked his uncle to give her the rank of patrician, but this caused strong opposition from the Empress Euthymia, and until the death of the latter in 523 or 524, the marriage was impossible. Probably, the adoption of the law “On Marriage” (lat. De nuptiis) during the reign of Justin, which repealed the law of Emperor Constantine I, which forbids a person who has reached the rank of senatorial rank, to marry a harlot, was probably connected with the desire of Justinian.

In 525 Justinian married Theodora. After marriage, Theodora completely broke with her turbulent past and was a faithful wife. This marriage was childless, yet Justinian had six nephews and nieces, of whom Justin II was chosen as heir.

Early years and reign of Justin

Nothing is known about Justinian's childhood, youth and upbringing. Probably, at some point, his uncle Justin became concerned about the fate of his relatives who remained at home, and called his nephew to the capital. Justin himself was born in 450 or 452, and at a young age, fleeing from want, he walked from Bederiana to Constantinople and was hired into military service. At the end of his reign, Emperor Leo I (457-474) organized a new detachment of the palace guard excuvitators, in which soldiers from different parts of the empire were recruited, and Justin, who had good physical data, was accepted into it. Nothing is known about Justin's career in the reign of Zeno (474-491), but under Anastasia, he participated in the Isaurian War (492-497) under the rank of dux under the command of John the Hunchback. Then Justin took part in the wars with Persia as a commander, and at the end of the reign Anastasia distinguished himself in suppressing the uprising of Vitalian. Thus, Justin won the favor of the emperor and was appointed head of the palace guards with the rank of committee and senator. The time of Justinian's arrival in the capital is not exactly known. It is assumed that this happened at about the age of twenty-five, then for some time Justinian studied theology and Roman law, after which he was awarded the title of Lat. candidati, that is, the emperor's personal bodyguard. Around this time, the adoption and change of the name of the future emperor took place.

On the death of Anastasius in early July 518, Justin succeeded in seizing power relatively easily, despite the fact that there were a large number of richer and more influential candidates. According to Procopius, this manifested the will of higher powers interested in the final rise of Justinian. The election procedure is described by Peter Patricius. The rise of Justin was completely unexpected for his contemporaries. An important role in the election was played by the active support of the new emperor by the hippodrome parties. Immediately after the election of Justin, an almost complete replacement of the top military leadership was carried out, command posts were returned to Anastasius's opponents. According to E. P. Glushanin, Justin thus sought to enlist the support of the army, which was excluded from the elections of the new emperor. At the same time, Justin's relatives received military posts: his other nephew Herman was appointed master of Thrace, and Justinian became the head of the domestics (lat. comes domesticorum), a special corps of palace guards, as is known from a letter from Pope Hormizd dated early 519. During the reign of Justin, Justinian performed consular duties once or twice. It is considered certain that he first became a consul in 521. In fact, this happened at the first opportunity - according to tradition, Justin was elected consul in the first year after his election, the next year the political opponent Vitalian received this title with Justinian. The story of Marcellinus Comitas about the magnificent celebration of the first consulship of Justinian in January 521 is not confirmed by other sources, but historians do not doubt it. The consular title made it possible not only to gain popularity with its generosity, but also opened the way to the honorary title of patrician. According to Marcellinus, 288 thousand solidi were spent, at the same time 20 lions and 30 leopards were released in the amphitheatre. Probably, these expenses were not excessive and, although they were twice the usual consular expenses of that time, they were many times inferior to the expenses of Octavian Augustus. In the time of Justinian, consular expenses consisted of two parts, the smaller of which was the consul's own funds - they were to be spent on the improvement of the city. At the expense of state funds, spectacles were paid for. Thus, the additional government spending on this event turned out to be at quite the usual level and therefore did not attract the attention of other historians. After the consulship of 521, Justinian was appointed magister militum in praesenti- the position previously held by Vitalian. The popularity of Justinian at this time, according to John Zonara, grew so much that the Senate turned to the aged emperor with a request to appoint Justinian as his co-ruler, but Justin refused this proposal. The Senate, however, continued to push for Justinian's elevation, asking for the title of nobilissimus, which happened until 525, when he was given the highest title of Caesar.

Justinian distinguished himself as a commander precisely in 525, leading the Byzantine fleet of 70 ships (some sank on the way) and volunteers / mercenaries from Byzantium, who set off on a kind of “crusade” against the influential and wealthy Jewish state of Himyar (in the place where modern Yemen), who controlled trade in southern Arabia and the Red Sea. The campaign was caused both by economic reasons (the desire of Byzantium to take control of the spice trade and the mythical riches of the region) and religious contradictions: the fanatical king Zu Nuwas Yusuf Asar Yasar from Himyar killed transit Byzantine merchants there and blocked Aksum's trade with Byzantium (possibly in response for the murder of Jewish merchants by Ethiopians and for the burning of the synagogue in Byzantium), in 518-523 he fought against the Ethiopians from Aksum, destroyed churches and, under the threat of death, forced Christians to convert to Judaism. Although the troops of Aksum captured most of Himyar and left powerful garrisons in the cities, but by 523 the king Zu Nuwas managed to capture several cities with successful raids and carried out demonstrative executions of Christians in them. In response, Byzantium sent a powerful fleet and a limited contingent led by the influential Justinian in 525 to help the fraternal Christian state of Aksum. Having landed in two places, Aksumite troops and Byzantine volunteers defeated the troops of Himyar, Dhu Nuwas was killed while trying to prevent the landing. The occupied territories of Himyar were forcibly converted to Christianity, the Jews who persisted in their faith were either killed or forced to flee. This victorious overseas operation became not only the most difficult theater of operations in terms of remoteness, important in a religious sense, but also very beneficial for Byzantium. Obviously, that war had an impact on Justinian's attitude towards Jews and Judaism, which influenced his further policy in this area (see below).

Despite the fact that such a brilliant career could not but have a real impact, there is no reliable information about the role of Justinian in governing the empire during this period. According to the general opinion of sources and historians, Justin was uneducated, old and sick, and was not able to cope with state affairs. According to B. Rubin, foreign policy and public administration were within the competence of Justinian. At first, church policy was under the control of the commander Vitalian. After the murder of Vitalian, in which Procopius personally accuses Justinian, the sources note Justinian's predominant influence in state affairs. Over time, the health of the emperor deteriorated, the disease caused by an old wound in the leg intensified. Feeling the approach of death, Justin responded to the next petition of the Senate for the appointment of Justinian co-ruler. The ceremony took place on Easter, April 4, 527 - Justinian and his wife Theodora were crowned both August and August. Justinian finally received full power after the death of Emperor Justin I on August 1, 527.

Foreign policy and wars

By the beginning of the reign of Justinian, the neighbors of the empire in the west were the so-called "barbarian kingdoms" of the Germans, which were formed in the 5th century on the territory of the Western Roman Empire. In all these kingdoms, the conquerors were a small minority, and the descendants of the inhabitants of the empire who inherited Roman culture could reach a high social position. In the early sixth century, these states prospered under their prominent rulers - the Franks in northern Gaul under Clovis, the Burgundians in the Loire Valley under Gundobad, the Ostrogoths in Italy under Theodoric the Great, the Visigoths in southern Gaul and Spain under Alaric II, and the Vandals in Africa under Trasamund. However, in 527, when Justinian came to the throne, the kingdoms were in a difficult situation. In 508 the Visigoths were expelled from most of Gaul by the Franks, whose kingdom was divided under the sons of Clovis. In the first half of the 530s, the Burgundians were defeated by the Franks. With the death of Theodoric in 526, a crisis began in the Kingdom of the Ostrogoths, although even during the life of this ruler, the conflict between the parties of supporters and opponents of rapprochement with the Byzantine Empire escalated. A similar situation developed in the early 530s in the Kingdom of the Vandals.

In the east, the only enemy of Byzantium was the Persian state of the Sassanids, with which the empire waged wars with short breaks from the beginning of the 3rd century. By the beginning of the VI century, it was a prosperous and developed state, approximately equal in area to Byzantium, stretching from the Indus to Mesopotamia in the west. The main challenges faced by the Sassanid state at the beginning of Justinian's reign were the continued threat of Hephthalite Hun invasions, which first appeared near the borders in the second half of the 5th century, and internal instability and the struggle for the Shah's throne. Around this time, a popular Mazdakit movement emerged that opposed the aristocracy and the Zoroastrian clergy. At the beginning of his reign, Shah Khosrow I Anushirvan (531-579) supported this movement, but by the end of his reign, it began to pose a threat to the state. Under Justin I, there were no significant military events related to Persia. Of the diplomatic events, the initiative of Shah Kavad, who proposed to Justin in the mid-520s to adopt his son Khosrov and make him the heir to the Roman Empire, is noteworthy. This proposal was rejected.

In foreign policy, the name of Justinian is associated primarily with the idea of ​​"restoration of the Roman Empire" or "reconquista of the West." The first step in this direction was the conquest of Africa and the conquest of the Kingdom of the Vandals in 533, which arose in the territories of Roman North Africa conquered at the beginning of the 5th century. Denoting the goals of this enterprise in his Code, the emperor considers it necessary to "revenge the insults and insults" inflicted by the Aryan vandals on the orthodox church, and "liberate the peoples of such a large province from the yoke of slavery." The result of this liberation was to be the opportunity for the population to live "in our happy reign." There are currently two theories regarding the question of when this goal was set. According to one of them, now more common, the idea of ​​the return of the West existed in Byzantium since the end of the 5th century. This point of view proceeds from the thesis that after the emergence of the barbarian kingdoms professing Arianism, there must have been preserved social elements that did not recognize the loss of Rome's status as a great city and capital of the civilized world and did not agree with the dominant position of the Arians in the religious sphere. An alternative point of view, which does not deny the general desire to return the West to the bosom of civilization and orthodox religion, attributes the emergence of a program of concrete actions after successes in the war against the vandals. Various indirect signs speak in favor of this, for example, the disappearance from the legislation and state documentation of the first third of the 6th century of words and expressions that somehow mentioned Africa, Italy and Spain, as well as the loss of Byzantine interest in the first capital of the empire. In the religious views of Justinian, the well-known Byzantinist G. A. Ostrogorsky saw the origin of his foreign policy. In his opinion, as a Christian ruler, Justinian considered the Roman Empire a concept identical to the Christian world, and the victory of the Christian religion was for him as sacred a task as the restoration of Roman power.

Domestic politics

State power structure

The internal organization of the empire in the era of Justinian was basically laid down by the transformations of Diocletian, whose activities were continued under Theodosius I. The results of this work are presented in the famous monument Notitia dignitatum dating back to the beginning of the 5th century. This document is a detailed list of all the ranks and positions of the civil and military departments of the empire. It gives a clear understanding of the mechanism created by the Christian monarchs, which can be described as bureaucracy.

The military division of the empire did not always coincide with the civil one. supreme power was distributed among some military leaders, magistri militum. In the eastern empire, according to Notitia dignitatum, there were five of them: two at court ( magistri militum praesentales) and three in the provinces of Thrace, Illyria and Vostok (respectively, magistri militum per Thracias, per Illyricum, per Orientem). The next in the military hierarchy were the duks ( duces) and commits ( comites rei militares), equivalent to vicars of civil authority, and having the rank spectabilis, but managing districts that are inferior to dioceses in size.

A contemporary of Justinian, Procopius of Caesarea, describes in the following words how the appointments took place during his reign: “For throughout the Roman state Justinian did the following. Having selected the most worthless people, he gave them for a lot of money to spoil their positions. For a decent man, or at least not devoid of common sense, does not make any sense to give his own money in order to rob innocent people. Having received this gold from those who agreed with him, he left them free to do whatever they pleased with their subjects. Thus, they were destined to ruin all the lands [given under their control] together with their population, in order to become rich themselves in the future. (Procopius of Caesarea "The Secret History" ch. XXI, parts 9-12).

The conclusion that Procopius makes when characterizing the appointees of Justinian is very interesting: “For it has come to the point that the very name of the murderer and the robber began to denote an enterprising person among them.” ("Secret History" ch. XXI, part 14).

Government

The basis of Justinian's government was made up of ministers, all bearing the title glorious who ruled over the entire empire. Among them, the most powerful was Prefect of the Praetorium of the East, who ruled the largest of the regions of the empire, also determined the position in finance, legislation, public administration, and legal proceedings. The second most important was Prefect of the City- manager of the capital; then head of services- manager of the imperial house and office; quaestor of the Sacred Chambers- Minister of Justice, committee of sacred bounties- imperial treasurer committee of private property and committee of patrimonies- managed the property of the emperor; finally three presented- the head of the city police, to whom the garrison of the capital was subordinate. The next most important were senators- whose influence under Justinian was increasingly reduced and committees of the sacred consistory- members of the imperial council.

Ministers

Among the ministers of Justinian, the first should be called quaestor of the Sacred Chambers Tribonius, head of the imperial office. His name is inextricably linked with the case of Justinian's legislative reforms. He was originally from Pamphilus and began serving in the lower ranks of the office and, thanks to his diligence and sharp mind, quickly reached the position of head of the office department. From that moment on, he was involved in legal reforms and enjoyed the exclusive favor of the emperor. In 529, he was appointed to the post of palace quaestor. Tribonius is entrusted with the responsibility of chairing the committees that edit the Digest, the Code, and the Institutions. Procopius, admiring his intelligence and gentleness of treatment, nevertheless accuses him of greed and bribery. Nicus's rebellion was largely caused by the abuses of Tribonius. But even in the most difficult moment, the emperor did not leave his favorite. Although the questura was taken away from Tribonius, they gave him the post of chief of services, and in 535 he was again appointed quaestor. Tribonius retained the office of quaestor until his death in 544 or 545.

Another culprit of the Nika uprising was the praetorian prefect John of Cappadocia. Being of humble origin, he came to the fore under Justinian, thanks to natural insight and success in financial enterprises, he managed to win the favor of the king and get the position of imperial treasurer. He was soon elevated to the dignity illustrations and received the position of prefect of the province. Possessing unlimited power, he stained himself with unheard-of cruelty and atrocities in the matter of extorting the subjects of the empire. His agents were allowed to torture and kill in order to achieve the goal of increasing the treasury of John himself. Having reached unprecedented power, he made himself a court party and tried to claim the throne. This brought him into open conflict with Theodora. During the Nika uprising, he was replaced by the prefect Phoca. However, in 534, John regained the prefecture. In 538, he became a consul and then a patrician. Only Theodora's hatred and unusually increased ambition led him to fall in 541.

Among other important ministers of the first period of Justinian's reign, one should mention Hermogenes the Hun by origin, the head of services (530-535); his successor Basilides (536-539) quaestor in 532, besides the comites of the sacred bounties of Constantine (528-533) and Strategy (535-537); also comita of private property Florus (531-536).

John of Cappadocia was succeeded in 543 by Peter Barsimes. He began as a silver merchant, who quickly became rich thanks to merchant dexterity and trade machinations. Entering the office, he managed to win the favor of the empress. Theodora began to promote the favorite in the service with such energy that it gave rise to gossip. As prefect, he continued John's practice of illegal extortion and financial abuse. Speculation in grain in 546 led to a famine in the capital and popular unrest. The emperor was forced to depose Peter despite Theodora's protection. However, through her efforts, he soon received the position of imperial treasurer. Even after the death of the patroness, he retained influence and in 555 returned to the prefects of the praetoria and retained this position until 559, merging it with the treasury.

Another Peter served for many years as the head of the services and was one of Justinian's most influential ministers. He was originally from Thessalonica and was originally a lawyer in Constantinople, where he became famous for his eloquence and legal knowledge. In 535, Justinian entrusted Peter with negotiating with the Ostrogoth king Theodatus. Although Peter negotiated with exceptional skill, he was imprisoned in Ravenna and returned home only in 539. The returning ambassador was showered with awards and received a high post of chief of services. Such attention to the diplomat gave rise to gossip about his involvement in the murder of Amalasuntha. In 552, he received a questura, continuing to be the head of the services. Peter held his office until his death in 565. The position was inherited by his son Theodore.

Among the top military leaders, many combined military duty with government and court posts. The commander Sitt successively held the positions of consul, patrician and finally reached a high position magister militum praesentalis. Belisarius, in addition to military posts, was also a committee of the sacred stables, then a committee of bodyguards and remained in this position until his death. Narses held a number of positions during inner chambers The king, who was a cubicular, spatarius, chief of the chambers, having won the exclusive trust of the emperor, was one of the most important keepers of secrets.

Favorites

Among the favorites, first of all, it is necessary to include Markell - the committee of the emperor's bodyguards. A fair man, extremely honest, in devotion to the emperor reaching self-forgetfulness. Influence on the emperor, he had almost limitless; Justinian wrote that Markell never leaves his royal person and his commitment to justice is surprising.

Also a significant favorite of Justinian was the eunuch and commander Narses, who repeatedly proved his loyalty to the emperor and never fell under his suspicion. Even Procopius of Caesarea never spoke ill of Narses, calling him a man too energetic and bold for a eunuch. Being a flexible diplomat, Narses negotiated with the Persians, and during the Nika uprising he managed to bribe and recruit many senators, after which he received the position of presiding officer of the sacred bedchamber, a kind of first adviser to the emperor. A little later, the emperor entrusted him with the conquest of Italy by the Goths. Narses managed to defeat the Goths and destroy their kingdom, after which he was appointed to the post of Exarch of Italy.

Another special one, which cannot be forgotten, is the wife of Belisarius, Antonina - chief chamberlain and friend of Theodora. Procopius writes about her almost as badly as about the queen herself. She spent her youth stormy and shameful, but, being married to Belisarius, she was repeatedly at the center of court gossip because of her scandalous adventures. Belisarius's passion for her, which was attributed to witchcraft, and the condescension with which he forgave all the adventures of Antonina, causes universal surprise. Because of his wife, the commander was repeatedly involved in shameful, often criminal deeds that the empress did through her favorite.

Construction activity

The destruction that took place during the revolt of Nika allowed Justinian to rebuild and transform Constantinople. The emperor left his name in history by building a masterpiece of Byzantine architecture - Hagia Sophia.

A contemporary of Justinian, Procopius of Caesarea, describes the activities of the emperor in the field of construction in this way: despite the fact that huge crowds constantly choked at the sources, and all the baths were closed. Meanwhile, without a single word, they threw huge sums of money into naval construction and other absurdities, something was erected everywhere in the suburbs, as if they did not have enough palaces, in which the basileus who reigned earlier always willingly lived. Not for reasons of thrift, but for the sake of human perdition, they decided to neglect the construction of a water pipe, since no one, anywhere else than Justinian, was ready to embezzle money in vile ways and immediately spend it in an even more nasty way. (Procopius of Caesarea "The Secret History" ch. XXVI, part 23-24).

Conspiracies and uprisings

Nika Rebellion

The party scheme in Constantinople was laid down even before the accession of Justinian. The "greens" - often supporters of Monophysitism - were favored by Anastasius, the "blues" - more often supporters of the Chalcedonian religion - intensified under Justin, and despite their sympathy for the Monophysites, they were patronized by the new Empress Theodora, because at one time they saved her family. The energetic actions of Justinian, with the absolute arbitrariness of the bureaucracy, constantly growing taxes fueled the discontent of the people, inflaming the religious conflict. On January 13, 532, the speeches of the "greens", which began with the usual complaints to the emperor about harassment by officials, developed into a violent rebellion demanding the deposition of John of Cappadocia and Tribonian. After the emperor's unsuccessful attempt to negotiate and the dismissal of Tribonian and two of his other ministers, the spearhead of the rebellion was already directed at him. The rebels tried to overthrow Justinian directly and put Senator Hypatius, who was the nephew of the late emperor Anastasius I, who supported the Greens and Monophysites, at the head of state. The slogan of the uprising was the cry "Nika!" (“Win!”), which cheered circus wrestlers. Despite the continuation of the uprising and the beginning of riots in the streets of the city, Justinian remained in Constantinople at the request of his wife Theodora:

He who was born cannot help but die, but he who once reigned cannot bear to be a fugitive.

Procopius of Caesarea, "War with the Persians"

Leaning against the hippodrome where they were about to crown Hypatius, the rioters seemed invincible and effectively laid siege to Justinian in the palace. Only by the joint efforts of the combined troops of Belisarius and Mundus, who remained loyal to the emperor, was it possible to drive the rebels out of their strongholds. Procopius says that up to 30,000 unarmed citizens were killed at the hippodrome. At Theodora's urging, Justinian executed Anastasius' nephews.

Artaban's conspiracy

During the uprising in Africa, Prejeka, the niece of the emperor, the wife of the deceased governor, was captured by the rebels. When, it seemed, there was no deliverance, the savior appeared in the person of the young Armenian officer Artaban, who defeated Gontaris and freed the princess. On the way home, an affair arose between the officer and Preyekta, and she promised him her hand in marriage. Upon returning to Constantinople, Artabanus was graciously received by the emperor and showered with awards, appointed governor of Libya and commander of the federates - magister militum in praesenti comes foederatorum. In the midst of preparations for the wedding, all the hopes of Artaban collapsed: his first wife appeared in the capital, whom he had long forgotten about, and who did not think about returning to her husband while he was unknown. She appeared to the empress and urged her to break off the engagement of Artaban and Prejeka and demand the reunion of the spouses. In addition, Theodora insisted on the imminent marriage of the princess with John, the son of Pompey and the grandson of Hypanius. Artabanus was deeply hurt by the situation and even regretted his service to the Romans.

In 548, shortly after Theodora's death, all her opponents perked up. John of Cappadocia returned to the capital, and the court was seized by intrigue. Artaban immediately divorced his wife. At the same time, Arsaces, a relative of Artaban and the prince of the Arsacids, was caught in relations with the Persians and, by order of the king, was flogged. This prompted Arsaces to persuade Artabanus to intrigues against the emperor.

« And you, - he said, - being my relative, in no way sympathize with me, who suffered a terrible humiliation; but I, my dear, am very sorry about your fate with these two wives, of which you are deprived of one without merit, and on the other you have to live under duress. Therefore, no one, of course, who has even a drop of reason, should not refuse to participate in the murder of Justinian under the pretext of cowardice or some kind of fear: after all, he constantly sits without any protection until late at night, talking with antediluvian elders from the clergy, turning over with all zeal books of Christian teaching. And besides, - he continued, - none of the relatives of Justinian will go against you. The most powerful of them - Herman, as I think, will very willingly take part in this matter with you, as well as his children; they are still young men, and in body and soul they are ready to attack him and burn with anger against him. I have the hope that they themselves will seize upon this matter. They feel offended by him as much as none of us, nor from other Armenians».

Germanos, Justinian's nephew, recently buried his brother Borand, who had an only daughter. When dividing the inheritance, Justinian insisted that most of the inheritance remain with the girl, which Germanos did not like. The conspirators pinned their hopes on him. With the help of the young Armenian Khanarang, they turned to Justin (son of Germanos) with a request to involve their father in the conspiracy. However, Justin refused and handed over everything to Germanos. He turned to Markell, the head of the guard, for advice - should everything be handed over to the king. Markell advised to wait, and with the help of Justin and Leontius, Athanasius' nephew, he found out the plans of the conspirators - to kill the emperor after Belisarius, who had left Italy for Byzantium, returned. Then he reported everything to the king. Justinian accused Germanos and Justin of covering up the conspiracy. But Markell stood up for them, saying that it was his advice - to wait and find out the plans of the conspirators. Artabanus and the rest of the rebels were captured and imprisoned. However, Artaban regained the favor of the emperor and in 550 was appointed magister militum Thracie and instead of Livy sent to command the capture of Sicily.

Argyroprat conspiracy

In the autumn of 562, a certain Aulabius (murderer) was hired by the argyroprate Markellus and Sergius, the nephew of the curator of one of the imperial palaces, Etherius, with the aim of assassinating the emperor. Aulabius was supposed to kill Justinian in the triclinium, where Justinian visited before leaving. Aulabius, not finding a way to independently penetrate the triclinium, trusted the hipparch Eusebius and the logothete John. Eusebius warned the emperor about the assassination attempt and detained the conspirators by finding their swords. Markell committed suicide by throwing himself on his sword. Sergius hid in the Blachernae church and was captured there. After his arrest, he was persuaded to testify against Belisarius and the banker John, that they sympathized with the conspiracy, as did the banker Wit and Belisarius' handler, Pavel. Both surviving conspirators were handed over to the prefect of the capital, Procopius, and subjected to interrogation, during which they showed against Belisarius. On December 5, at a secret council in the presence of Patriarch Eutychius and Belisarius himself, the emperor ordered the conspirators' confession to be read, after which Belisarius was deprived of his posts and placed under house arrest. The disgrace of Belisarius lasted more than six months, only after the removal of Procopius, the perjury of the conspirators was revealed and Belisarius was forgiven.

Position of the provinces

AT Notitia dignitatum civil power is separated from the military, each of them is a separate department. This reform dates back to the time of Constantine the Great. In civil terms, the entire empire was divided into four regions (prefectures), headed by the praetorian prefects. The prefectures were subdivided into dioceses governed by deputy prefects ( vicarii praefectorum). Dioceses, in turn, were divided into provinces.

Sitting on the throne of Constantine, Justinian found the empire in a very truncated form: the collapse of the empire, which began after the death of Theodosius, was only gaining momentum. The western part of the empire was divided by barbarian kingdoms; in Europe, Byzantium held only the Balkans, and then without Dalmatia. In Asia, she owned all of Asia Minor, the Armenian Highlands, Syria to the Euphrates, Northern Arabia, Palestine. In Africa, it was possible to hold only Egypt and Cyrenaica. In general, the empire was divided into 64 provinces united in two prefectures: East (51 provinces) and Illyricum (13 provinces). The situation in the provinces was extremely difficult: Egypt and Syria showed a tendency to secession. Alexandria was a stronghold of the Monophysites. Palestine was shaken by disputes between supporters and opponents of Origenism. Armenia was constantly threatened with war by the Sassanids, the Balkans were disturbed by the Ostrogoths and the growing Slavic peoples. Justinian had a huge job ahead of him, even if he was only concerned with maintaining the frontiers.

Constantinople

Armenia

Armenia, divided between Byzantium and Persia and being the arena of struggle between the two powers, was of great strategic importance for the empire.

From the point of view of military administration, Armenia was in a special position, evident from the fact that during the period under review in the Pontic diocese with its eleven provinces there was only one dux, dux Armeniae, whose power extended to three provinces, to Armenia I and II and Polemonian Pontus. At the dux of Armenia there were: 2 regiments of horse archers, 3 legions, 11 cavalry detachments of 600 people, 10 infantry cohorts of 600 people. Of these, the cavalry, two legions and 4 cohorts stood directly in Armenia. At the beginning of the reign of Justinian, a movement against the imperial authorities intensified in Inner Armenia, which resulted in an open uprising, the main reason for which, according to Procopius of Caesarea, was burdensome taxes - the ruler of Armenia, Akakiy, made illegal requisitions and imposed an unprecedented tax on the country up to four centinaries. To remedy the situation, an imperial decree was adopted on the reorganization of the military administration in Armenia and the appointment of Sita as the military head of the region, giving it four legions. Upon arrival, Sita promised to petition the emperor to cancel the new taxation, but as a result of the actions of the displaced local satraps, he was forced to fight the rebels and died. After the death of Sita, the emperor sent Vuza against the Armenians, who, acting energetically, forced them to seek protection from the Persian king Khosrow the Great.

During the entire reign of Justinian, intensive military construction was carried out in Armenia. Of the four books of the treatise "On Buildings" one is completely devoted to Armenia.

The public administration reform carried out during the reign of Justinian had a significant impact on the situation in Armenia. Issued in the spring of 535, the 8th novel abolished the practice of buying positions for money, the so-called suffragium(lat. suffragium). According to the appendix to this short story, the rulers of Armenia II and Armenia Great paid for their positions in the first category, and Armenia I - in the second. This was followed by reforms aimed at the Romanization of Armenia. The 31st short story related to this issue “On the establishment of the four rulers of Armenia” refers to the year 536. The novella established a new administrative division of Armenia consisting of four regions (Inner, Second, Third and Fourth Armenia), each of which has its own way of governing. Committee of the Third Armenia in the rank Justinian's committee united the civil and military leadership of his province. Among other things, the short story consolidated the inclusion of previously considered formally independent regions into the number of provinces.

In the development of the reform, several decrees were issued aimed at reducing the role of the traditional local aristocracy. Edict " On the order of succession among the Armenians” abolished the tradition that only men could inherit. Novella 21 " About the Armenians to follow the Roman laws in everything” repeats the provisions of the edict, specifying that the legal norms of Armenia should not differ from the imperial ones.

Relations with Jews and Samaritans

Questions devoted to the status and legal features of the position of the Jews in the empire are devoted to a significant number of laws issued in previous reigns. One of the most significant pre-Justinian collections of laws, the Code of Theodosius, created during the reigns of the emperors Theodosius II and Valentinian III, contained 42 laws specifically dedicated to the Jews. Legislation, although it limited the possibilities of promoting Judaism, granted rights to Jewish communities in cities.

From the first years of his reign, Justinian, guided by the principle "One state, one religion, one law", limited the rights of representatives of other faiths. Novella 131 established that church law is equal in status to state law. The novel of 537 established that Jews should be subject to full municipal taxes, but could not hold official positions. Synagogues were destroyed; in the remaining synagogues it was forbidden to read the books of the Old Testament from the ancient Hebrew text, which was to be replaced by a Greek or Latin translation. This caused a split in the environment of the Jewish priesthood, conservative priests imposed a dick on the reformers. Judaism, according to the code of Justinian, was not regarded as a heresy and was among the Lat. religio licitis, but Samaritans were included in the same category as pagans and heretics. The code forbade heretics and Jews to testify against Orthodox Christians.

At the beginning of Justinian's reign, all these oppressions caused an uprising in Palestine of the Jews and the Samaritans, who were close to them in faith, under the leadership of Julian ben Sabar. With the help of the Ghassanid Arabs, the uprising was brutally suppressed in 531. During the suppression of the uprising, more than 100 thousand Samaritans were killed and enslaved, whose people almost disappeared as a result. According to John Malala, the 50,000 survivors fled to Iran for help from Shah Kavad.

At the end of his reign, Justinian again turned to the Jewish question, and published in 553 novel 146. The creation of the novel was caused by the ongoing conflict between Jewish traditionalists and reformers over the language of worship. Justinian, guided by the opinion of the Church Fathers that the Jews distorted the text of the Old Testament, banned the Talmud, as well as its commentaries (Gemara and Midrash). Only Greek texts were allowed to be used, punishments for dissidents were increased.

Religious policy

Religious views

Perceiving himself as the heir of the Roman Caesars, Justinian considered it his duty to recreate the Roman Empire, while wishing that the state had one law and one faith. Based on the principle of absolute power, he believed that in a well-organized state, everything should be subject to imperial attention. Understanding the importance of the church for state administration, he made every effort to ensure that she carried out his will. The question of the primacy of the state or religious interests of Justinian is debatable. It is known, at least, that the emperor was the author of numerous letters on religious topics addressed to popes and patriarchs, as well as treatises and church hymns.

Here is what a contemporary of the emperor, Procopius of Caesarea, wrote about the attitude towards the church and the Christian faith: “In the Christian faith, he seemed to be firm, but this also turned into death for his subjects. Indeed, he allowed the priests to oppress their neighbors with impunity, and when they seized the lands adjacent to their possessions, he shared their joy, believing that in this way he showed his piety. And when judging such cases, he believed that he was doing a good deed if someone, hiding behind the shrines, retired, appropriating what did not belong to him. (Procopius of Caesarea "The Secret History" ch. XIII, part 4.5).

In accordance with his desire, Justinian considered it his right not only to resolve issues related to the leadership of the church and its property, but also to establish a certain dogma among his subjects. What religious direction the emperor adhered to, his subjects had to adhere to the same direction. Justinian regulated the life of the clergy, replaced the highest hierarchical positions at his own discretion, acted as an intermediary and judge in the clergy. He patronized the church in the person of its ministers, contributed to the construction of temples, monasteries, and the multiplication of their privileges; finally, the emperor established religious unity among all the subjects of the empire, gave the latter the norm of orthodox teaching, participated in dogmatic disputes and gave the final decision on controversial dogmatic issues.

Such a policy of secular predominance in religious and ecclesiastical affairs, down to the recesses of man's religious convictions, especially vividly manifested by Justinian, has been called Caesaropapism in history, and this emperor is considered one of the most typical representatives of this trend.

Modern researchers identify the following fundamental principles of Justinian's religious views:

• Loyalty to the Oros of the Cathedral of Chalcedon;
• Loyalty to the idea of ​​Orthodoxy of St. Cyril of Alexandria to convince his supporters to return to the fold of the mainstream church;
• "Neo-Chalcedonism", "Justinianism" - a creative synthesis of the Christology of the Council of Chalcedon and the teachings of St. Cyril of Alexandria - Justinian and the polemists who supported him recognized the “12 anathematisms” of Cyril of Alexandria, rejected even by the Council of Ephesus, and the discrepancies in the Christology of Cyril and Chalcedon were explained by the terminological inaccuracies of Cyril due to the undeveloped terminology in his time. It was argued that, in fact, Cyril was allegedly a supporter of the Chalcedonian doctrine (the creed, for example, of the Armenian Apostolic Church in Armenian, due to the peculiarities of the Armenian language, can really be interpreted in this way - but the Christological formula of Apollinaris of Laodicea used by Cyril himself in ancient Greek The Fifth Ecumenical Council unconditionally condemned).

Relations with Rome

Relations with the Monophysites

In religious terms, the reign of Justinian was a confrontation dyophysite or Orthodox, if they are recognized as the dominant denomination, and Monophysites. Although the emperor was committed to Orthodoxy, he was above these differences, wanting to find a compromise and establish religious unity. On the other hand, his wife sympathized with the Monophysites.

During the period under review, Monophysitism, which was influential in the eastern provinces - in Syria and Egypt, was not united. At least two large groups stood out - non-compromising akefaly and those who accepted Zeno's Enotikon.

Monophysitism was declared heresy at the Council of Chalcedon in 451. The Byzantine emperors of the 5th and 6th centuries, Flavius ​​Zeno and Anastasius I, who preceded Justinian, had a positive attitude towards Monophysitism, which only strained religious relations between Constantinople and the Roman bishops. Justin I reversed this trend and confirmed the Chalcedonian doctrine openly condemning Monophysitism. Justinian, who continued the religious policy of his uncle Justin, tried to impose absolute religious unity on his subjects, forcing them to accept compromises, in his opinion, satisfying all sides - both the Miaphysites and the Dyophysites of Rome, the Church of the East, Syria and Palestine. He borrowed from the Syrian Nestorian Church and the Church of the East the cult of the Virgin Mary, of which Ephraim the Syrian was an apologist, and the cult has been preserved ever since in the Roman Church. But towards the end of his life, Justinian began to treat the dyophysites more harshly, especially when they manifested aphtharo-doctrineism, but he died before he had time to publish legislation that increased the significance of these dogmas of his.

Defeat of Origenism

Around the teachings of Origen, the spears of Alexandria were broken starting from the 3rd century. On the one hand, his works met with favorable attention from such great Fathers as John Chrysostom, Gregory of Nyssa, on the other hand, such major theologians as Peter of Alexandria, Epiphanius of Cyprus, Blessed Jerome smashed the Origenists, accusing them of paganism. Confusion in the controversy surrounding the teachings of Origen was introduced by the fact that they began to attribute to him the ideas of some of his followers who gravitated towards Gnosticism - the main accusations leveled against the Origenists were that they allegedly preached the transmigration of souls and apocatastasis. Nevertheless, the number of Origen's supporters grew, including such great theologians as the martyr Pamphilus (who wrote the Apology to Origen) and Eusebius of Caesarea, who had Origen's archive at his disposal.

In the 5th century passions around Origenism subsided, but at the beginning of the 6th century a theological storm breaks out in Palestine. The Syrian Stefan bar-Sudaili writes The Book of St. Hierotheus, mixing together Origenism, Gnosticism and Kabbalah and attributing authorship to St. Hierotheus, a disciple of St. Dionysius the Areopagite. Theological turmoil begins in the Palestinian monasteries. In just a few years, unrest swept almost all of Palestine, and moreover, the Origenists appeared in the Great Lavra. In 531, the 92-year-old St. Savva the Sanctified travels to Constantinople to ask Justinian to help restore Palestine after the Samaritan War, and casually asks to find a way to pacify the Origenist troublemakers who have caused unrest in the New Lavra. Justinian burst into an angry message to Patriarch Mina, demanding that Origenism be condemned.

The case with the defeat of Origenism dragged on for a whole 10 years. The future pope Pelagius, who visited Palestine in the late 530s, passing through Constantinople, told Justinian that he did not find heresy in Origen, but that the Great Lavra needed to be put in order. After the death of Saint Sava the Sanctified, Saints Cyriacus, John the Hesychast, and Barsanuphius acted as defenders of the purity of monasticism. The New Lavra Origenists very quickly found influential supporters. In 541, they, led by Nonnus and Bishop Leontius, attacked the Great Lavra and beat its inhabitants. Some of them fled to the Patriarch of Antioch Ephraim, who at the council of 542 condemned the Origenists for the first time.

With the support of Bishops Leontius, Domitian of Ancyra and Theodore of Caesarea, Nonnus demanded that Patriarch Peter of Jerusalem delete the name of Patriarch Ephraim of Antioch from the diptychs. This demand caused great excitement in the Orthodox world. Fearing the influential patrons of the Origenists and realizing the impossibility of fulfilling their demand, Patriarch Peter of Jerusalem secretly summoned the archimandrites of the Great Lavra and the monastery of St. The Patriarch sent this essay to the emperor Justinian himself, attaching to it his personal message, in which he described in detail all the evils and iniquities of the Origenists. Patriarch Mina of Constantinople, and especially the representative of the Pope Pelagius, warmly supported the appeal of the inhabitants of the Lavra of St. Sava. On this occasion, in 543, a council was held in Constantinople, at which Domitian of Ancyra, Theodore Ascida and the heresy of Origenism in general were condemned.

Fifth Ecumenical Council

The conciliatory policy of Justinian towards the Monophysites caused discontent in Rome, and Pope Agapit I arrived in Constantinople in 535, who, together with the orthodox party of Akimites, expressed a sharp rejection of the policy of Patriarch Anfim, and Justinian was forced to yield. Anfim was removed, and a staunch Orthodox presbyter Mina was appointed in his place.

Having made a concession on the question of the patriarch, Justinian did not give up further attempts at reconciliation with the Monophysites. To do this, the emperor raised the well-known question about the “three chapters”, that is, about the three church writers of the 5th century, Theodore of Mopsuestia, Theodoret of Cyrrhus and Yves of Edessa, regarding which the Monophysites reproached the Council of Chalcedon with the fact that the above-named writers, despite their Nestorian way of thinking , were not convicted on it. Justinian acknowledged that this case the Monophysites are right and that the Orthodox must make a concession to them.

This desire of the emperor aroused the indignation of the Western hierarchs, since they saw in this an encroachment on the authority of the Council of Chalcedon, after which a similar revision of the decisions of the Council of Nicaea could follow. The question also arose whether it was possible to anathematize the dead, because all three writers had died in the previous century. Finally, some representatives of the West were of the opinion that the emperor, by his decree, commits violence against the conscience of the members of the church. The latter doubt was almost non-existent in the Eastern Church, where the interference of the imperial power in resolving dogmatic disputes was fixed by a long-term practice. As a result, the decree of Justinian did not receive general church significance.

In order to influence a positive resolution of the issue, Justinian summoned the then pope Vigilius to Constantinople, where he lived for more than seven years. The original position of the pope, who on his arrival openly rebelled against the decree of Justinian and excommunicated the Patriarch of Constantinople Mina, changed and in 548 he issued a condemnation of three chapters, the so-called ludicatum, and thus added his voice to the voice of the four eastern patriarchs. However, the western church did not approve of Vigilius' concessions. Under the influence of the Western Church, the pope began to waver in his decision and took back ludicatum. In such circumstances, Justinian decided to resort to convening an ecumenical council, which met in Constantinople in 553.

The results of the council turned out to be, on the whole, in accordance with the will of the emperor.

Relations with pagans

Steps were taken by Justinian to finally eradicate the remnants of paganism. Even at the beginning of his reign, an edict was issued prescribing mandatory baptism for all pagans and their households. Throughout his reign, political trials took place in the empire against pagans who did not want to change their faith. Under him, the last functioning pagan temples were destroyed. In 529 he closed the famous philosophical school in Athens. This had a predominantly symbolic meaning, since by the time of the event this school had lost its leading position among educational institutions empire after the University of Constantinople was founded in the 5th century under Theodosius II. After the closure of the school under Justinian, the Athenian professors were expelled, some of them moved to Persia, where they met an admirer of Plato in the person of Khosrow I; school property was confiscated. In the same year in which St. Benedict destroyed the last pagan national sanctuary in Italy, namely the temple of Apollo in the sacred grove on Monte Cassino, and the stronghold of ancient paganism in Greece was also destroyed. Since then, Athens has completely lost its former importance as a cultural center and turned into a remote provincial city. Justinian did not achieve the complete eradication of paganism; it continued to hide in some inaccessible areas. Procopius of Caesarea writes that the persecution of the pagans was carried out not so much out of a desire to establish Christianity, but out of a thirst to seize the property of the pagans

reforms

Political views

Justinian succeeded to the throne without dispute, having managed in advance to skillfully eliminate all prominent rivals and acquire the favor of influential groups in society; the church (even the popes) liked him for his strict Orthodoxy; he lured the senatorial aristocracy with the promise of support for all its privileges and carried away with a respectful caress of treatment; with the luxury of festivities and the generosity of distributions, he won the affection of the lower classes of the capital. The opinions of contemporaries about Justinian were very different. Even in the assessment of Procopius, who serves as the main source for the history of the emperor, there are contradictions: in some works (“Wars” and “Buildings”) he praises the excellent successes of Justinian’s broad and bold conquests and bows before his artistic genius, while in others (“Secret history") sharply blackens his memory, calling the emperor an "evil fool" (μωροκακοήθης). All this greatly complicates the reliable restoration of the spiritual image of the king. Undoubtedly, mental and moral contrasts were inharmoniously intertwined in the personality of Justinian. He conceived the most extensive plans for the increase and strengthening of the state, but did not have sufficient creative forces to build them completely and completely; he claimed to be a reformer, but he could only assimilate well ideas that he did not develop. He was simple, accessible and temperate in his habits - and at the same time, due to the conceit that grew out of success, he surrounded himself with the most pompous etiquette and unprecedented luxury. His frankness and well-known good-heartedness were gradually distorted by the deceit and deceitfulness of the ruler, who was forced to constantly defend the successfully seized power from all kinds of dangers and attempts. The benevolence towards people, which he often showed, was spoiled by frequent revenge on enemies. Generosity towards the distressed classes was combined in him with greed and promiscuity in the means of obtaining money to ensure representation corresponding to his notions of his own dignity. The desire for justice, about which he constantly spoke, was suppressed by an exorbitant thirst for domination and arrogance growing on such soil. He claimed unlimited authority, and his will in dangerous moments was often weak and indecisive; he fell under the influence not only of the strong character of his wife Theodora, but sometimes even of insignificant people, revealing even cowardice. All these virtues and vices were united little by little around a prominent, pronounced inclination towards despotism. Under its influence, his piety turned into religious intolerance and was embodied in cruel persecution for deviating from the faith he recognized. All this led to results of very mixed worth, and by them alone it is difficult to explain why Justinian is ranked among the "great" ones, and his reign acquired such great significance. The fact is that, in addition to these properties, Justinian possessed remarkable perseverance in carrying out the accepted principles and a positively phenomenal ability to work. He wanted every smallest order concerning the political and administrative, religious and intellectual life of the empire to come from him personally and every controversial issue in the same areas returned to him. The best way to interpret the historical figure of the tsar is the fact that this native of the dark mass of the provincial peasantry was able to firmly and firmly assimilate to himself two grandiose ideas bequeathed to him by the tradition of the great world past: Roman (the idea of ​​a world monarchy) and Christian (the idea of ​​the kingdom of God). The combination of both into one theory and the implementation of the latter through the medium of a secular state constitutes the originality of the concept, which became the essence of the political doctrine of the Byzantine Empire; the case of Justinian is the first attempt to formulate a system and to enforce it in life. A world state created by the will of an autocratic sovereign - such was the dream that the tsar cherished from the very beginning of his reign. With weapons he intended to return the lost old Roman territories, then to give a general law that would ensure the well-being of the inhabitants, and finally to establish a faith that would unite all peoples in worship of the one true God. These are the three foundations on which Justinian hoped to build his power. He unshakably believed in him: "there is nothing higher and holier than imperial majesty"; "the creators of law themselves said that the will of the monarch has the force of law"; “Who can interpret the mysteries and mysteries of the law, if not the one who alone can create it?”; “he alone is able to spend days and nights in work and wakefulness in order to think about the good of the people.” Even among the noble emperors, there was no person who would have a greater sense of imperial dignity and admiration for Roman tradition than Justinian. All his decrees and letters are filled with memories of Great Rome, in the history of which he drew inspiration.

Justinian was the first to clearly oppose the "grace of God" to the people's will as the source of supreme power. Since his time, the theory of the emperor, as "equal to the apostles" (ίσαπόστολος), receiving grace directly from God and standing above the state and above the church, was born. God helps him to defeat his enemies, to issue just laws. The wars of Justinian already acquire the character of crusades (wherever the emperor is master, the right faith will shine). He puts every act of his “under the patronage of St. Trinity." Justinian is, as it were, a forerunner or founder of a long chain of "God's anointed ones" in history. Such a construction of power (Roman-Christian) breathed a wide initiative into Justinian's activity, made his will an attractive center and a point of application of many other energies, thanks to which his reign achieved really significant results. He himself said: “Never before the time of our reign, God gave the Romans such victories ... Thank heaven, inhabitants of the whole world: in your days a great deed has been accomplished, which God recognized as unworthy of the entire ancient world.” Justinian left many evils uncured, many new disasters were generated by his policy, but nevertheless, his greatness was glorified almost during his time by a folk legend that arose in various areas. All countries that subsequently took advantage of his legislation exalted his glory.

State reforms

Simultaneously with military successes, Justinian engaged in strengthening the state apparatus and improved taxation. These reforms were so unpopular that they led to the Nika rebellion, which nearly cost him the throne.

Administrative reforms were made:

• Combination of civil and military posts.
• the prohibition of paying for positions, the increase in salaries for officials testify to his desire to limit arbitrariness and corruption.
• The official was forbidden to buy land where he served.

For the fact that he often worked at night, he was nicknamed the "sleepless sovereign" (Greek: βασιλεύς άκοιμητος).

Legal reforms

One of Justinian's first projects was a large-scale legal reform initiated by him a little more than six months after his accession to the throne.

Using the talent of his minister Tribonian, in 528 Justinian ordered a complete revision of Roman law, with the goal of making it as unsurpassed in formal legal terms as it had been three centuries earlier. The three main components of Roman law - the Digesta, the Code of Justinian, and the Institutions - were completed in 534.

By a pragmatic decision in 554, Justinian introduced the use of his laws in Italy. It was then that copies of his codification of Roman law came to Italy. Although they did not have an immediate impact, one manuscript copy of the Digests (later found in Pisa and then kept in Florence) was used in the late 11th century to revive studies of Roman law in Bologna.

Economic reforms

Board results

Emperor Justin II tried to characterize the result of his uncle's reign:

“We found the treasury ruined by debts and brought to extreme poverty, and the army to such an extent upset that the state was left to incessant invasions and raids of the barbarians”

In the Age of Enlightenment, a negative view of the results of Justinian's reign prevailed, one of the first expressed by Montesquieu in his Reflections on the Greatness and Fall of the Romans (1734)

But the bad rule of Justinian - his extravagance, oppression, extortion, a frantic desire for construction, change, transformation - cruel and weak rule, which became even more painful due to his long old age, was a real disaster, mixed with useless successes and vain glory.

Ch. XX, trans. N. Sarkitova

According to Dil, the second part of the emperor's reign was marked by a serious weakening of his attention to state affairs. turning points the plague, which Justinian suffered in 542, and the death of Theodora in 548, became the life of the king. However, there is also a positive view on the results of the Emperor's reign.

Memory

Appearance and lifetime images

There are few descriptions of Justinian's appearance. In his secret history Procopius describes Justinian as follows:

He was not large and not too small, but of medium height, not thin, but slightly plump; his face was round and not devoid of beauty, for even after two days of fasting, a blush played on it. In order to give an idea of ​​his appearance in a few words, I will say that he was very similar to Domitian, the son of Vespasian, whose malevolence the Romans were fed up to such an extent that, even tearing him to pieces, they did not satisfy their anger against him, but it was the decision of the Senate that his name should not be mentioned in the inscriptions and that not a single image of him should remain.

The Secret History, VIII, 12-13

John Malala adds that Justinian was short, broad-chested, with a beautiful nose, his complexion was light, his hair was curly with a noticeable bald spot, his head and mustache began to turn gray early. Of the lifetime images, the mosaics of the church of San Vitale and the temple of Sant'Apollinare Nuovo, both in Ravenna, have been preserved. The first is attributed to 547, the second later by about ten years. In the apse of San Vitale, the emperor is depicted with an elongated face, curly hair, a noticeable mustache, and an imperious gaze. On the mosaic in the temple of Sant'Apollinare, the emperor is aged, somewhat overweight without a mustache, with a noticeable double chin.

Justinian was depicted on one of the largest (36 solidi or ½-pound) medallions known, stolen in 1831 from the Paris Cabinet of Medals. The medallion was melted down, but its images and a cast have been preserved, allowing copies to be made from it.

The Roman-Germanic Museum in Cologne houses a copy of the Egyptian marble statue of Justinian. Some idea of ​​the appearance of the emperor is given by the preserved drawings of the column of Justinian erected in 542. Discovered in Kerch in 1891 and now kept in the Hermitage, the silver missorium was originally considered to be an image of Justinian. It is possible that Justinian is also depicted on the famous Barberini diptych, kept in the Louvre.

During the reign of Justinian, a large number of coins were issued. Known are donative coins of 36 and 4.5 solidus, a solidus with a full-figure image of the emperor in consular vestments, as well as an exceptionally rare aureus weighing 5.43 g, minted according to the old Roman foot. The front side of all these coins is occupied by either a three-quarter or profile bust of the emperor, with or without a helmet. In the old literature, it is often called Justinian the Great. Considered a saint by the Orthodox Church, he is also revered by some Protestant churches.

Image in literature

Literary works written during the life of Justinian have survived to our time, in which either his reign as a whole or his individual achievements were glorified. Usually these include: “Exhortations to the Emperor Justinian” by deacon Agapit, “On Buildings” by Procopius of Caesarea, “Ekphrasis of St. Sophia” by Paul Silenciarius, “On Earthquakes and Fires” by Roman the Melodist and the anonymous “Dialogue on Political Science”.

After the death of Emperor Justinian, Procopius of Caesarea, a contemporary of Basileus, abruptly changed his opinion about him to the opposite, as evidenced by the description of his temper in the book The Secret History. This is how Procopius describes the deceased emperor: “So, this basileus is full of cunning, deceit, was distinguished by insincerity, had the ability to hide his anger, was duplicitous, dangerous, was an excellent actor when it was necessary to hide his thoughts, and knew how to shed tears not from joy or grief , but artificially calling them at the right time as needed ... An unfaithful friend, an inexorable enemy, passionately thirsting for murder and robbery, prone to strife, a great lover of innovations and coups, easily succumbing to evil, not inclined to good by any advice, quick to plan and the performance of the bad, but even listening to the good is revered as an unpleasant occupation. Procopius of Caesarea, The Secret History, ch. 8 hours 24-26

And a little further in the same place: “How can you convey in words the temper of Justinian? He possessed these and many other even greater shortcomings to a degree that does not correspond to human nature. But it seems that nature, having collected from the rest of the people everything bad in them, placed what was collected in the soul of this person ... And if someone wanted to measure everything that fell to the lot of the Romans from the earliest times, to compare it with the current troubles, he I would have discovered that more people were killed by this man than in all the previous time. Ibid., hours 27-30.

Dante Alighieri, having placed Justinian in Paradise, trusts him to make a historical survey of the Roman Empire (Divine Comedy, Paradise, song 6). According to Dante, Justinian's main services to history were the reform of law, the renunciation of Monophysitism, and the campaigns of Belisarius.

Other

• Nikolai Gumilyov. "Poisoned Tunic". Play.
• Harold Lamb. "Theodora and the Emperor". Novel.
• Mikhail Kazovsky "The Stomp of the Bronze Horse", historical novel (2008)
• Kay, Gaius Gavriel, dilogy "Sarantia Mosaic" - Emperor Valery II.
• V. D. Ivanov. "Original Russia". Novel. The film adaptation of this novel is the film by Gennady Vasiliev "Original Russia" (USSR, 1985). The role of Justinian was played by Innokenty Smoktunovsky.
• Theodora - dir. Leopoldo Carlucci (Italy, 1921). Ferruccio Bianchini as Justinian.
• Theodora (Teodora, imperatrice di Bisanzio) - dir. Riccardo Freda (Italy-France, 1954). In the role of Justinian - Georges Marshal.
• Battle for Rome (Kampf um Rom) - dir. Robert Siodmak, Andrew Marton, Sergiu Nicolaescu (Germany-Italy-Romania, 1968-1969). Orson Welles as Justinian.

The content of the article

JUSTINIAN I THE GREAT(482 or 483-565), one of the greatest Byzantine emperors, codifier of Roman law and builder of the Cathedral of St. Sofia. Justinian was probably an Illyrian, born in Tauresia (province of Dardania, near modern Skopje) into a peasant family, but was brought up in Constantinople. At birth, he received the name Peter Savvaty, to which Flavius ​​​​was subsequently added (as a sign of belonging to the imperial family) and Justinian (in honor of his maternal uncle, Emperor Justin I, ruled in 518-527). Justinian, the favorite of the emperor's uncle who had no children of his own, became an extremely influential figure under him and, gradually ascending the ranks, rose to the post of commander of the capital's military garrison (magister equitum et peditum praesentalis). Justin adopted him and made him his co-ruler in the last few months of his reign, so that when Justin died on August 1, 527, Justinian ascended the throne. Consider the reign of Justinian in several aspects: 1) war; 2) internal affairs and private life; 3) religious policy; 4) codification of law.

Wars.

Justinian never took a personal part in wars, entrusting the leadership of military operations to his military leaders. By the time of his accession to the throne, the eternal enmity with Persia, which in 527 resulted in a war for dominance over the Caucasian region, remained an unresolved issue. Justinian's general Belisarius won a brilliant victory at Dara in Mesopotamia in 530, but the following year was defeated by the Persians at Kallinikos in Syria. The king of Persia, Khosrow I, who replaced Kavad I in September 531, concluded at the beginning of 532 "peace for all eternity", according to which Justinian had to pay Persia 4,000 pounds of gold for the maintenance of the Caucasian fortresses that resisted the raids of the barbarians, and abandon the protectorate over Iberia in the Caucasus. The second war with Persia broke out in 540, when Justinian, preoccupied with affairs in the West, allowed a dangerous weakening of his forces in the East. The fighting was carried out in the space from Colchis on the Black Sea coast to Mesopotamia and Assyria. In 540, the Persians sacked Antioch and a number of other cities, but Edessa managed to pay them off. In 545, Justinian had to pay 2,000 pounds of gold for a truce, which, however, did not affect Colchis (Lazika), where hostilities continued until 562. The final settlement was similar to the previous ones: Justinian had to pay 30,000 aurei (gold coins) annually, and Persia pledged to defend the Caucasus and not persecute Christians.

Far more significant campaigns were undertaken by Justinian in the West. The Mediterranean once belonged to Rome, but now Italy, southern Gaul, and also for the most part Africa and Spain were ruled by barbarians. Justinian hatched ambitious plans for the return of these lands. The first blow was directed against the Vandals in Africa, where the indecisive Gelimer ruled, whose rival Childeric Justinian supported. In September 533, Belisarius landed without interference on the African coast and soon entered Carthage. About 30 km west of the capital, he won a decisive battle and in March 534, after a long siege on Mount Pappua in Numidia, forced Gelimer to surrender. However, the campaign was still not over, as the Berbers, Moors, and rebellious Byzantine troops had to be dealt with. To pacify the province and establish control over the Ores mountain range and eastern Mauritania was entrusted to the eunuch Solomon, which he did in 539–544. Due to new uprisings in 546, Byzantium almost lost Africa, but by 548 John Troglita had established strong and lasting power in the province.

The conquest of Africa was only a prelude to the conquest of Italy, which was now dominated by the Ostrogoths. Their king Theodates killed Amalasuntha, the daughter of the great Theodoric, who was patronized by Justinian, and this incident served as a pretext for starting a war. By the end of 535 Dalmatia was occupied, Belisarius occupied Sicily. In 536 he captured Naples and Rome. Theodates removed Vitigis, who from March 537 to March 538 besieged Belisarius in Rome, but was forced to retreat north with nothing. Then the Byzantine troops occupied Picenum and Milan. Ravenna fell after a siege that lasted from late 539 to June 540, and Italy was declared a province. However, in 541 the brave young Goth king Totila took the matter of recapturing the former possessions into his own hands, and only four bridgeheads on the Italian coast belonged to 548 Justinian, and by 551 Sicily, Corsica and Sardinia also passed to the Goths. In 552, the talented Byzantine eunuch commander Narses arrived in Italy with a well-equipped and well-equipped army. Rapidly moving south from Ravenna, he defeated the Goths at Tagina in the center of the Apennines and in the last decisive battle at the foot of Mount Vesuvius in 553. In 554 and 555, Narses cleared Italy of the Franks and Alemanni and crushed the last pockets of resistance ready. The territory north of the Po was partially returned in 562.

The Ostrogothic kingdom ceased to exist. Ravenna became the center of Byzantine administration in Italy. Narses ruled there as a patrician from 556 to 567, and after him the local governor became known as an exarch. Justinian more than satisfied his ambitious designs. He also conquered the western coast of Spain and the southern coast of Gaul. However, the main interests of the Byzantine Empire were still in the East, in Thrace and Asia Minor, so that the price of acquisitions in the West, which could not be durable, may have been too high.

Private life.

A remarkable event in the life of Justinian was his marriage in 523 to Theodora, a courtesan and dancer with a bright but dubious reputation. He selflessly loved and revered Theodora until her death in 548, finding in her person a co-ruler who helped him govern the state. Once, when, during the Nika uprising of January 13–18, 532, Justinian and his friends were already close to despair and were discussing plans to escape, it was Theodora who managed to save the throne.

The Nika uprising broke out under the following circumstances. The parties that formed around races at the hippodrome were usually limited to feuding with each other. However, this time they united and put forward a joint demand for the release of their detained comrades, followed by a demand for the dismissal of three unpopular officials. Justinian showed pliability, but here the city mob joined the fight, dissatisfied with exorbitant taxes. Some senators took advantage of the unrest and nominated Hypatius, the nephew of Anastasius I, as a contender for the imperial throne. However, the authorities managed to split the movement by bribing the leaders of one of the parties. On the sixth day, troops loyal to the government attacked the people gathered at the hippodrome and committed a wild massacre. Justinian did not spare the pretender to the throne, but later showed restraint, so that he came out of this ordeal even stronger. It should be noted that the increase in taxes was caused by spending on two large-scale campaigns - in the East and West. Minister John of Cappadocia showed miracles of ingenuity, extracting funds from any source and by any means. Another example of Justinian's extravagance was his building program. Only in Constantinople alone can one point out the following grandiose structures: the Cathedral of St. Sophia (532-537), which is still one of the greatest buildings in the world; not preserved and still insufficiently studied so-called. Grand (or Sacred) Palace; Augustion Square and the magnificent buildings adjacent to it; Church of St. Theodora built Apostles (536-550).

Religious policy.

Justinian was interested in questions of religion and considered himself a theologian. Passionately devoted to Orthodoxy, he fought pagans and heretics. In Africa and Italy, the Arians suffered from it. The Monophysites, who denied the human nature of Christ, were treated with tolerance, since Theodora shared their views. In connection with the Monophysites, Justinian faced a difficult choice: he wanted peace in the East, but also did not want to quarrel with Rome, which meant absolutely nothing to the Monophysites. At first, Justinian tried to achieve reconciliation, but when the Monophysites were anathematized at the Council of Constantinople in 536, the persecution resumed. Then Justinian began to prepare the ground for a compromise: he tried to persuade Rome to develop a softer interpretation of Orthodoxy, and forced Pope Vigilius, who was with him in 545–553, to actually condemn the position of the creed adopted at the 4th Ecumenical Council in Chalcedon. This position was approved at the 5th Ecumenical Council, held in Constantinople in 553. By the end of his reign, the position taken by Justinian could hardly be distinguished from that of the Monophysites.

Law codification.

More fruitful were the colossal efforts made by Justinian to develop Roman law. The Roman Empire gradually abandoned its former rigidity and inflexibility, so that on a large (perhaps even excessive) scale, the so-called norms began to be taken into account. "rights of peoples" and even "natural law". Justinian decided to generalize and systematize this extensive material. The work was organized by the outstanding lawyer Tribonian with numerous assistants. As a result, the famous Corpus iuris civilis ("Code of Civil Law") was born, consisting of three parts: 1) Codex Iustinianus ("Justinian's Code"). It was first published in 529, but soon it was significantly revised and in 534 it received the force of law - exactly in the form in which we now know it. This included all the imperial decrees (constitutiones) that seemed important and remained relevant, starting with the emperor Hadrian, who ruled at the beginning of the 2nd century, including 50 decrees of Justinian himself. 2) Pandectae or Digesta ("Digesta"), prepared in 530-533, a compilation of the views of the best jurists (mainly of the 2nd and 3rd centuries), provided with amendments. The Justinian Commission took it upon itself to reconcile the different approaches of the jurists. The legislation described in these authoritative texts became binding on all courts. 3) Institutiones ("Institutions", i.e. "Fundamentals"), a law textbook for students. Textbook by Guy, a lawyer who lived in the 2nd century. AD, was modernized and corrected, and from December 533 this text was included in the curricula.

Already after the death of Justinian, Novellae (“Novels”) were published, an addition to the “Code”, which contains 174 new imperial decrees, and after the death of Tribonian (546), Justinian published only 18 documents. Most documents are written in Greek, which has acquired the status of an official language.

reputation and achievements.

Assessing the personality of Justinian and his achievements, one should take into account the role that his contemporary and main historian Procopius plays in shaping our ideas about him. A well-informed and competent scholar, for reasons unknown to us, Procopius had a persistent dislike for the emperor, which he did not deny himself the pleasure of pouring into secret history (Anecdota), especially about Theodora.

History has valued the merits of Justinian as the great codifier of law, for this act alone Dante gave him a place in Paradise. In the religious struggle, Justinian played a controversial role: at first he tried to reconcile rivals and reach a compromise, then unleashed persecution and ended up almost completely abandoning what he professed at first. He cannot be underestimated as a statesman and strategist. With regard to Persia, he pursued a traditional policy, having achieved some success. Justinian conceived a grandiose program for the return of the western possessions of the Roman Empire and almost completely implemented it. However, by doing this he upset the balance of power in the empire, and, perhaps, later Byzantium was extremely short of energy and resources that were wasted in the West. Justinian died in Constantinople on November 14, 565.

However, Justinian did not give up. After the death of Euphemia in or year, Emperor Justin did not resist his adopted son. He issued a decree on marriage, which allowed, in particular, a repentant hypocrite, who had abandoned her former occupation, to enter into legal marriage even with high-born persons. Thus the wedding took place.

From the beginning of the reign of Justinian, Thrace began to be subjected to more and more destructive raids by the "Huns"-Bulgars and "Scythians"-Slavs. In the year the commander Mund successfully repelled the onslaught of the Bulgars in Thrace.

From the time of Justin, Justinian inherited a policy of persecuting the Monophysite monasteries and clergy in northern Syria. However, there was no widespread persecution of Monophysitism in the empire - the number of its adherents was too great. Egypt, the stronghold of the Monophysites, constantly threatened to disrupt the supply of bread to the capital, which is why Justinian ordered even to build a special fortress in Egypt to protect the grain collected in the state granary. Already in the early 530s, Empress Theodora used her influence with her husband to start negotiations and attempts to reconcile the position of the Monophysites and the Orthodox. In the year a delegation of Monophysites arrived in Constantinople and was sheltered by the royal couple in the palace of Hormizd. Since then, here, under the patronage of Theodora and with the tacit consent of Justinian, there was a haven for the Monophysites.

Uprising "Nika"

However, this agreement was in fact a victory for the Monophysites and the hierarch Pope Agapitus, sent by the Ostrogothic king Theodahad to Constantinople as a political ambassador, persuaded Justinian to turn away from the false world with Monophysitism and take the side of the Chalcedonian decisions. In place of the deposed Anfim, the Orthodox saint Mina was erected. Justinian compiled a confession of faith, which Saint Agapit recognized as completely Orthodox. Around the same time, the emperor compiled the Orthodox prayer book "Only Begotten Son and Word of God", which was included in the order of the Divine Liturgy. On May 2, a Council was opened in Constantinople in the presence of the emperor for the final trial of the case of Anthima. During the Council, a number of Monophysite leaders were condemned, among them Anfim and Severus.

However, at the same time, Theodora persuaded the emperor to agree to the appointment of the deceased Pope Agapit, who showed a readiness for compromise, the deacon Vigilius, as heir. His elevation to the papal throne by imperial will took place on March 29 of the year, despite the fact that Silverius had already been elected to the primatial see in Rome in the same year. Considering Rome as his city, and himself as the highest authority, Justinian easily recognized the supremacy of the Roman popes over the Patriarchs of Constantinople, and just as easily installed the popes at his own discretion.

The troubles of 540 and their consequences

In internal administration, Justinian adhered to the previous line, but paid much less attention to attempts at legislative reforms - after the death of the lawyer Tribonian in the year, the emperor issued only 18 documents. In the same year, Justinian abolished the consulate in Constantinople, declaring himself consul for life, at the same time stopping expensive consular games. The king did not back down from his construction endeavors - for example, in the year a huge “New Church” was completed in the name of the Most Holy Theotokos on the ruins of the Jerusalem temple.

Theological disputes of the 540s and 550s

From the early 540s, Justinian began to delve deeper into matters of theology. The desire to overcome Monophysitism and end discord in the Church did not leave him. Meanwhile, Empress Theodora continued to patronize the Monophysites and in the year, at the request of the Arab-Ghassanid sheikh al-Harith (al-Harith), contributed to the formation of the Monophysite hierarchy through the appointment of the itinerant Monophysite bishop Jacob Baradei. Justinian at first tried to catch him, but this failed, and the emperor subsequently had to come to terms with the activities of Baradei on the outskirts of the empire. Although the Empress Theodora died in the year having reconciled with the Orthodox Church, there is a version according to which she bequeathed to the emperor not to persecute the prominent Monophysites, who had been hiding all this time in the Hormizda Palace of Constantinople. One way or another, the Orthodox emperor did not intensify the persecution of the Monophysites, but tried to gather believers in a single Church by condemning other false teachings.

Around the early 540s, the emperor raised the issue of a formal condemnation of Origen. Having charged him with 10 heresies in a letter to St. Mina, in the year the emperor convened a Council in the capital, which condemned Origen and his teachings.

At the same time, the imperial theological adviser Theodore Askida proposed to condemn some of the writings of the blessed Theodoret of Cyrrhus, Willow of Edessa and Theodore of Mopsuet, which expressed Nestorian errors. Although the authors themselves, already long dead, were respected in the Church, a conciliar condemnation of their erroneous views would deprive the Monophysites of the opportunity to slander the Orthodox, accusing them of Nestorianism. In the year Justinian published an edict against the so-called. "Three Chapters" - non-Orthodox writings of the three above-mentioned teachers. However, instead of the reconciliation of the Monophysites with the Church, this caused a protest in the West, where the condemnation of the "Three Heads" was seen as an attempt on Orthodoxy. Patriarch Saint Mina of Constantinople signed the imperial decree, but Pope Vigilius did not agree for a long time and even went to break communion with the Church of Constantinople.

The empire fought for a long time against the troops that rebelled in Africa, who hoped for a redistribution of the newly conquered lands among themselves. Only in a year was it possible to successfully suppress the rebellion, after which North Africa firmly became part of the empire.

In the late 540s, Italy seemed lost, but the pleas of Pope Vigilius and other noble Roman refugees in Constantinople convinced Justinian not to give up and he again decided to send an expedition there in the year. The numerous troops gathered for the campaign first moved to Thrace, from where, thanks to this, the outrageous Slavs left. Then, in the year, a large Roman force finally arrived in Italy under Narses and defeated the Ostrogoths. Soon the peninsula was cleared of pockets of resistance, and in the year some lands north of the Po River were also occupied. After many years of debilitating struggle, a bloodless Italy, with an administrative center in Ravenna, was nevertheless returned to the empire. In the year Justinian issued a "Pragmatic Sanction" that canceled all the innovations of Totila - the land was returned to its former owners, as well as the slaves and columns freed by the king. The emperor, not trusting the competence of the imperial administrators, entrusted the management of public, financial and educational systems in Italy to the bishops, since the Church remained the only moral and economic force in the ruined country. In Italy, as in Africa, Arianism was persecuted.

Considerable success was the importation of silkworm eggs from China for about a year, which until then had strictly kept the secret of silk production. According to legend, the emperor himself persuaded the Persian Nestorian monks to deliver him a precious cargo. From that time on, Constantinople began to manufacture its own silk, on which a state monopoly was established, which brought large incomes to the treasury.

Heritage

Prayers

Troparion, tone 3

Desiring beauty of the glory of God, / in the earth [life] Thou didst please him / and, having worked well the entrusted titan talent, aggravated thou, / for him and labored righteously.

Kontakion, tone 8

An all-round champion of piety / and a champion of the truth is not shameful, / honestly and for a long time people praise you, God-wise, / but as if having boldness towards Christ God, / ask you who glorify humility, let us call you: // rejoice, Justyopadune

Sources, literature

• Procopius of Caesarea, M., 1884., Chronography, , Bonnae, 1831:
• see a small part at http://www.vostlit.info/haupt-Dateien/index-Dateien/M.phtml?id=2053

• Dyakonov, A., "News of John of Ephesus and the Syrian chronicles about the Slavs in the VI-VII centuries", VDI, 1946, № 1.
• Ryzhov, Konstantin All Monarchs of the World: Vol. 2 - Ancient Greece, Ancient Rome, Byzantium, M.: "Veche," 1999, 629-637.
• Allen, Pauline, "The "Justinianic" Plague," Byzantion, № 49, 1979, 5-20.
• Athanassiadi, Polymnia, “Persecution and Response in Late Paganism,” JHS, № 113, 1993, 1-29.
• Barker, John E. Justinian and the Later Roman Empire, Madison, Wisc., 1966.
• Browning, Robert Justinian and Theodora, 2nd ed., London, 1987.
• Bundy, D. D, “Jacob Baradaeus: The State of Research,” Museon, № 91, 1978, 45-86.
• Bury, J. B., "The Nika riot," JHS, № 17, 1897, 92-119.
• Cameron, Alan, "Heresies and Factions," Byzantion, № 44, 1974, 92-120.
• cameron, alan, Circus Factions. Blues and Greens at Rome and Byzantium, Oxford, 1976.
• Cameron, Averil, Agathias, Oxford, 1970.
• Cameron, Averil, Procopius and the Sixth Century, Berkeley, 1985.
• Cameron, Averil, The Mediterranean World in Late Antiquity, London and New York, 1993.
• capizzi, Giustiniano I tra politica e reliogione, Messina, 1994.
• Chuvin, Pierre, Archer, B.A., trans., A Chronicle of the Last Pagans, Cambridge, 1990.
• Diehl, Charles, Justinien et la civilization byzantine au vie siècle, I-II, Paris, 1901.
• Diehl, Charles, Theodora, empress de Byzance, Paris, 1904.
• Downey, Glanville, "Justinian as Builder," Art Bulletin, № 32, 1950, 262-66.
• Downey, Glanville, Constantinople in the Age of Justinian, Norman, Okla., 1960.
• Evans, J. A. S., "Procopius and the Emperor Justinian," Historical Papers, The Canadian Historical Association, 1968, 126-39.
• Evans, J. A. S., "The "Niká Rebellion and the Empress Theodora," Byzantion, № 54, 1984, 380-82.
• Evans, J. A. S., "The dates of Procopius" works: a Recapitulation of the Evidence," GRBS, № 37, 1996, 301-13.
• Evans, J. A. S., Procopius, New York, 1972.
• Evans, J. A. S., The Age of Justinian. The Circumstances of Imperial Power, London and New York, 1996.
• Fotiou, A., "Recruitment Shortages in the VIth Century," Byzantion, № 58, 1988, 65-77.
• Fowden, Garth, Empire to Commonwealth: Consequences of Monotheism in Late Antiquity, Princeton, 1993.
• Friend, W. H. C., The Rise of the Monophysite Movement: Chapters on the History of the Church in the Fifth and Sixth Centuries, Cambridge, 1972.
• Gerostergios, Asterios, Justinian the Great: The Emperor and Saint, Belmont, 1982.
• Russian translation: Gerostergios, A., Justinian the Great - emperor and saint[per. from English. arch. M. Kozlov], M.: Sretensky Monastery Publishing House, 2010.
• Gordon, C. D., "Procopius and Justinian's Financial Policies," Phoenix, № 13, 1959, 23-30.
• Grabar, André The Golden Age of Justinian, from the Death of Theodosius to the Rise of Islam, New York, 1967.
• Greatrex, Geoffrey, "The Nika Riot: A Reappraisal," JHS, 117, 1997, 60-86.
• Greatrex, Geoffrey, Rome and Persia at War, 502-532, Leeds, 1998.
• Harrison, R. M., A Temple for Byzantium, London, 1989.
• Harvey, Susan Ashbrook, "Remembering Pain: Syriac Historiography and the Separation of the Churches," Byzantion, № 58, 1988, 295-308.
• Harvey, Susan Ashbrook, Asceticism and Society in Crisis: John of Ephesus and "The Lives of the Eastern Saints", Berkeley, 1990.
• Herrin, Judith, The Formation of Christendom, Oxford, 1987.
• Herrin, Judith, "Byzance: le palais et la ville," Byzantion, № 61, 1991, 213-230.
• Holmes, William G. The Age of Justinian and Theodora: A History of the Sixth Century AD, 2nd ed., London, 1912.
• Honoré, Tony, Tribonian, London, 1978.
• Myendorff, J., “Justinian, the Empire, and the Church,” DOP, № 22, 1968, 43-60.
• Moorhead, John Justinian, London and New York, 1994.
• Shahod, I., Byzantium and the Arabs in the Sixth Century, Washington, D.C., 1995.
• Thurman, W. S., “How Justinian I Sought to Handle the Problem of Religious Dissidents,” GOTR, № 13, 1968, 15-40.
• Ure, P. N., Justinian and his Reign, Harmondsworth, 1951.
• Vasiliev, A. A., History of the Byzantine Empire, Madison, 1928, repr. 1964:
• see Russian translation vol. 1, ch. 3 "Justinian the Great and his immediate successors (518-610)" at http://www.hrono.ru/biograf/bio_yu/yustinian1.php
• Watson, Alan, trans. The Digest of Justinian, with Latin text edited by T. Mommsen with the aid of Paul Krueger, I-IV, Philadelphia, 1985.
• Wescke, Kenneth P., On the Person of Christ: The Christology of the Emperor Justinian, Crestwood, 1991.

Used materials

• History portal page Chronos:
• http://www.hrono.ru/biograf/bio_yu/yustinian1.php - used stt. TSB; encyclopedias World around us; from the book of Dashkov, S. B., Emperors of Byzantium, M., 1997; historical calendar-almanac Holy Russia.
• Evans, James Allan, "Justinian (527-565 A.D.)," An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Emperors:
• St. Dimitri Rostovsky, Lives of the Saints:
• St. Filaret (Gumilevsky), archbishop. Chernihiv, Lives of the Saints, M.: Eksmo Publishing House, 2005, 783-784.
• Andreev, A. R., History of Crimea, Chapter 4: “Goths and Huns in the Crimean Peninsula. Chersonese is a province of Byzantium. Chufut-Kale and Eski-Kermen. Avar Khaganate, Turks and Pro-Bulgarians. III - VIII century. ":
• Who was a Christian in the Holy Land of Justin and Savva the Sanctified The Challenge of Our Past: Studies in Orthodox Canon Law and Church History

  The word is missing in the original. Probably omitted by mistake.

Justinian I the Great

(482 or 483–565, imp. from 527)

Emperor Flavius ​​Peter Savvatiy Justinian remained one of the largest, most famous and, paradoxically, mysterious figures of the entire Byzantine history. Descriptions, and even more so assessments of his character, life, deeds are often extremely contradictory and can serve as food for the most unbridled fantasies. But, be that as it may, Byzantium did not know another such emperor in terms of the scale of accomplishments, and the Great Justinian received the nickname absolutely deservedly.

He was born in 482 or 483 in Illyricum (Procopius names the place of his birth Taurisius near Bedrian) and came from a peasant family. Already in the late Middle Ages, a legend arose that Justinian allegedly had a Slavic origin and bore the name of Upravda. When his uncle, Justin, rose under Anastasia Dikor, he brought his nephew closer to him and managed to give him a versatile education. Capable by nature, Justinian gradually began to acquire a certain influence at court. In 521, he was awarded the title of consul, giving magnificent spectacles to the people on this occasion.

AT last years reign of Justin I “Justinian, not yet enthroned, ruled the state during the life of his uncle ... who still reigned, but was very old and incapable of state affairs” (Pr. Kes.,). April 1 (according to other sources - April 4), 527 Justinian was declared August, and after the death of Justin I remained the autocratic ruler of the Byzantine Empire.

He was not tall, white-faced and was considered handsome, despite some tendency to be overweight, early bald patches on his forehead and gray hair. The images that have come down to us on the coins and mosaics of the churches of Ravenna (St. Vitalius and St. Apollinaris; in addition, in Venice, in the Cathedral of St. Mark, there is a statue of him in porphyry) fully correspond to this description. As for the character and actions of Justinian, historians and chroniclers have the most opposite characteristics of them, from panegyric to frankly malicious.

According to various testimonies, the emperor, or, as they began to write more often from the time of Justinian, the autocrat (autocrat) was “an unusual combination of stupidity and baseness ... [was] a cunning and indecisive person ... full of irony and pretense, deceitful, secretive and two-faced, knew how not to to show his anger, perfectly mastered the art of shedding tears not only under the influence of joy or sadness, but at the right moments as needed. He always lied, and not only by accident, but by giving the most solemn records and oaths at the conclusion of contracts, and at the same time even in relation to his own subjects ”(Pr. Kes.,). The same Procopius, however, writes that Justinian was "gifted with a quick and inventive mind, indefatigable in the execution of his intentions." Summing up a certain result of his accomplishments, Procopius in his work “On the Buildings of Justinian” speaks simply enthusiastically: “In our time, the emperor Justinian appeared, who, having taken power over the state, shaken [unrest] and brought to shameful weakness, increased its size and brought him into a brilliant state, having expelled from him the barbarians who raped him. The emperor with the greatest art managed to provide for himself whole new states. In fact, a number of areas that were already alien to the Roman state, he subjugated to his power and built countless cities that were not there before.

Finding faith in God unsteady and forced to follow the path of various confessions, having wiped out from the face of the earth all the paths that led to these hesitations, he ensured that it now stood on one solid foundation of true confession. In addition, realizing that the laws should not be obscure due to their unnecessary multiplicity and, obviously contradicting each other, destroying each other, the emperor, having cleansed them of the mass of unnecessary and harmful chatter, overcoming their mutual divergence with great firmness, preserved the correct laws. He himself, on his own impulse, forgiving the guilt of those who plotted against him, those in need of means of subsistence, filled them to satiety with wealth and thus overcame an unfortunate fate that was humiliating for them, achieved that the joy of life reigned in the empire.

“Emperor Justinian usually forgave the mistakes of his sinning superiors” (Pr. Kes.,), but: “his ear ... was always open to slander” (Zonara,). He favored informers and, by their intrigues, could plunge his closest courtiers into disgrace. At the same time, the emperor, like no one else, understood people and knew how to acquire excellent assistants.

The character of Justinian surprisingly combined the most incompatible properties of human nature: a resolute ruler, he sometimes behaved like an outright coward; both greed and petty stinginess, as well as boundless generosity, were available to him; vengeful and merciless, he could appear and be magnanimous, especially if it increased his fame; possessing indefatigable energy for the realization of his grandiose plans, he was nevertheless able to suddenly despair and "give up" or, on the contrary, stubbornly bring clearly unnecessary undertakings to the end.

Justinian had a phenomenal capacity for work, intelligence and was a talented organizer. With all this, he often fell under the influence of others, primarily his wife, Empress Theodora, a person no less remarkable.

The emperor was distinguished by good health (c. 543 he was able to endure such a terrible disease as the plague!) And excellent endurance. He slept little, at night doing all sorts of state affairs, for which he received from his contemporaries the nickname "sleepless sovereign." He often took the most unpretentious food, never indulged in excessive gluttony or drunkenness. Justinian was also very indifferent to luxury, but, well aware of the importance of the external state for the prestige of the state, he did not spare any means for this: the decoration of the capital's palaces and buildings and the splendor of receptions amazed not only the barbarian ambassadors and kings, but also the sophisticated Romans. And here the basileus knew the measure: when in 557 many cities were destroyed by an earthquake, he immediately canceled the magnificent palace dinners and gifts given by the emperor to the nobility of the capital, and sent a lot of money saved to the victims.

Justinian became famous for his ambition and enviable perseverance in exalting himself and the very title of emperor of the Romans. Declaring the autocrat "isapostle," i.e., "equal to the apostles," he placed him above the people, the state, and even the church, legitimizing the monarch's inaccessibility to either human or ecclesiastical courts. The Christian emperor, of course, could not deify himself, so the "isapostle" turned out to be a very convenient category, the highest level available to a person. And if, before Justinian, courtiers of patrician dignity, according to Roman custom, kissed the emperor on the chest when greeting, and the rest went down on one knee, then from now on, without exception, everyone was obliged to prostrate before him, sitting under a golden dome on a richly decorated throne. The descendants of the proud Romans finally mastered the slave ceremonies of the barbarian East...

By the beginning of the reign of Justinian, the empire had its neighbors: in the west - actually independent kingdoms of the Vandals and Ostrogoths, in the east - Sasanian Iran, in the north - Bulgarians, Slavs, Avars, Ants, and in the south - nomadic Arab tribes. During the thirty-eight years of his reign, Justinian fought with them all and, without taking personal part in any of the battles or campaigns, completed these wars quite successfully.

528 (the year of the second consulship of Justinian, on the occasion of which on January 1 consular spectacles of unprecedented splendor were given) began unsuccessfully. The Byzantines, who had been at war with Persia for several years, lost a great battle at Mindona, and although the imperial commander Peter managed to improve the situation, the embassy asking for peace ended in nothing. In March of the same year, significant Arab forces invaded Syria, but they were quickly escorted back. On top of all the misfortunes on November 29, an earthquake once again damaged Antioch-on-the-Orontes.

By 530, the Byzantines had pushed back the Iranian troops, having won a major victory over them at Dara. A year later, the fifteen thousandth Persian army that crossed the border was thrown back, and on the throne of Ctesiphon the deceased Shah Kavad was replaced by his son Khosrov (Khozroy) I Anushirvan - not only a warlike, but also a wise ruler. In 532, an indefinite truce was concluded with the Persians (the so-called “eternal peace”), and Justinian took the first step towards the restoration of a single power from the Caucasus to the Strait of Gibraltar: using as a pretext the fact that he seized power in Carthage back in 531, Having overthrown and killed the friendly Romans Childeric, the usurper Gelimer, the emperor began to prepare for war with the kingdom of the Vandals. “We implore the holy and glorious Virgin Mary for one thing,” Justinian declared, “so that, at her intercession, the Lord will honor me, his last slave, to reunite with the Roman Empire everything that has been torn away from it and bring it to an end [this. - S.D.] our highest duty. And although the majority of the Senate, headed by one of the closest advisers to Basileus, the praetorian prefect John of Cappadocia, mindful of the unsuccessful campaign under Leo I, spoke out strongly against this idea, on June 22, 533, on six hundred ships, a fifteen thousandth army under the command of Belisarius recalled from the eastern borders (see .) entered the Mediterranean Sea. In September, the Byzantines landed on the African coast, in the autumn and winter of 533–534. under Decium and Trikamar Gelimer was defeated, and in March 534 he surrendered to Belisarius. The losses among the troops and the civilian population of the vandals were enormous. Procopius reports that "how many people died in Africa, I do not know, but I think that myriads of myriads perished." “Passing through it [Libya. - S.D.], it was difficult and surprising to meet at least one person there. Belisarius celebrated a triumph upon his return, and Justinian began to solemnly be called African and Vandal.

In Italy, with the death of the minor grandson of Theodoric the Great, Atalaric (534), the regency of his mother, the daughter of King Amalasunta, ceased. Theodoric's nephew, Theodates, overthrew and imprisoned the queen. The Byzantines provoked the newly-made sovereign of the Ostrogoths in every possible way and achieved their goal - Amalasunta, who enjoyed the formal patronage of Constantinople, died, and Theodates' arrogant behavior became the reason for declaring war on the Ostrogoths.

In the summer of 535, two small but superbly trained and equipped armies invaded the Ostrogothic state: Mund captured Dalmatia, and Belisarius captured Sicily. From the west of Italy, the Franks, bribed with Byzantine gold, threatened. The terrified Theodatus began peace negotiations and, not counting on success, agreed to abdicate the throne, but at the end of the year Mund died in a skirmish, and Belisarius hastily sailed to Africa to suppress a soldier's rebellion. Theodatus, emboldened, took into custody the imperial ambassador Peter. However, in the winter of 536, the Byzantines improved their position in Dalmatia, and at the same time Belisarius returned to Sicily, having seven and a half thousand federates and a four thousandth personal squad there.

In the fall, the Romans went on the offensive, in mid-November they took Naples by storm. Theodates' indecisiveness and cowardice caused a coup - the king was killed, and the Goths elected a former soldier Vitigis in his place. Meanwhile, the army of Belisarius, without meeting resistance, approached Rome, whose inhabitants, especially the old aristocracy, openly rejoiced at the liberation from the power of the barbarians. On the night of December 9-10, 536, the Gothic garrison left Rome through one gate, while the Byzantines entered the other. Witigis's attempts to retake the city, despite more than a tenfold superiority in forces, were unsuccessful. Having overcome the resistance of the Ostrogothic army, at the end of 539 Belisarius laid siege to Ravenna, and the next spring the capital of the Ostrogothic state fell. The Goths offered Belisarius to be their king, but the commander refused. The suspicious Justinian, despite the refusal, hastily recalled him to Constantinople and, not even allowing him to celebrate a triumph, sent him to fight the Persians. The basileus himself took the title of Goth. The gifted ruler and courageous warrior Totila became the king of the Ostrogoths in 541. He managed to assemble the broken squads and organize skillful resistance to the few and poorly provided units of Justinian. Over the next five years, the Byzantines lost almost all their conquests in Italy. Totila successfully applied a special tactic - he destroyed all the captured fortresses so that they could not serve as a support for the enemy in the future, and thereby forced the Romans to fight outside the fortifications, which they could not do due to their small numbers. The disgraced Belisarius in 545 again arrived in the Apennines, but already without money and troops, almost to certain death. The remnants of his armies could not break through to the aid of the besieged Rome, and on December 17, 546, Totila occupied and sacked the Eternal City. Soon the Goths themselves left from there (failing, however, to destroy its powerful walls), and Rome again fell under the rule of Justinian, but not for long.

The bloodless Byzantine army, which received no reinforcements, no money, no food and fodder, began to maintain its existence by robbing the civilian population. This, as well as the restoration of harsh Roman laws in relation to the common people in Italy, led to an exodus of slaves and columns, which continuously replenished the army of Totila. By 550, he again took possession of Rome and Sicily, and only four cities remained under the control of Constantinople - Ravenna, Ancona, Croton and Otrante. Justinian appointed his cousin Germanus to the place of Belisarius, supplying him with significant forces, but this decisive and no less famous commander died unexpectedly in Thessalonica, without having time to take office. Then Justinian sent an army of unprecedented numbers to Italy (more than thirty thousand people), headed by the imperial eunuch Armenian Narses, “a man of sharp mind and more energetic than is typical of eunuchs” (Pr. Kes.,).

In 552, Narses landed on the peninsula, and in June of this year, in the battle of Tagina, the army of Totila was defeated, he himself fell at the hands of his own courtier, and Narses sent the bloody clothes of the king to the capital. The remnants of the Goths, together with Totila's successor, Theia, retreated to Vesuvius, where they were finally destroyed in the second battle. In 554, Narses defeated a 70,000-strong horde of invading Franks and Allemans. Mostly fighting in Italy ended, and the Goths, who had gone to Rezia and Norik, were subjugated ten years later. In 554, Justinian issued a "Pragmatic Sanction" that canceled all the innovations of Totila - the land was returned to its former owners, as well as the slaves and columns freed by the king.

Around the same time, the patrician Liberius won the southeast of Spain from the Vandals with the cities of Corduba, Cartago Nova and Malaga.

Justinian's dream of the reunification of the Roman Empire came true. But Italy was devastated, robbers roamed the roads of the war-torn regions, and five times (in 536, 546, 547, 550, 552), Rome, which passed from hand to hand, became depopulated, and Ravenna became the residence of the governor of Italy.

In the east, with varying success, there was (since 540) a difficult war with Khosrov, then stopped by truces (545, 551, 555), then flared up again. Finally Persian Wars ended only by 561-562. world for fifty years. Under the terms of this peace, Justinian undertook to pay the Persians 400 libres of gold per year, the same left Lazika. The Romans kept the conquered Southern Crimea and the Transcaucasian shores of the Black Sea, but during this war, other Caucasian regions - Abkhazia, Svanetia, Mizimania - came under the protection of Iran. After more than thirty years of conflict, both states found themselves weakened, with virtually no advantages.

The Slavs and Huns remained a disturbing factor. “From the time Justinian took power over the Roman state, the Huns, Slavs and Antes, making raids almost every year, did unbearable things on the inhabitants” (Pr. Kes.,). In 530, Mund successfully repulsed the onslaught of the Bulgarians in Thrace, but three years later the army of the Slavs appeared there. Magister militum Hilwood. fell in battle, and the invaders devastated a number of Byzantine territories. Around 540, the nomadic Huns organized a campaign in Scythia and Mysia. The emperor's nephew Justus, who was sent against them, perished. Only at the cost of enormous efforts did the Romans succeed in defeating the barbarians and driving them back across the Danube. Three years later, the same Huns, having attacked Greece, reached the outskirts of the capital, causing an unprecedented panic among its inhabitants. At the end of the 40s. The Slavs ravaged the lands of the empire from the headwaters of the Danube to Dyrrhachium.

In 550, three thousand Slavs crossed the Danube and again invaded Illyricum. The imperial commander Aswad failed to organize proper resistance to the aliens, he was captured and executed in the most ruthless way: he was burned alive, after cutting the belts from the skin of his back. The small squads of the Romans, not daring to fight, only watched how, divided into two detachments, the Slavs engaged in robberies and murders. The cruelty of the attackers was impressive: both detachments “killed everyone without considering the years, so that the whole land of Illyria and Thrace was covered with unburied bodies. They did not kill those they came across with swords or spears or in any ordinary way, but, driving stakes firmly into the ground and making them as sharp as possible, they impaled these unfortunates on them with great force, making the point of this stake enter between the buttocks. , and then under the pressure of the body penetrated into the inside of a person. This is how they saw fit to treat us! Sometimes these barbarians, having driven four thick stakes into the ground, tied the hands and feet of the captives to them, and then continuously beat them on the head with sticks, thus killing them like dogs or snakes, or any other wild animals. The rest, along with bulls and small cattle, which they could not drive into their father's territory, they locked up in the premises and burned without any regret ”(Pr. Kes.,). In the summer of 551, the Slavs went on a campaign against Thessalonica. Only when a huge army, intended to be sent to Italy under the command of Herman, who had acquired formidable glory, received an order to deal with Thracian affairs, the Slavs, frightened by this news, went home.

At the end of 559, a huge mass of Bulgarians and Slavs again poured into the empire. The invaders, who plundered everyone and everything, reached Thermopylae and Thracian Chersonese, and most of them turned to Constantinople. From mouth to mouth, the Byzantines passed on stories about the wild atrocities of the enemy. The historian Agathius of Mirinei writes that the enemies of even pregnant women were forced, mocking their suffering, to give birth right on the roads, and they were not allowed to touch the babies, leaving the newborns to be eaten by birds and dogs. In the city, under the protection of whose walls the entire population of the surroundings fled, taking the most valuable thing (the damaged Long Wall could not serve as a reliable barrier to the robbers), there were practically no troops. The emperor mobilized to defend the capital all those capable of wielding weapons, putting up to the loopholes the city militia of circus parties (dimots), palace guards and even armed members of the senate. Justinian instructed Belisarius to command the defense. The need for funds turned out to be such that in order to organize cavalry detachments, it was necessary to put the race horses of the capital hippodrome under the saddle. With unprecedented difficulty, threatening the power of the Byzantine fleet (which could block the Danube and lock the barbarians in Thrace), the invasion was repelled, but small detachments of the Slavs continued to cross the border almost unhindered and settle on the European lands of the empire, forming strong colonies.

The wars of Justinian required the attraction of colossal funds. By the VI century. almost the entire army consisted of hired barbarian formations (Goths, Huns, Gepids, even Slavs, etc.). Citizens of all classes could only bear on their own shoulders the heavy burden of taxes, which increased year by year. On this occasion, the autocrat himself frankly spoke out in one of the short stories: “The first duty of subjects and the best way for them to thank the emperor is to pay public taxes in full with unconditional selflessness.” To replenish the treasury, a variety of methods were sought. Everything was used, up to trade in positions and damage to the coin by cutting it around the edges. Peasants were ruined by "epibola" - attributing to their lands forcibly neighboring vacant plots with the requirement to use them and pay tax for the new land. Justinian did not leave wealthy citizens alone, robbing them in every possible way. “Justinian was an insatiable man with respect to money and such a hunter of someone else's that he gave the whole kingdom subject to himself at the mercy of part of the rulers, part of the tax collectors, part of those people who, for no reason, love to plot intrigues against others. Almost all property was taken away from an uncountable number of rich people under insignificant pretexts. However, Justinian did not save money ... ”(Evagrius,). “Not a shore” means he did not strive for personal enrichment, but used them for the benefit of the state - in the way he understood this “good”.

The economic activities of the emperor were reduced mainly to the complete and strict control by the state over the activities of any manufacturer or trader. The state monopoly on the production of a number of goods also brought considerable benefits. During the reign of Justinian, the empire had its own silk: two Nestorian missionary monks, risking their lives, took out silkworm grena from China in their hollow staffs.

The production of silk, having become the monopoly of the treasury, began to give her enormous income.

An enormous amount of money was absorbed by the most extensive construction. Justinian I covered both the European, Asian and African parts of the empire with a network of renovated and newly built cities and fortified points. For example, the cities of Dara, Amida, Antioch, Theodosiopolis and the dilapidated Greek Thermopylae and the Danube Nikopol were restored, for example, during the wars with Khosrov. Carthage, surrounded by new walls, was renamed Justinian II (Taurisius became the first), and the North African city of Bana, rebuilt in the same way, was renamed Theodorida. At the behest of the emperor, new fortresses were built in Asia - in Phoenicia, Bithynia, Cappadocia. From the raids of the Slavs, a powerful defensive line was built along the banks of the Danube.

The list of cities and fortresses, one way or another affected by the construction of Justinian the Great, is huge. Not a single Byzantine ruler, either before him or after the construction activity, did not conduct such volumes. Contemporaries and descendants were amazed not only by the scale of military installations, but also by the magnificent palaces and temples that remained from the time of Justinian everywhere - from Italy to Syrian Palmyra. And among them, of course, the church of Hagia Sophia in Constantinople that has survived to this day (Istanbol Hagia Sophia Mosque, from the 30s of the XX century - a museum) stands out as a fabulous masterpiece.

When in 532, during the city uprising, the church of St. Sophia, Justinian decided to build a temple that would surpass all known examples. For five years, several thousand workers, led by Anthimios of Thrall, "in the art of so-called mechanics and construction, the most famous not only among his contemporaries, but even among those who lived long before him," and Isidore of Miletus, " in all respects a man who knows” (Pr. Kes.,), under the direct supervision of August himself, who laid the first stone in the foundation of the building, a building that still admires was erected. Suffice it to say that a dome of a larger diameter (at St. Sophia - 31.4 m) was built in Europe only nine centuries later. The wisdom of the architects and the accuracy of the builders allowed the gigantic building to stand in a seismically active zone for more than fourteen and a half centuries.

Not only by the boldness of technical solutions, but also by the unprecedented beauty and richness of the interior decoration, the main temple of the empire amazed everyone who saw it. After the consecration of the cathedral, Justinian walked around it and exclaimed: “Glory to God, who recognized me as worthy to perform such a miracle. I have defeated you, O Solomon! . In the course of the work, the emperor himself gave some valuable engineering advice, although he had never dealt with architecture.

Having paid tribute to God, Justinian did the same in relation to the monarch and the people, rebuilding the palace and hippodrome with splendor.

Realizing his extensive plans for the revival of the former greatness of Rome, Justinian could not do without putting things in order in legislative affairs. In the time that has passed since the publication of The Theodosius Code, a mass of new, often contradictory imperial and praetor edicts appeared, and in general, by the middle of the 6th century. old Roman law, having lost its former harmony, turned into an intricate heap of fruits of legal thought, which provided the skillful interpreter with the opportunity to conduct lawsuits in one direction or another, depending on the benefits. For these reasons, Vasileus ordered to carry out colossal work to streamline a huge number of decrees of rulers and the entire heritage of ancient jurisprudence. In 528-529 a commission of ten jurists, headed by lawyers Tribonian and Theophilus, codified the decrees of emperors from Hadrian to Justinian in twelve books of the Justinian Code, which has come down to us in the corrected edition of 534. Decrees not included in this code were declared invalid. From 530, a new commission of 16 people, headed by the same Tribonian, took up the compilation of a legal canon based on the most extensive material of all Roman jurisprudence. So by 533, fifty books of the Digest appeared. In addition to them, "Institutions" were published - a kind of textbook for jurists. These works, as well as 154 imperial decrees (short stories) published between 534 and the death of Justinian, constitute the Corpus Juris Civilis - the Code of Civil Law, not only the basis of all Byzantine and Western European medieval law, but also the most valuable historical source. At the end of the activities of the mentioned commissions, Justinian officially banned all legislative and critical activities of lawyers. Only translations of the Corpus into other languages ​​(mainly Greek) and the compilation of short extracts from there were allowed. From now on, it became impossible to comment on and interpret the laws, and out of the entire abundance of law schools, two remained in the Eastern Roman Empire - in Constantinople and Verita (modern Beirut).

The attitude of the isapostle Justinian himself to the law was quite consistent with his idea that there is nothing higher and holier than the imperial majesty. Justinian’s statements on this subject speak for themselves: “If any question seems doubtful, let them report it to the emperor, so that he resolves it with his autocratic power, to which alone belongs the right to interpret the Law”; “the creators of law themselves said that the will of the monarch has the force of law”; “God subordinated the very laws to the emperor, sending him to people as an animated Law” (Novella 154, ).

The active policy of Justinian also affected the sphere of public administration. At the time of his accession, Byzantium was divided into two prefectures - East and Illyricum, which included 51 and 13 provinces, governed in accordance with the principle of separation of military, judicial and civil power introduced by Diocletian. During the time of Justinian, some provinces were merged into larger ones, in which all services, unlike the provinces of the old type, were headed by one person - duka (dux). This was especially true for territories remote from Constantinople, such as Italy and Africa, where exarchates were formed a few decades later. In an effort to improve the structure of power, Justinian repeatedly carried out “purges” of the apparatus, trying to combat the abuses of officials and embezzlement. But this struggle was lost every time by the emperor: the colossal sums collected in excess of taxes by the rulers settled in their own treasuries. Bribery flourished despite harsh laws against it. The influence of the Senate Justinian (especially in the first years of his reign) reduced to almost zero, turning it into a body of obedient approval of the orders of the emperor.

In 541, Justinian abolished the consulate in Constantinople, declaring himself consul for life, and at the same time stopped expensive consular games (they took only 200 libres of state gold annually).

Such an energetic activity of the emperor, which captured the entire population of the country and demanded exorbitant costs, displeased not only the impoverished people, but also the aristocracy, which did not want to bother itself, for which the humble Justinian was an upstart on the throne, and his restless ideas cost too much. This discontent was realized in rebellions and conspiracies. In 548, the conspiracy of a certain Artavan was uncovered, and in 562, the capital's rich (“money changers”) Markell, Vita and others decided to slaughter the elderly basileus during an audience. But a certain Avlavius ​​betrayed his comrades, and when Markell entered the palace with a dagger under his clothes, the guards seized him. Markell managed to stab himself, but the rest of the conspirators were detained, and under torture they declared Belisarius the organizer of the assassination attempt. The slander worked, Belisarius fell out of favor, but Justinian did not dare to execute such a well-deserved person on unverified accusations.

It was not always calm among the soldiers. For all their militancy and experience in military affairs, the federates have never been distinguished by discipline. United in tribal unions, they, violent and intemperate, often revolted against the command, and the management of such an army required no small talents.

In 536, after the departure of Belisarius to Italy, some African units, outraged by the decision of Justinian to attach all the lands of the Vandals to the fiscus (and not distribute them to the soldiers, as they expected), rebelled, proclaiming the commander of a simple warrior Stotsu, “a brave and enterprising man "(Feof.,). Almost the entire army supported him, and Stoza besieged Carthage, where a few troops loyal to the emperor were locked behind the dilapidated walls. The eunuch commander Solomon, together with the future historian Procopius, fled by sea to Syracuse, to Belisarius. He, having learned about what had happened, immediately boarded a ship and sailed to Carthage. Frightened by the news of the arrival of their former commander, the Stoza warriors retreated from the walls of the city. But as soon as Belisarius left the African coast, the rebels resumed hostilities. Stoza accepted into his army slaves who fled from the owners, and survived the defeat of the soldiers of Gelimer. Assigned to Africa, Herman suppressed the rebellion by force of gold and weapons, but Stotza with many supporters hid in Mauritania and disturbed Justinian's African possessions for a long time, until in 545 he was killed in battle. Only by 548 Africa was finally pacified.

For almost the entire Italian campaign, the army, whose supply was badly organized, expressed dissatisfaction and from time to time either flatly refused to fight or openly threatened to go over to the side of the enemy.

The popular movements did not subside. With fire and sword, Orthodoxy, which was asserting itself on the territory of the state, caused religious riots in the outskirts. The Egyptian monophysites constantly threatened to disrupt the supply of grain to the capital, and Justinian ordered the construction of a special fortress in Egypt to protect the grain collected in the state granary. With extreme cruelty, the speeches of the Gentiles - Jews (529) and Samaritans (556) were suppressed.

Numerous battles were also bloody between the rival circus parties of Constantinople, mainly the Venets and Prasins (the largest - in 547, 549, 550, 559.562, 563). Although sports disagreements were often only a manifestation of deeper factors, primarily dissatisfaction with the existing order (dims of different colors belonged to different social groups of the population), base passions also played a significant role, and therefore Procopius of Caesarea speaks of these parties with undisguised contempt: spectacles, began to squander money and subject themselves to the most severe corporal punishment and even shameful death. They start fights with their opponents, not knowing why they put themselves in danger, and being, on the contrary, confident that, having defeated them in these fights, they can expect nothing more than imprisonment, execution and death. . Enmity towards opponents arises in them for no reason and remains forever; neither kinship, nor property, nor bonds of friendship are respected. Even siblings who stick to one of these flowers are in discord among themselves. They have no need for either God's or human works, just to deceive their opponents. They have no need to the extent that either side turns out to be impious before God, that the laws and civil society are offended by their own people or their opponents, for even at the very time when they need, perhaps, the most necessary, when the fatherland is insulted in the very essential, they do not worry about that, as long as they feel good. They call their accomplices a side ... I can’t call it otherwise than mental illness. ”

It was from the fights of the warring Dims that the largest Nika uprising in the history of Constantinople began. At the beginning of January 532, during the games at the hippodrome, the prasins began to complain about the Veneti (whose party was more favored by the court and especially the empress) and about the harassment by the imperial official spafarius Kalopodius. In response, the "blues" began to threaten the "greens" and complain to the emperor. Justinian left all the claims without attention, the "greens" left the spectacle with insulting cries. The situation escalated, and there were skirmishes between the warring factions. The next day, the eparch of the capital, Evdemon, ordered the hanging of several condemned for participating in the riot. It so happened that two - one venet, the other prasin - fell off the gallows twice and remained alive. When the executioner began to put the noose on them again, the crowd, seeing a miracle in the salvation of the condemned, beat them off. Three days later, on January 13, the people began to demand pardon from the emperor for those "saved by God." The refusal caused a storm of indignation. People poured from the hippodrome, destroying everything in their path. The eparch's palace was burned down, guards and hated officials were killed right on the streets. The rebels, leaving aside the differences of the circus parties, united and demanded the resignation of the Prasin John the Cappadocian and the Venets Tribonian and Eudemona. On January 14, the city became ungovernable, the rebels knocked out the palace bars, Justinian deposed John, Eudemons and Tribonian, but the people did not calm down. People continued to chant the slogans sounded the day before: “It would be better if Savvaty had not been born, if he had not given birth to a murderous son” and even “Another basil to the Romans!” The barbarian squad of Belisarius tried to push the raging crowds away from the palace, and the clergy of the church of St. Sophia, with sacred objects in their hands, persuading citizens to disperse. The incident caused a new fit of rage, stones flew from the roofs of houses at the soldiers, and Belisarius retreated. The building of the Senate and the streets adjacent to the palace caught fire. The fire raged for three days, the Senate, the Church of St. Sophia, the approaches to the palace square of Augusteon and even the hospital of St. Samson, along with the patients who were in it. Lydia wrote: “The city was a heap of blackening hills, like on Lipari or near Vesuvius, it was filled with smoke and ash, the smell of burning spreading everywhere made it uninhabited and its whole appearance inspired the viewer with horror mixed with pity.” An atmosphere of violence and pogroms reigned everywhere, corpses lay on the streets. Many residents in a panic crossed to the other side of the Bosphorus. On January 17, the nephew of the emperor Anastasius Hypatius appeared to Justinian, assuring the basileus of his innocence in the conspiracy, since the rebels had already shouted out Hypatius as emperor. However, Justinian did not believe him and drove him out of the palace. On the morning of the 18th, the autocrat himself went out with the Gospel in his hands to the hippodrome, persuading the inhabitants to stop the riots and openly regretting that he had not immediately listened to the demands of the people. Part of the audience greeted him with cries: “You are lying! You're making a false oath, donkey!" . A cry went through the stands to make Hypatius emperor. Justinian left the hippodrome, and Hypatius, despite his desperate resistance and the tears of his wife, was dragged out of the house and dressed in captured royal clothes. Two hundred armed Prashins appeared in order to force his way to the palace at the first request, a significant part of the senators joined the rebellion. The city guards guarding the hippodrome refused to obey Belisarius and let his soldiers in. Tormented by fear, Justinian gathered in the palace a council of the courtiers who remained with him. The emperor was already inclined to flee, but Theodora, unlike her husband, who retained her courage, rejected this plan and forced the emperor to act. His eunuch, Narses, managed to bribe some of the influential "blues" and to reject part of this party from further participation in the uprising. Soon, having hardly made his way around the burnt part of the city, a detachment of Belisarius burst into the hippodrome (where Ipatius listened to praises in his honor) from the north-west, and on the orders of their chief, the soldiers began to shoot arrows into the crowd and strike right and left with swords. A huge but unorganized mass of people mixed up, and then through the circus "gates of the dead" (once the bodies of murdered gladiators were carried out of the arena through them) soldiers of the three thousandth barbarian detachment of Mund made their way into the arena. A terrible massacre began, after which about thirty thousand (!) Dead bodies remained in the stands and arena. Hypatius and his brother Pompey were captured and, at the insistence of the empress, beheaded, and the senators who joined them were also punished. The Nika uprising is over. The unheard-of cruelty with which it was suppressed frightened the Romans for a long time. Soon the emperor restored the courtiers who had been removed in January to their former posts, without meeting any resistance.

Only in the last years of the reign of Justinian did the discontent of the people again begin to manifest itself openly. In 556, at the dances dedicated to the day of the founding of Constantinople (May 11), the inhabitants shouted to the emperor: “Basileus, [give abundance to the city!” (Feof.,). It was in the presence of the Persian ambassadors, and Justinian, furious, ordered many to be executed. In September 560, a rumor spread through the capital about the death of the recently ill emperor. Anarchy swept the city, gangs of robbers and the townspeople who joined them smashed and set fire to houses and bread shops. The unrest was calmed down only by the quick wit of the eparch: he immediately ordered that bulletins on the state of health of the basileus be posted in the most prominent places and arranged a festive illumination. In 563, the crowd threw stones at the newly appointed eparch of the city, in 565, in the Mesenziol quarter, the prasins fought with soldiers and excuvites for two days, many were killed.

Justinian continued the line begun under Justin on the dominance of Orthodoxy in all spheres of public life, persecuting dissidents in every possible way. At the very beginning of the reign, ca. In 529, he promulgated a decree prohibiting the employment of "heretics" in the public service and a partial defeat in the rights of adherents of the unofficial church. “It is fair,” the emperor wrote, “to deprive earthly goods of one who worships God incorrectly.” As for non-Christians, Justinian spoke even more severely about them: “There should be no pagans on earth!” .

In 529, the Platonic Academy in Athens was closed, and its teachers fled to Persia, seeking the favor of Prince Khosrov, known for his scholarship and love for ancient philosophy.

The only heretical direction of Christianity that was not particularly persecuted was the Monophysite - partly because of the patronage of Theodora, and the basileus himself was well aware of the danger of persecution of such a large number of citizens, who already kept the court in constant expectation of a riot. Convened in 553 in Constantinople, the V Ecumenical Council (there were two more church councils under Justinian - local councils in 536 and 543) made some concessions to the Monophysites. This council confirmed the condemnation made in 543 of the teaching of the famous Christian theologian Origen as heretical.

Considering the church and the empire as one, Rome as his city, and himself as the highest authority, Justinian easily recognized the supremacy of the popes (whom he could appoint at his discretion) over the patriarchs of Constantinople.

The emperor himself gravitated towards theological disputes from a young age, and in old age this became his main hobby. In matters of faith, he was distinguished by scrupulousness: John of Nius, for example, reports that when Justinian was offered to use a certain magician and sorcerer against Khosrov Anushirvan, the basileus rejected his services, exclaiming indignantly: “I, Justinian, the Christian emperor, will I triumph with the help of demons? !" . He punished the guilty churchmen mercilessly: for example, in 527, two bishops convicted of sodomy, on his orders, were taken around the city with their genitals cut off as a reminder to the priests of the need for piety.

Justinian embodied the ideal on earth all his life: one and great God, one and great church, one and great power, one and great ruler. The achievement of this unity and greatness was paid for by the incredible exertion of the forces of the state, the impoverishment of the people and hundreds of thousands of victims. The Roman Empire was revived, but this colossus stood on clay feet. Already the first successor of Justinian the Great, Justin II, in one of the short stories, lamented that he had found the country in a terrifying state.

In the last years of his life, the emperor became interested in theology and turned less and less to the affairs of the state, preferring to spend time in the palace, in disputes with church hierarchs or even ignorant simple monks. According to the poet Corippus, “the old emperor no longer cared about anything; as if already numb, he was completely immersed in the expectation of eternal life. His spirit was already in heaven."

In the summer of 565, Justinian sent out a dogma about the incorruptibility of the body of Christ for discussion among the dioceses, but he did not wait for the results - between November 11 and 14, Justinian the Great died, "after he filled the world with grumbling and troubles" (Evag.,). According to Agathius of Mirinea, he is “the first, so to speak, among all those who reigned [in Byzantium. - S.D.] showed himself not in words, but in deeds as a Roman emperor.

Dante Alighieri in the Divine Comedy placed Justinian in paradise.