Psychology has come a long way of development, the understanding of the object, subject and goals of psychology has changed. Let us note the main stages in the development of psychology as a science.

Stage I - psychology as the science of the soul. This definition of psychology was given more than two thousand years ago. The presence of the soul tried to explain all the incomprehensible phenomena in human life.
Stage II - psychology as a science of consciousness. It arises in the 17th century in connection with the development of the natural sciences. The ability to think, feel, desire is called consciousness. The main method of study was the observation of a person for himself and the description of the facts.
Stage III - psychology as a science of behavior. Arises in the 20th century. The task of psychology is to set up experiments and observe what can be directly seen, namely, behavior, actions, reactions of a person (the motives that cause actions were not taken into account).

Psychology is a science that studies the objective patterns, manifestations and mechanisms of the psyche.

In order to more clearly represent the path of development of psychology as a science, we briefly consider its main stages and directions.

1. The first ideas about the psyche were associated with animism (from Latin anima - spirit,) - the most ancient views, according to which everything that exists in the world has a soul. The soul was understood as an entity independent of the body, controlling all living and inanimate objects.

2. Later, in the philosophical teachings of antiquity, psychological aspects were touched upon, which were solved in terms of idealism or in terms of materialism. Thus, the materialistic philosophers of antiquity Democritus, Lucretius, Epicurus understood the human soul as a kind of matter, as a bodily formation, consisting of spherical, small and most mobile atoms.

3. According to the ancient Greek idealist philosopher Plato (427-347 BC), who was a student and follower of Socrates, the soul is something divine, different from the body, and the human soul exists before it enters in connection with the body. It is the image and outflow of the world soul. The soul is an invisible, sublime, divine, eternal principle. Soul and body are in complex relationship with each other. According to its divine origin, the soul is called upon to control the body, to direct the life of a person. However, sometimes the body takes the soul into its fetters. The body is torn apart by various desires and passions, it takes care of food, is subject to illnesses, fears, temptations. Mental phenomena are divided by Plato into reason, courage (in the modern sense -) and lust ().

Reason is located in the head, courage - in the chest, lust - in the abdominal cavity. The harmonious unity of the rational principle, noble aspirations and desires gives integrity to the spiritual life of a person. The soul lives in the human body and guides him throughout his life, and after death leaves him and enters the divine "world of ideas." Since the soul is the highest thing in a person, he should take care of its health more than the health of the body. Depending on what kind of lifestyle a person led, after his death, a different fate awaits his soul: it will either wander near the earth, burdened with bodily elements, or fly off the earth into an ideal world, into a world of ideas that exists outside of matter and outside of the individual. consciousness. "Aren't people ashamed to take care of money, fame and honors, but not to take care of their mind, truth and their soul and not think that it should be better?" - ask Socrates and Plato.

4. Great Philosopher Aristotle in his treatise "On the Soul" singled out psychology as a kind of field of knowledge and for the first time put forward the idea of ​​the inseparability of the soul and the living body. Aristotle rejected the view of the soul as a substance. At the same time, he did not consider it possible to consider the soul in isolation from matter (living bodies). The soul, according to Aristotle, is incorporeal, it is the form of a living body, the cause and purpose of all its vital functions. Aristotle put forward the concept of the soul as a function of the body, and not some external phenomenon in relation to it. The soul, or "psyche", is the engine that allows a living being to realize itself. If the eye were a living being, then its soul would be sight. So the human soul is the essence of a living body, it is the realization of its being, - Aristotle believed. The main function of the soul, according to Aristotle, is the realization of the biological existence of the organism. The center, "psyche", is in the heart, where the impressions from the sense organs come. These impressions form a source of ideas, which, combined with each other as a result of rational thinking, subordinate behavior to themselves. The driving force of human behavior is the desire (internal activity of the body), associated with a feeling of pleasure or displeasure. Sense perceptions constitute the beginning of knowledge. The preservation and reproduction of sensations gives memory. Thinking is characterized by general concepts, judgments and inferences. A special form is the nous (mind), brought in from outside in the form of the divine mind. Thus, the soul manifests itself in various abilities for activity: nourishing, feeling, rational. Higher abilities arise from the lower ones and on their basis. The primary cognitive faculty of man is sensation; it takes the form of sensually perceived objects without their matter, just as "wax takes the impression of a seal without iron." Sensations leave a trace in the form of representations - images of those objects that previously acted on the senses. Aristotle showed that these images are connected in three directions: by similarity, by contiguity and contrast, thereby indicating the main types of connections - associations of mental phenomena. Aristotle believed that knowledge of man is possible only through knowledge of the universe and the order existing in it. Thus, at the first stage, psychology acted as the science of the soul.

5. In the era of the Middle Ages, the idea was established that the soul is a divine, supernatural principle, and therefore the study of mental life should be subordinated to the tasks of theology.

Human judgment can only yield to the outer side of the soul, which is turned to material world. The greatest mysteries of the soul are accessible only in religious (mystical) experience.

6. From the 17th century. a new era begins in the development of psychological knowledge. In connection with the development of the natural sciences, with the help of experimental methods, they began to study the laws of human consciousness. The ability to think and feel is called consciousness. Psychology began to develop as a science of consciousness. It is characterized by attempts to comprehend the spiritual world of a person mainly from general philosophical, speculative positions, without the necessary experimental base. R. Descartes (1596-1650) comes to the conclusion about the difference between the soul of a person and his body: "The body by its nature is always divisible, while the spirit is indivisible." However, the soul is capable of producing movements in the body. This contradictory dualistic doctrine gave rise to a problem called psychophysical: how are bodily (physiological) and mental (mental) processes in a person related? Descartes created a theory to explain behavior based on a mechanistic model. According to this model, the information delivered by the senses is sent along the sensory nerves to the holes in the brain, which these nerves expand, which allows the "animal souls" located in the brain to flow through the thinnest tubes - the motor nerves - into the muscles, which inflate, which leads to withdrawal of the irritated limb, or causes one or another action to be performed. Thus, there was no need to resort to the soul to explain how simple behavioral acts arise. Descartes laid the foundations for the deterministic (causal) concept of behavior with its central idea as a natural motor response of the organism to external physical stimulation. This is Cartesian dualism - a body that acts mechanically, and a "reasonable soul" that controls it, localized in the brain. Thus, the concept of "Soul" began to turn into the concept of "Mind", and later - into the concept of "Consciousness". The famous Cartesian phrase "I think, therefore I am" became the basis of the postulate that the first thing a person discovers in himself is his own. The existence of consciousness is the main and unconditional fact, and the main task of psychology is to analyze the state and content of consciousness. On the basis of this postulate, psychology began to develop - it made consciousness its subject.

7. An attempt to reunite the body and soul of man, separated by the teachings of Descartes, was made by the Dutch philosopher Spinoza (1632-1677). There is no special spiritual principle, it is always one of the manifestations of an extended substance (matter).

Soul and body are determined by the same material causes. Spinoza believed that such an approach makes it possible to consider the phenomena of the psyche with the same accuracy and objectivity as lines and surfaces are considered in geometry.

22. Significant contribution to the development of psychology of the XX century. introduced by our domestic scientists L.S. (1896-1934), A.N. (1903-1979), A.R. Luria (1902-1977) and P.Ya. (1902-1988). L.S. Vygotsky introduced the concept of higher mental functions (thinking in concepts, rational speech, logical memory, voluntary attention) as a specifically human, socially conditioned form of the psyche, and also laid the foundations for the cultural-historical concept of human mental development. These functions initially exist as forms of external activity, and only later - as a completely internal (intrapsychic) ​​process. They come from forms of verbal communication between people and are mediated. The system of signs determines behavior to a greater extent than the surrounding nature, since a sign, a symbol contains a program of behavior in a collapsed form. Higher mental functions develop in the process of learning, i.e. joint activities child and adult.

A.N. Leontiev carried out a series of experimental studies revealing the mechanism of formation of higher mental functions as a process of "growing" (interiorization) of higher forms of tool-sign actions into the subjective structures of the human psyche.

A.R. Luria Special attention devoted to the problems of cerebral localization and their disorders. He was one of the founders new area psychological science - neuropsychology.

P.Ya. Galperin considered (from perception to thinking inclusive) as an orienting activity of the subject in problem situations. The psyche itself historically arises only in a situation of mobile life for orientation on the basis of an image and is carried out with the help of actions in terms of this image. P.Ya. Galperin is the author of the concept of the phased formation of mental actions (images, concepts). The practical implementation of this concept can significantly increase the effectiveness of training.

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION

Tver State University

Department: national history

Abstract on the topic:

"The history of the development of psychological knowledge and the main directions in psychology"

Prepared 4th year student of the OZO M.M. Chikunova

checked:_______________

Tver 2007

Chapter I. The main historical stages in the development of psychological knowledge.

1. 
   The first stage: psychology as the science of the soul.
2. 
   Stage Two: Psychology as the Science of Consciousness.
3. 
   The third stage: psychology as a science of behavior.
4. 
   Fourth stage: psychology as a science of facts, patterns, mechanisms of the psyche.

1. 
   Behaviorism.
2. 
   Psychoanalysis.
3. 
   Gestalt psychology.
4. 
   Humanistic psychology.
5. 
   Transpersonal psychology.
6. 
   Ontopsychology.
7. 
   Trends and prospects for the development of psychological science.

Conclusion.

Bibliography.

Introduction
Psychology has a long history: the first scientific ideas arose in the 7th century. BC e. Therefore, the question arises of periodization of the history of psychology, the task of which is to dismember this process, to single out stages, and to determine the content of each of them.

There are two major periods in the history of psychology: the first, when psychological knowledge developed in the depths of philosophy, or rather (6th century BC - mid-19th century); the second - when psychology developed as an independent science (mid-19th century - present).

In the last chapters, the topics of the development of psychological science, as well as its main directions, prospects and trends in the development of domestic and foreign psychology, will be considered in more detail.
Chapter I. Main historical stages in the development of psychological knowledge

1.1 First stage: psychology as a science (Aristotle, Democrat, Plato)
Aristotle in his treatise "On the Soul" singled out psychology as a kind of knowledge and for the first time put forward the idea of ​​the inseparability of the soul and body.

The soul, according to Aristotle, is the form of a living organic body. The soul makes the body alive. In the soul - the cause - the basis of all manifestations of the living body.

The soul as a form of the body means that it is the essence of the body, the cause and purpose of all its actions. The soul is inextricably linked with the body: does it exist??? body. It is not the soul that acts, but the corresponding body, but the animate body.

The main function of the soul is the realization of the biological coexistence of the organism. Center "psyche?" is located in the heart when impressions come from the sense organs. They form a source, which, combined with each other as a result of a rational phenomenon, subordinate behavior to themselves. Sense perceptions constitute the beginning of knowledge. The storage and reproduction of sensations creates memory. Thinking is characterized by the compilation of general concepts, judgments and conclusions. Mind is a special form of intellectual activity, brought in from outside in the form of divine mind.

Thus, the soul manifests itself in various abilities for activity: nourishing, feeling, rational.

Higher abilities arise from the lower and on their basis. The primary cognitive ability of a person is sensations that leave a trace in the form of representations-images of those objects that previously acted on the senses. Aristotle showed that these images are connected in three directions: by similarity, by complexity and contrast. Thus, he indicated the main types of connections - associations of mental phenomena.

Democritus understood the soul as the cause of the movement of the body. The soul is understood as the product of the distribution of atoms in the body. Democritus ascribes movement to the soul in the material sense as spatial movement. The soul, according to Democritus, is mortal and is destroyed along with the body. He believed that the soul belongs to everyone, even the dead body. It is characteristic that, distinguishing the soul from the body, Democritus considers it a body, albeit a special body.

The beginning and source of knowledge are sensations and perception. They give knowledge about things. Democritus calls sensory knowledge a "dark" kind of knowledge. Democritus is characterized by such an understanding of the process of cognition, in which his sensual stage is not separated from thinking, although they certainly differ.

Feeling is considered in the system of atomistic materialism in connection with ethical problems, as the basis for ethics. Democritus distinguished between pleasure and displeasure as indicators of useful and harmful. He considered the goal of life “a calm state of mind, which is not identical with pleasure. The achievement of this goal consists in moderation and harmony in life.

The problem of will is resolved by Democritus on the basis of the doctrine of necessity and chance. Everything that exists in life is subject to necessity. According to Democritus, nothing happens by chance and there is a reason for everything. Democritus rejects the idealistic doctrine of expediency in nature and the movements of the soul are entirely determined from the outside.

According to the ancient Greek idealist philosopher Plato, the soul is something divine, different from the body, and it exists before it is combined with that. It is the image and outflow of the world soul. This is the beginning of the invisible, sublime, divine, eternal. Soul and body are in complex relationship with each other. According to its divine origin, the soul is called upon to control the body, to direct the life of a person. However, sometimes the latter shackles her body torn apart?? With various desires and passions, it takes care of food, is subject to illnesses, fears, temptations. Mental phenomena are divided by Plato into reason, courage and lust (motivation). Intelligence resides in the head, courage in the chest, lust in the abdomen.

The harmonious unity of the rational principle gives integrity to the spiritual life of a person. The soul lives in the body, and after death enters the divine "world of ideas." And depending on what kind of life a person led, after his death a different fate awaits the soul.

1. 
   Second Stage: Psychology as the Science of Consciousness

(Descartes, Hobbes, Locke, Gartley)
In the 17th century, the name of R. Descartes is associated milestone in the development of psychological knowledge. Descartes came to the conclusion about the difference between the soul of man and his body. He spoke of the divisibility of the body and the indivisibility of the spirit. However, the soul is capable of producing movements in it. This gave rise to a problem called psychophysical. Descartes created a theory to explain behavior based on a mechanical model. Movement occurs as a result of the impact of an object on the body, which is mechanically driven to the brain, and from the brain to the muscles.

The explanation of involuntary movements represents historically the first attempt at the reflex principle.

Thus, the concept of "soul" began to turn into "mind", and later into consciousness. The phrase “I think, therefore I exist” became the basis of the postulate, which asserted that the first thing a person discovers in himself is his consciousness.

The English philosopher J. Locke considers the soul as a passive, but capable of perception environment. Under the influence of sensory impressions, she begins to think; generate complex ideas. Locke introduced the concept of "associations" into the language of psychology. At the same time, the study of the relationship between the soul and the body gives way to attention to mental activity and consciousness. In his opinion, there are two sources of knowledge: the object of the external world and the activity of the mind, which is known through reflection.

T. Hobbes opposed Descartes' doctrine of two substances. Substance and body mean the same thing. Man is a body in a series of many natural bodies. His movements are real. Consciousness is the parallel manifestations of these movements. Sensations are manifestations of movements in the sense organs.

Thus, the psyche is a shadow of real material processes - it is an epiphenomenon. Hobbes reduces the whole psyche to images. The beginning of all representations is sensations. Ideas that cannot be expressed in images are empty sounds.

Feelings and will are the second component of consciousness besides cognition.

Hobbes' doctrine of ability implies the absence of innate advantages of people over others??

From the epiphenomenalism of Hobbes, a subjectless psychology begins, in which consciousness is considered as a ???micic interweaving of its contents.

D. Hartley gave the first complete system of associative psychology. In the main work "On Man, His Structure, His Duties and His Hopes" (1745), Gartley develops the doctrine of the psyche as a natural principle. All spiritual abilities are explained through appeal to the organic structure of the brain. There are three basic simple elements of life: sensations (sensations), ideas (ideas of sensations), affections (pleasures, displeasures). From these three elements mental life is built with the help of the mechanism of association, which are a passive reflection of the neural connections in the brain. The mind is not innate. Only the ability to affect is innate, as well as the ability to receive sensations. Everything that exists in the spiritual life of a person is a product of education.

1.3 Stage Three: Psychology as a Behavioral Science

Separation of psychology into an independent science in the 60s. 19th century Accompanied by the intensive development of experimental research.

The wide development of the experiment in psychology took place under the influence of natural science. AT different countries development of these studies took place in a peculiar way. In 1879??? in Leipzig opened the world's first experimental psychological laboratory, and in 1885. V.M. Bekhterev organized a similar laboratory in Russia.

In the field of consciousness, Wundt believed, there is a special mental causality that is subject to scientific objective research?? Consciousness was divided into mental structures, the simplest elements: sensations, images and feelings. This direction was called structuralism.

W. James proposed to study the functions of consciousness and its role in human survival (functionalist approach). Psychology, according to functionalists, is "useful about the functions of consciousness."

In Russia, psychiatrists stood at the origins of experimental psychology: V.M. Bekhterev, S.S. Korsakov, A.A. Tokarsky, P.I. Kovalevsky, I.A. Sikorsky and others. In their laboratories, research was conducted on a wide range of problems, including, in addition to psychological, anatomy and physiology. nervous system, psycho??triyu.

N.N. Lange established that self-observation cannot catch the stages of the processes of perception and attention, and will not allow revealing the laws of the processes under study.

A.F. Lazursky developed a method of natural experiment, which consists in observing special program for the test subject in natural conditions. Along with laboratory techniques, it allows you to explore the personality of a person, his character and interests.

Great contribution to the development of the national scientific psychology introduced by I.M. Sechenov. In his book Reflexes of the Brain (1863), the basic psychological processes receive a physiological interpretation. Their scheme is the same as that of reflexes.

An important place in the history of Russian psychology belongs to G.I. Cheknakov (creation of a psychological institute in 1912), V.I. Bekhterev, I.P. Pavlov.

In 1913 J. Watson announced the need for objective experimental methods of study. Psychology, in this case, is a science of behavior, and all concepts related to consciousness should be excluded from everyday life.

Important merits are: the introduction of objective registration methods and ?? external reactions, processes, discovery of scientific patterns, behavioral reactions.

The main disadvantages of this approach are - ignoring the processes of consciousness, underestimating the ability of a person's mental activity.
1.4 Fourth stage: psychology as a science of facts, patterns, mechanisms of the psyche
Contact with practical life led to the development of applied psychology.

The greatest development was received by medical and pedagogical psychology, to a lesser extent - research in the running of trade, ??, public life.

Herman Ebbinghaus in his work on capital (1885) was the first to formulate the laws of memory on the basis of a psychological experiment proper. He introduced two methods for studying memory: the method of memorization and the method of saving.

A major researcher of memory was G.E. Mucker. He concluded that there is a memory setting in memory (semantic work on the text ensures its memorization).

The experimental development of thinking was the subject and task of the researchers of the Wuruburg school, headed by O. Kulne.

One of the first works was the work of K. Marbe that the process of judgment proceeds in the form of thoughts.

Another problem of this school was the analysis of the active side of thinking. G. Watt?? He described thinking as a specific process of solving a problem.

Applied research has been greatly developed in Germany. Emil Kreshlin in the clinic associative experiment showed differences in the nature of associations in schizophrenia and manic-depressive psychosis. Does he own?? drawing up personality research schemes.

E. Maimon proclaimed the emergence of experimental pedagogy. Psychology has taken an important place in legal practice.

In France, besides pedagogy (A.B?? used tests to determine the individual abilities of the child), another field of applied research was medicine, especially psychiatry and neurology.

J.M. Charcot singled out hysteria as a disease and explained its symptoms - paralysis, signs - with physiological signs.
Chapter II. The main directions in psychological science.
2.1 Behaviorism
J. Watson (1878-1958) became the founder of behaviorism. He declared behavior to be the subject of psychology.

Analysis of behavior should be strictly objective and limited to externally observable reactions. Anything that cannot be objectively recorded is not subject to study. It is impossible to study what is happening inside a person. The task of psychology is to determine the probable stimulus from the reaction, and to predict a certain reaction from the stimulus.

Personality, from the point of view of behaviorists, is nothing more than a set of behavioral reactions inherent in this person. By changing the incentives and reinforcement (praise, etc.), you can program it for the desired behavior. Thorndike's law of the effect clarifies: the stimulus-response relationship is strengthened if there is a reinforcement.
2.2 Psychoanalysis
This direction got its name from the founder Z. Freud (1856-1939). In psychological life, he singled out three levels: consciousness (sensations, ?? at a particular moment in time), preconsciousness (accessible memory), the unconscious (instincts, emotions, etc.).

According to Freud, the human psyche consists of 3 levels: It, I, Super-I.

It is the unconscious part of the psyche.

I am the level of consciousness.

Over - Me??? bearers of moral standards.

I am affected: She is the Super-I - society.

To escape the conflict between I and It, Freud identified the following defense mechanisms: repression of desires (involuntary removal of unpleasant desires, feelings into the unconscious), denial, rationalization (an unconscious attempt to justify one's behavior), counteractions, projection, substitution, isolation, regression ( return to the early mode of implementation).
2.3 Gestalt psychology
Gestalt psychology arose in Germany, thanks to the efforts of T. Wertgeiner, V. Keper, K. Levin, who put forward a program for studying the psyche from the point of view of integral structures (gestalts). Supporters of this trend opposed the associative psychology of W. Wundt, who interpreted complex psychological phenomena as associative images built from simple ones.

The concept of genstalt appeared when sensory formations began to be studied. Then the "primacy" of their structure in relation to the components (sensations) included in these formations was revealed.

Thinking consists in discretion, awareness of the structural requirements caused by the elements of the problem situation, and in actions that meet these requirements. The construction of a complex mental image takes place in the genstalt. This is a special mental act of instant grasping of relations (structures) in the perceived field.
2.4 Humanistic psychology
The most prominent representatives of this trend are G. Olpport, G.A. Murray, G. Murrari, K. Rogers, A. Maslow. The subject of psycho?? research is a healthy creative personality.

The goal of the personality is not the need for homeostasis, as psychoanalysis suggests, but self-fulfillment. Man is open to the world; endowed with the potential for continuous development and self-realization. Love, creativity, influence??? meaning - it is these concepts that characterize the basic needs of a person.

Spiritual is a kind of branch of humanistic psychology. Spirituality gives a person access to love, conscience and a sense of duty.
2.5 Transpersonal psychology
The founders of this direction can be considered K.G. Jung, R. Assagioni, A. Maslow.

Transpersonal psychology considers a person as a spiritual cosmic being, inextricably linked with the Universe, the cosmos, humanity, having access to the global information cosmic field. Thanks to the unconscious, he is connected with the unconscious psyche of other people, as well as with cosmic information, with the world mind.

2.6 Ontopsychology
Ontopsychology is the science of subjectivity. Onotopsychology was born out of awareness, out of the experience of "feeling of failure". Being, which is recognized as all-encompassing. Comprehensively studying the history - the cultural evolution of man, ontopsychology discovered the existence at a deep level of a certain people, behind which a person begins to feel a sense of loss.

Ontopsychology deals with the study of being in the human psyche. "Onto" denotes the point at which "I exist." From his "Here - Being" a person can cognize any truth, because outside the phenomenological ones they distinguish and ???

So, ontology cognizes a person from the point of view of his “tissue essence”: in joy or in sorrow. Where it is most pronounced, it is a junction with reality.
2.7. Trends and prospects for the development of psychological science
One of current trends development of domestic psychology is the activity period

A noticeable feature of modern Russian psychology is the tendency to equalize the distortions that took place after 1917. in the form of a violation of continuity in the development of domestic science and its isolation from the world.

Another feature of the psychology of the post-Soviet period is its convergence with practice.

On the whole, the position of psychology is determined as a major one, which was the result of its construction on the model of natural science.

Modern foreign psychological science is conceptually fragmented. It should be noted trends towards the integration of various psychological theories and approaches in the study of specific problems, in the analysis of factual material.

At the moment, there is a practical orientation of psychology and a continuous expansion of the spheres of practical attachment of psychological developments in solving important social problems.

Speaking about the prospects for the development of modern psychological science, it should be noted that at present psychology has become a science in demand. It is of real interest to various kinds modern social practice - for the piggy bank, ?? law, medicine, education, military affairs. The activities of psychologists-consultants and psychological service at school have reached a significant scale.

It is necessary to note the work of psychology in parallel with religion on the problems of the human psyche, which has great importance currently.

Psychological science has taken a firm place in all areas of human life.

Conclusion
So, in its development, psychological science has gone through four stages.

At the first stage, the idea of ​​the inseparability of the soul and the living body was put forward for the first time.

In the second stage proclaimed?? with the difference between the soul of man and his body. Soul???, but capable of being perceived by the environment.

At the third stage, psychology was separated into an independent science (60s of the 19th century) and the beginning of the experimental study of the psyche at the stage of studying human behavior was laid.

At the fourth stage, psychology studied forms, patterns and ??? psyche. The development of psychology as an applied field of knowledge began.

The following trends in psychological science have had a great influence on modern psychology: behaviorism, Gentstalt psychology, psychoanalysis, humanistic psychology, transpersonal psychology, ontopsychology.

Behaviorism, despite its shortcomings (underestimation of the ability of a person's mental activity), contributed to the introduction of objective methods of registration and analysis of external reactions, the discovery of patterns of obtaining, etc.

Gestalt psychology developed the concept of a psychological image, approved systems approach to psychic phenomena

Psychoanalysis introduced a number of important topics into psychology: unconscious motivation, defense mechanisms, the impact of childhood mental trauma on behavior in adulthood, etc.

Transpersonal psychology has recognized the significance of the spiritual and cosmic dimensions and the possibilities for the evolution of consciousness.

Humanistic psychology has discovered the presence of a spiritual change in people seeking self-realization.

So, having gone through several stages in its development, each of which made a significant contribution to development, psychological science continues to develop at the present time. At the moment, psychology is highly sought after in several?? areas of public life by science.

Bibliography

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   Gippenreiter Yu.B. Introduction to general psychology. - M., 1996.
2. 
   Gofroy J. What is psychology. In 2 books. - M., 1996.
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   Zhdan A.N. History of psychology. From Antiquity to Modernity. -M., 2002.
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Oral-historical project "Temple of St. Seraphim of Sarov in Tver"

“Shmyleva Tatyana Ivanovna, headman of the church of St. Seraphim of Sarov in Tver. The decision to build a temple in the Sominki microdistrict came from several parishioners. One of them - Penkova Marina Nikolaevna was the main initiator of such a project. Why? Because in our country Sominka is an area dangerous for people in terms of sects. We have both Adventists and Baptists here (their church is here). There was also Moon's church here. There were also other small Protestant organizations that tried to lure some of our citizens.

And therefore, in order for people to be nourished by the Orthodox Church (historically, Orthodoxy is still closer to us), and then this idea was born.

And with this proposal, Marina Nikolaevna Penkova and I came to the rector of the parish of St. Blessed Xenia of St. Petersburg, Priest Sergius Dmitriev. He explained to us how to write a letter of appeal to Vladyka with a request from people who live on Sominka and live here in the microdistrict. And there was this letter. We have received the blessing of the Lord. Moreover, the parish of Xenia of St. Petersburg just took under its patronage, one might say, under its control, the laying and construction of the temple .. And the temple, it was considered attributed to the parish, so. parish church.

In October 2003 the rite of laying the foundation of the temple was performed by Bishop Victor, i.e. Archbishop of Tver and Kashinsky. And with, however, not a large crowd, a confluence of people, well, in any case, the people of the nearby villages of Kiselevo, a village that is called in the Tvertsa region (on Volynskaya Street), nearby cottages that were built by oil workers, in general, they accepted with joy, that here is a poor temple.

Why was this place chosen? (i.e. this temple is quite remote from the city highways, as if on the outskirts).

There were two temples nearby at one time at the Volyn cemetery: Church of the Annunciation Holy Mother of God, Church of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary. One temple was destroyed in 41. during the war, and the other during the Khrushchev thaw, just when there was strong persecution of the Orthodox Church. And here there is a place left here, many famous Orthodox people, patrons and merchants, and just very believing people who helped to build the temples of Tver at one time are buried in the cemetery. Until now, the daughters of the last priests, the destroyed temples, who helped to collect bit by bit, restore history, are still alive. The rector of our parish, as I have already said, is Priest Sergiy Dmitriev. Today we have four churches in our parish: the Church of Xenia of Petersburg in Youth, the house church of the Holy Martyr Feoktist in Youth, the Church of the Mother of God Unfading color in Chernogubov, the temple of St. Seraphim of Sarov. But the responsible priest for our church is Priest Gennady Podvorny, who mainly serves here and who is ??? people who go to this temple.

But our temple is still individual for some reason, because it is an exact copy of our temple, which existed in the Nektarevo desert.

(Interviewer: How did people learn about the temple?)

At one time, when the temple was just about to be built, several people who had already formed an initial community and who wanted the temple to be here put up announcements for the Sominka microdistrict at the entrances, put announcements in mailboxes and, thus, learned about the construction of the temple. There was information about the construction in the media, necessarily about every event (about the laying, about some events that took place here) and in the newspaper "Tverskoy Miryanin".

(Interviewer: How did the Orthodox community of the church develop?)

First, at the first prayer service to Seraphim of Sarov, which service?? on the street, the icon was placed on a tree and there were three of us: Marina Nikolaevna, me and the priest. This is the first prayer service with the rector. Then people began to come to the prayer service and read the akathist in the street near the tree. Then, when the veneration cross had already been erected, an akathist was read in the street near the veneration cross (int.: that is, gradually?) Yes, gradually. But all the same, probably, but prayers, as if the intercession of Seraphim of Sarov for such short term nevertheless proclaimed the temple, and already a strong community was formed. This is only with God's help.

(Inter.: How was the parish life organized in the church?)

At first, parishioners simply helped to protect the territory, because there were many acts of vandalism simply in relation to Orthodox burials, which are located here at the local cemetery. Satanists used to gather here for their orgies.

Therefore, when building materials began to be brought in, there was a danger that they could be set on fire, carried away, or spoiled. Therefore, people even slept in cars. For example, the first members of the community were guards at the same time and at the same time helped to bring bricks, remove construction debris. Those. in labor, in prayer and labor, it worked out that way.

(Inter.: What plans does the temple have for the future?)

For three years (we will take three years from October to 2006) the temple was built. He would have acted sooner if he had not been set on fire. But everything??? at the Lord. The fire did a good deed. More people learned that such a temple exists, because it is the only one in the Tver region so far. Seraphim of Sarov temple. And after the arson, we decided to increase the area - to build a refectory part already made of bricks and overlay with bricks so that there would be no more such manifestations.

And during the construction of the refectory, the remains of people were found in large numbers. The prosecutor's office of the Tver region opened a criminal case. And when they conducted an investigation, it turned out that they belonged to people who were shot, i.e. examination was carried out, i.е. our temple stands on the bones of the new martyrs, those who suffered in the 30-50s. for the Orthodox faith.

But in general, the temple is standing, services are being improved regularly. And this year it was exactly two years on the Annunciation since the first Liturgy was served in the church.

And now the house of Pricht is being built. Why is there such a need? The area is big, the temple is not very big. Sunday school is needed (somewhere you need to study). And therefore, in addition to office premises, in our house Prichta will have a room for Sunday school(for children and for adults).

A museum is also planned. recent history Orthodox Church. Exactly (since we have many new martyrs here who are prayed for, and they pray for us before the Lord in turn). There will be a museum about the history of the persecution of the Orthodox Church, just after the revolution and before the end of the 1960s.

(Inter.: And are you also involved in the organization of the canonical trips?)

Yes, but we are just an assigned temple. We do not organize ourselves, the parish organizes us. Our parish center is located in the house church of the Holy Martyr Feoktist in Youth. And as soon as some kind of canonical trip is organized, our parishioners are sure to participate in it. We also went to Diveyevo, but this is a must, once a year, we went to Pochaev and the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra. And moreover, these trips are sometimes of this nature: we bring a piece of the relics of some saint so that people who are not able to travel far can venerate the shrine. We have several such icons with relics in our church and also in other churches of the parish.

We always have a very large religious procession. It is youth in general, although there are people of middle age. It is organized by the Tver Union of Orthodox Laity, the parish of Xenia of St. Petersburg and the youth club "Sower" along the banks of Darkness, where there were once monasteries, i.e. to holy places.

But the plans of our community, our parish, are to ennoble the Volynsky cemetery, since this cemetery is very ancient. Here were buried patrons, merchants who helped build churches in Tver or were engaged in?? charity. How I would like to preserve the cemetery also as an interesting monument. Moreover, there is the grave of the famous Tver blessed Barbara.

And we dream that the city will help us in this to enclose the very territory of the cemetery, clear it and make it the same as before. The daughter of the last priest is still alive. Elizaveta Ivanovna (after Moroshkin's father she was). She recalled that earlier in this cemetery ???, i.e. well maintained and people went there. In addition, as they honored the memory of their departed Orthodox brethren, they still rested there.

Well, we also want not only the city to participate, but we also have a training center for the Internal Affairs Directorate of the Tver Region on Sominka, i.e. cadets who come from all over the Tver region study there. Many of them are Orthodox, many are not just Orthodox, but real believers. They helped us in excavations, helped us in construction and in cleaning up the territory.

And we also want to involve them in ennobling the territory of the cemetery, since this is also patriotic education. In fact, we already have close ties. Once a month a priest comes to them for a pri??, i.e. The next graduation is going on and the priest always says a parting word: how to serve now in our time in our authorities. And on the territory of the training center (we signed an agreement with them) a small church of St. Ilya of Muromets, who is known as the protector of Russia from foreign raids, will be built.

And we will pray to him too. Since there are a lot of sects on Sominka and there are points where drugs are sold, the disadvantaged status of young people, therefore, of course, this is necessary.

These are our plans.”

Interviewer: Chikunova Marina Mikhailovna.

Respondent: Shmyleva Tatyana Ivanovna.

Place and time of the interview:

Temple of St. Seraphim of Sarovsky at the Volyn cemetery, April 29, 2007. 14.00-14.50

1.Stages of development of psychology as a science.

The main reason that causes difficulties in the study of the psyche is the ideality and subjectivity of mental phenomena, so psychologists doubted the objectivity of their research, understanding the essence of the psyche in different ways. Depending on this, 4 stages are distinguished in the formation of psychology as a science.

Stage 1- Psychology as the science of the soul. This definition of psychology was given more than two thousand years ago. By the presence of the soul, people tried to explain incomprehensible phenomena in human life: dreams, fate, thoughts, desires, believing that the soul is an organ that gives life to the body, therefore, the psyche is the soul. These views, common among primitive peoples, are called animism ( anima- soul), which refers to the animation of all living and inanimate objects. The ancient Greek materialist philosophers Democritus, Epicurus, Lucretius interpreted the soul as a kind of matter, as a bodily formation of atoms. The idealist philosopher Plato believed that the soul is something divine, different from the body.

Stage 2- Psychology as the science of consciousness. Originated in the 17th century. in connection with the development of the natural sciences. The ability to feel, to think is called consciousness. The main method of studying consciousness was considered introspection ( intro- directed inward), i.e. man's self-observation of himself and the description, explanation on this basis of the facts of inner mental life. Thus, at this stage in the development of psychology, the main attention was paid only to inside mental life of a person, on his consciousness.

Stage 3 Psychology as a science of behavior emerged in the 20th century. At that time, it was believed that self-observation was not an objective enough method. Objectively, you can study only what is directly observable: behavior, actions, reactions of a person. But at the same time, the motives that cause actions were not studied. At this stage in the development of psychology, scientists understood the psyche as its external characteristic - behavior.

Stage 4- psychology as a science that studies the objective patterns, manifestations and mechanisms of the psyche. Under the psyche began to understand the totality of both internal and external, i.e. on the one hand, it is consciousness, on the other, behavior, activity.

3.General concept of the psyche, its structure and functions

Currently, there is a materialistic and idealistic understanding of the essence of the psyche.

From an idealistic point of view, it is believed that the psyche is primary, and matter is secondary. For example, before building a house, a person invents it internally: draws up a drawing, selects materials, then realizes the idea of ​​a house externally, i.e. is engaged in construction. Hence the opinion arose that before the material world appeared, someone had to invent it. In favor of the idealistic point of view about the essence of the psyche speak the memories of people who have been in a state of clinical death, during which they flew through the tunnel towards the light and along the way met the souls of deceased relatives. The idealistic understanding of the psyche is rooted in the animistic views of primitive people and will always exist, because. The development of psychology, like any science, is based on the contradiction between knowledge and ignorance, and any ignorance gives rise to idealism.

From a materialistic point of view, it is believed that the psyche is a property of such a highly organized matter as the brain(matter is primary, and the psyche, spirit, consciousness are secondary). It is thanks to the activity of the brain that the mental life of a person is possible. The previous example, related to building a house, most likely convinced and alerted at the same time. So how can one move from an idealistic position to a materialistic one? The answer is simple enough. Before a person had a thought or idea about building a house, objective external circumstances (cold, rain, snow, the need to create better living conditions for his family, etc.) had to act on him, which, in turn, forced a person to think in the right direction. And this happened due to the activity of the brain, which consists in reflecting external and internal influences. The theory of reflection is the scientific and philosophical basis of psychology. Thus, we recognize the primacy of matter and the secondary nature of the conscious (ideal or spirit). The accumulated data on the evolution of the living world make it possible to most objectively prove the consistency of this belief.

Reflection is one of the basic properties of matter. Reflection refers to the reaction of matter to influences. For example, a stone lying by the road is either heated by the sun, or cooled by a decrease in air temperature. Thus, it passively reacts (reflects) to external influences. Or such objective factors as cold, bad weather affected the human brain and contributed to the idea of ​​building a house.

With the distinction between matter into living and non-living, the following are distinguished types of reflection:

physical reflection characteristic of inanimate matter. It always passive and mirror. An example of physical reflection can be soil erosion, metal corrosion, chemical reactions, the water cycle in nature, a change in the state of aggregation of substances, and even the movement of a sunflower head following the sun.

physiological reflection characteristic of living matter. An example of a physiological reflection can be the functions of the body associated with maintaining homeostasis, respiration, salivation to the smell of food, reflex, etc. The physiological reflection is not realized by the person.

mental reflection significantly different from the physical, because. it always actively(if a stone could dig a hole to hide from the night cold, and crawl under the shade of a bush in the midday heat, i.e. actively respond to external influences, therefore, it would become a living being), wears leading character(a person can foresee events, plan his actions), always purely individually,carried out in the course of purposeful activity. The highest forms of mental reflection are consciousness and self-consciousness. Thus, the psyche is a subjective image of the objective world, the reliability of which is checked during practical activities.

INTRODUCTION

The history of psychology reveals for us the paths of search, discoveries, misconceptions and discoveries that were made long before the recognition of psychology as an independent science, and over the past almost a century and a half of its development as an integral system of scientific knowledge about the mental life of a person. The history of psychology is a complex discipline that synthesizes knowledge from other branches of psychology and makes it possible to bring this knowledge into a system. She studies the patterns of formation and development of views on the psyche based on the analysis of various approaches to understanding its nature and functions.

Also in this work we will consider the formation of psychology from the direction, which led to some scientific psychology in connection with the introduction of the method of an objective approach (behaviorism), to the diametrically opposite direction, where the main role in psychology, it is given to the personal experience of a person (humanistic approach).

Modern psychology is a complex, highly branched system of sciences. It highlights many industries that are relatively independently developing areas of scientific research.

The main tasks in the work will trace the development of psychology from antiquity to the present day. Consider the features of the current stage of development of psychology and the use of various approaches to provide psychological assistance.

Stages of development of psychology as a science

Psychology and its principles have come a long way of development. The subject of psychology, the methods of studying the psyche (the subject of the study of psychology) have also changed.

Table 1. Stages of development of psychology as a science.

	Definition of the subject of psychology	Stage characteristic
	Psychology as a science of the soul	This definition of psychology was given more than two thousand years ago. The presence of the soul tried to explain all the incomprehensible phenomena in human life
	Psychology as a science of consciousness	Begins in the 17th century. in connection with the development of the natural sciences. The ability to think, feel, desire is called consciousness. The main method of study was the observation of a person for himself.
	Psychology as a science of behavior	Begins in the 20th century. The task of psychology is to observe what can be directly seen (behavior, actions, human reactions). Motives that cause actions were not taken into account
	Psychology as a science that studies the facts, patterns and mechanisms of the psyche	It was formed on the basis of a materialistic view of the world. The basis of modern Russian psychology is a natural understanding of the theory of reflection

First stage (I).

In ancient times, it was believed that the soul is present in nature wherever there is movement and warmth. The first philosophical doctrine, based on the belief in the universal spirituality of the world, was called "animism" (from Latin Anima-soul, spirit). Its basis was the belief that everything that exists in the world has elements of the soul. In the future, the animalistic idea of ​​the soul gave way to hylozoism (from the Greek. Hyle-substance, matter and zoe-life). In such natural philosophers as Thales, Anaximenes and Heraclitus, the soul is interpreted as the life-giving form of people and animals of the element that forms the beginning of the world (water, air, fire). The boundaries between the living, the inanimate and the psychic were not drawn.

All this was considered as the passage of a single primary matter (pra-matter). Later, two opposite points of view on the psyche developed: the materialistic one - Democritus and the idealistic Plato. According to Democritus, the soul is a material substance, which consists of atoms of fire, spherical and light, and very mobile. Democritus tried to explain all mental phenomena by physical and even mechanical causes. With the death of the body, as the philosopher believed, the soul also dies. According to Plato, the soul has nothing to do with matter, unlike the latter, it is ideal. The soul is an invisible, sublime, divine, eternal principle. The body is the beginning, visible, transitory, perishable. Soul and body are in a complex relationship. By its divine origin, the soul is bound to control the body. Plato is the founder of dualism in psychology, which interprets the material and the spiritual, the body and the psyche as two independent and antagonistic principles.

The first attempt to systematize knowledge about the psyche was made by Aristotle, who is rightfully considered the founder of psychology. The merit of Aristotle was that he was the first to postulate the functional relationship of the soul (psyche) and body (organism). The essence of the soul, according to Aristotle, is the realization of the biological existence of the organism. A significant contribution to the development of ideas about the natural science basis of psychology was made by ancient Greek, ancient Roman and ancient Eastern doctors.

In the Middle Ages, Arabic-speaking science achieved significant success, assimilating the culture of the Hellenes, peoples Central Asia, India and China.

The Renaissance brought a new world outlook, in which a research approach to the phenomena of reality was cultivated. A society of natural scientists is being created, interest in the psychology of creativity is activated, interest in human personality. Experimentation takes precedence in science.

Second stage.(II)

In the 17th century The methodological prerequisites for a scientific understanding of the psyche and consciousness were laid. The soul begins to be interpreted as consciousness, the activity of which is directly related to the work of the brain. In contrast to the psychology of the soul, the psychology of consciousness considers self-observation of one's self to be the main source of knowledge. inner world. This specific knowledge is called the method of introspection.

The formation of psychological views during this period is associated with the activities of a number of scientists.R. Descartes laid the foundations for the deterministic concept (physical, behavioral and mental events are not random, but rather due to the action of specific causal factors) of behavior and the introspective concept of consciousness (method psychological research, which consists in observing one's own mental processes without using any tools or standards).D Locke professed the experimental origin of the entire structure of human consciousness. In the experience itself, D. Locke identified two sources: the activity of the external sense organs (external experience) and the internal activity of the mind that perceives own work(internal experience). This position of D. Locke became the starting point for the development of introspective psychology. G. Leibniz introduced the concept of the unconscious psyche, believing that in the consciousness of the subject there is a continuous work of mental forces hidden from him in the form of a special dynamics of unconscious perceptions.

In the XVIII century. An associative theory appeared, the emergence and development of which is associated with the names of T. Hobbes and D. Hartley.

Third stage (III).

An important role in distinguishing psychology as an independent branch of knowledge was played by the development of the method of conditioned reflexes in physiology and the practice of treating mental illness, as well as by conducting experimental studies of the psyche.

At the beginning of the XX century. The founder of behaviorism, D. Watson, proposed a program for building a new psychology. Behaviorism recognized behavior, behavioral reactions as the only object of psychological study. Consciousness, as an unobservable phenomenon, was excluded from the realm of behavioral psychology.

Fourth stage (IV).

It is characterized by a variety of approaches to the essence of the psyche, the transformation of psychology into a diversified applied field of knowledge that serves the interests of human practical activity.

Scientific currents in psychology differ in their subject matter, the problems studied, the conceptual field, and explanatory schemes. The psychological reality of a person appears in them from a certain angle of view, certain aspects of his mental life come to the fore, are studied thoroughly and in detail, others are either not studied at all or receive too narrow an interpretation.

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Psychology - one of the most ancient and interesting, complex and important sciences for a person. For many centuries, man has been the subject of study for many, many generations of scientists. Psychology is both a very old and very young science. Having a thousand-year past, it is, nevertheless, all still in the future. Its existence as an independent scientific discipline barely dates back a century, but the main problem has occupied philosophical thought since philosophy existed.

The name itself subject of psychology appeared in European texts in the 16th century. and in translation from ancient Greek means that psychology is the science of the soul(psyche - "soul", logia - "knowledge, science").

Psychology arose as a science of the soul, and subsequently, over many centuries, psychological knowledge accumulated within the framework of philosophical thought. One of the main questions that worried philosophers, reflecting on the essence of man, was the problem of the connection between the soul and the body.

To answer the question: What is psychology as a science? it is necessary to turn to the history of psychological science, to the question of how at each stage of its development the idea of ​​the subject was transformed scientific knowledge in psychology.

Stage I - psychology as the science of the soul. This definition of psychology was given more than two thousand years ago. The presence of the soul tried to explain all the incomprehensible phenomena in human life.

Stage II - psychology as a science of consciousness . It arises in the 17th century in connection with the development of the natural sciences. The ability to think, feel, desire is called consciousness. The main method of study was the observation of a person for himself and the description of the facts.

Stage III - psychology as a science of behavior . Arises in the 20th century: The task of psychology is to experiment and observe what can be directly seen, namely: behavior, actions, reactions of a person (motives that cause actions were not taken into account).

Stage IV - psychology as a science , studying the objective patterns, manifestations and mechanisms of the psyche.

History of psychology as experimental science begins in 1879 with the world's first experimental psychological laboratory founded by the German psychologist Wilhelm Wundt in Leipzig. Soon, in 1885, V. M. Bekhterev organized a similar laboratory in Russia.

Let's consider them in more detail.

The first ideas about the psyche were associated with animism (lat. anima - spirit, soul) - the most ancient views, according to which everything that exists in the world has a soul. The soul was understood as an entity independent of the body, controlling all living and inanimate objects.

Materialistic philosophers of antiquity Democritus, Lucretius, Epicurus understood human soul as kind of matter , as a bodily formation formed from spherical, small and most mobile atoms.

But the idealist philosopher Plato understood the human soul as something divine, different from the body. The soul, before entering the human body, exists separately in upper world where he learns ideas - eternal and unchanging essences. She is image and outflow of the world soul . Once in the body, the soul begins to remember what it saw before birth. Psychic phenomena are divided by Plato into intelligence, courage(in the modern sense - will) and lust(motivation). Intelligence resides in the head, courage in the chest, lust in the abdomen. The harmonious unity of a reasonable beginning, noble aspirations and desire gives integrity of human life. Plato's idealistic theory interpreting body and psyche as two independent and antagonistic beginnings, laid the foundation for all subsequent idealistic theories.

Great Philosopher Aristotle in the treatise "On the Soul" singled out psychology as a specific field of knowledge and first put forward idea of ​​the inseparability of the soul and the living body. The soul, the psyche is manifested in various abilities for activity: nourishing, feeling, moving, rational; higher abilities arise from lower ones and on their basis. The primary cognitive faculty of man is sensation; it takes the form of sensuously perceived objects without their matter, just as "wax takes the impression of a seal without iron and gold." Sensations leave a trace in the form of representations - images of those objects that previously acted on the senses. Aristotle showed that these images are connected in three directions: by similarity, by contiguity and contrast, thereby indicating the main types of connections - associations of mental phenomena.

Influenced by the atmosphere of middle ages(strengthening church influence on all aspects of society, including science), the idea was established that the soul is divine, supernatural and therefore the study of psychic life must be subordinated to the tasks of theology. Only the outer side of the soul, which faces the material world, can yield to human judgment. The greatest mysteries of the soul are accessible only in religious (mystical) experience.

For a very long time, the point of view dominated that the nature of the soul and body is completely different, and their relationship is similar to the relationship between the puppeteer (soul) and the puppet (body), i.e. it was believed that the soul can influence the body, but not vice versa.

French philosopher R. Descartes(1596-1650) concludes about the complete difference , existing between the soul of man and his body : the body by its nature is always divisible, while the spirit is indivisible. He believed that the soul and body have a different nature and act according to different laws. The body, according to Descartes, is material and acts according to the laws of mechanics. The soul is immaterial and its main property is the ability to think, remember and feel. However, not only the soul can influence the body, but the body can also influence the soul.

This contradictory dualistic teaching gave rise to problem, called psychophysical: how are bodily (physiological) and mental (spiritual) processes in a person related?

an attempt reunite body and soul , divided by the teachings of Descartes, undertook the Dutch philosopher B. Spinoza (1632-1677). There is no special spiritual beginning , it there is always one of the manifestations of extended substance (matter ). Soul and body are determined by the same material causes. Spinoza believed what this approach makes it possible to consider mental phenomena with the same accuracy and objectivity how lines and surfaces are considered in geometry.

In the XVII-XVIII centuries. thanks to the rapid development of the natural sciences instead of the concept of "soul", the concept of "consciousness" appeared in science. Psychology has become the science of consciousness. Consciousness included a person's thoughts, his feelings, needs, desires - everything that a person finds when thinking about himself, turning his gaze into himself.

This raises a very important question, how, under the influence of what the human consciousness is formed. It was assumed that everything that exists in outside world, affects the sense organs, due to which sensations arise. Sensations can be combined with each other using a chain of associations. This direction is called associationism.

German philosopher G. Leibniz(1646-1716) introduced the concept of the unconscious psyche . In the soul of man the hidden work of psychic forces goes on unceasingly– countless small perceptions (perceptions). Conscious desires and passions arise from them.

English philosopher J. Locke(1632-1704) considers human soul as passive but perceptive environment , comparing it to a blank slate with nothing written on it. Under the influence of sensory impressions, the human soul, awakening, is filled with simple ideas, begins to think, i.e. generate complex ideas. In the language of psychology, Locke introduced association concept – connection between mental phenomena, in which the actualization of one of them entails the appearance of another.

The term " empirical psychology"introduced by the German philosopher of the XVIII century. X. Wolf to denote directions in psychological science , the basic principle of which is to observe specific mental phenomena, classify them and establish an experimentally verifiable, regular connection between them.

In the 19th century the development of scientific thought in many areas has led to an understanding of the value of knowledge obtained experimentally, empirically. So developed, for example, physics, chemistry. Highest value for the emergence of psychology as an experimental science had the development of physiology.

Separation of psychology into an independent science happened in the 60s of the XIX century.

It was connected with the creation special research institutions - psychological laboratories and institutes, departments in higher educational institutions, as well as with the introduction of an experiment for the study of mental phenomena.

Psychology has become an experimental science.

W. Wundt, E. Titchener(1867-1927) and others believed that for the study of consciousness necessary break down this complex phenomenon into separate elements- sensations, images and feelings and identify structural relationships between them. The theory developed by them is therefore called structuralism.

Representatives of another direction - functionalism - primarily interested in the question of how it works, how does the psyche work. Most prominent representatives this direction were F. Galton(1822-1911), W. James(1842-1911), D. Dewey(1859-1952).

The functionalists were based on the evolutionary theory of Charles Darwin and believed that the role of consciousness - in adapting a person to the world around him . Therefore, the main thing for psychologists is understand the function of consciousness, the way it helps a person to adapt to the world around him, to solve life problems.

Functionalists paid much attention practical application psychology, including in the practice of teaching. They began to write books specifically for educators.

W. James made a huge contribution in the psychology of emotions , he also owns the first studies of self-consciousness and self-esteem, in particular, the famous formula of self-esteem as the ratio of the success that a person achieves to his claims.

At the same time in the late XIX - early XX century. many attempts were made to create a physiological psychology, to study psychological phenomena by physiological methods. However, these attempts were largely unsuccessful, since it was difficult to correlate exact, unambiguous, objective physiological indicators with subjective, psychological ones - vague, changeable, and contradictory. This caused many scientists to doubt the possibility of scientific study of psychological phenomena.

As a result psychology is divided into two branches.

One with precise scientific methods tried to study such relatively simple psychological processes like sensation and perception .

Second considered higher mental processes - memory, thinking which could not be studied in this way. For these purposes, a special research method was created - introspection(from lat. introspectare- look inside), i.e. a person's observation of how his psyche operates and a subjective description of this.

This situation led to crisis of psychology as a science.

At the beginning of the XX century. arose two directions who revolutionized psychology. One of these areas is behaviorism - turned to study external behavior, other - psychoanalysis - to the study of unconscious processes.

Direction name behaviorism derived from English word behavior- behavior. It was developed by American psychologists E.L. Thorndike (1874-1949), J. Watson(1878-1958), etc. The development of behaviorism was greatly influenced by the teachings of Russian scientists I.P. Pavlov and V.M. Bekhterev on the nature of reflexes.

The founder of the direction psychoanalysis became an Austrian psychiatrist and psychologist 3. Freud (1856-1939). 3. Freud was a physician, and psychoanalysis originally arose as a method of treating neuroses.

Arising in psychology late XIX- early 20th century directions of psychology: depth psychology (psychoanalysis), behaviorism (neobehaviourism), Gestalt psychology in Western psychology and activity approach in domestic psychology, with some modifications, exist to this day.

The development of domestic psychology, as well as world psychology, was initially carried out in line with two main directions - philosophical and religious and natural science.

The first direction goes back to the ideas of the outstanding Russian philosopher V. Solovieva(1853-1900). Representatives of this direction - N.Ya. Grotto(1852-1899), G.I. Chelpanov(1862-1936), L.M. Lopatin(1855-1920), N.O. Lossky(1870-1965) and others - believed that the main the subject of psychology is the soul , its action, and as the main method, introspection.

The second is connected with the ideas of an objective experimental study of the human psyche. Its representatives are outstanding domestic physiologists THEM. Sechenov(1829-1905), V.M. Bekhterev(1857-1927), I.P. Pavlov(1849-1936), A.A. Ukhtomsky(1875-1942). Their ideas formed the basis reflexology - scientific direction, the founder of which was V.M. Bekhterev.

V. M. Bekhterev(1857-1927) developed an experimental direction in psychology using objective research methods.

Efforts I. P. Pavlova(1849-1936) were sent to study conditioned reflex connections in the activity of the body . His work significantly influenced the understanding of the physiological foundations of mental activity.

In domestic psychology, other schools and trends also developed that made a significant contribution to world psychology.

Cultural-historical concept. The founder of this concept was L. S. Vygotsky(1896-1934). According to this concept, the human psyche has a cultural and historical character.

One of major areas development of this theory was developed A.N. Leontiev(1903-1979) activity theory . The activity was considered by A.N. Leontiev as an active interaction with the surrounding reality, expressing a person's attitude to the world and contributing to the satisfaction of his needs. mental development a person is largely the process of development of his activity.

Psychology of individual differences. This direction in Russian psychology is associated with such names as B.M. Teplov(1896-1965), V.D. Nebylitsyn(1930-1972), V.S. Merlin(1892-1982).