The GRBS receives data on the BA and LBO allocated to it. They have a set of bookmaker codes and...
INTRODUCTORY REMARKS
People are in constant motion, and society is in development. The totality of social movements of people in society, i.e. changes in their status is called social mobility. This topic has interested humanity for a long time. The unexpected rise of a person or his sudden fall is a favorite plot folk tales: The cunning beggar suddenly becomes a rich man, the poor prince becomes a king, and the hardworking Cinderella marries the prince, thereby increasing her status and prestige.
However, the history of mankind consists not so much of individual destinies as of the movement of great social groups. The landed aristocracy is being replaced by the financial bourgeoisie, low-skilled professions are being squeezed out of modern production representatives of the so-called white collar workers - engineers, programmers, operators of robotic systems. Wars and revolutions reshaped the social structure of society, raising some to the top of the pyramid and lowering others. Similar changes occurred in Russian society after the October Revolution of 1917. They are still happening today, when the party elite is replaced by the business elite.
Between ascent and descent there is a well-known asymmetry, everyone wants to go up and no one wants to go down the social ladder. Usually, ascent - phenomenon voluntary, A descent is forced.
Research shows that those with high statuses prefer high positions for themselves and their children, but those with low statuses also want the same for themselves and their children. So this is how it turns out human society: everyone strives upward and no one strives downwards.
In this chapter we will look at essence, reasons, typology, mechanisms, channels social mobility, and factors, influencing her.
Classification of mobility.
Exist two main types social mobility - intergenerational And intragenerational And two main type - vertical and horizontal. They, in turn, break down into subspecies And subtypes that are closely related to each other.
Intergenerational mobility suggests that children achieve a higher social position or fall to a lower level than their parents. Example: a miner's son becomes an engineer.
Intragenerational mobility occurs where the same individual, without comparison with his father, changes social positions several times throughout his life. Otherwise it is called social career. Example: a turner becomes an engineer, and then a workshop manager, a plant director, and a minister of the engineering industry.
The first type of mobility refers to long-term, and second - to short-term processes. In the first case, sociologists are more interested in interclass mobility, and in the second - movement from the sphere physical labor into the realm of the mental.
Vertical mobility implies movement from one stratum (estate, class, caste) to another.
Depending on the direction of movement, there are upward mobility (social rise, upward movement) and downward mobility(social descent, downward movement).
Promotion is an example of upward mobility, dismissal, demotion is an example of downward mobility.
Horizontal mobility implies the transition of an individual from one social group to another located at the same level.
Examples include moving from an Orthodox to a Catholic religious group, from one citizenship to another, from one family (parental) to another (one’s own, newly formed), from one profession to another. Such movements occur without a noticeable change in social position in the vertical direction.
Variety horizontal mobility serves geographic mobility. It does not imply a change in status or group, but a movement from one place to another while maintaining the same status.
An example is international and interregional tourism, moving from city to village and back, moving from one enterprise to another.
If a change of location is added to a change of status, then geographic mobility becomes migration.
If a villager came to the city to visit relatives, then this is geographical mobility. If he moved to the city for permanent residence and found work here, then this is already migration. He changed his profession.
It is possible to classify social mobility according to other criteria. So, for example, they distinguish:
individual mobility, when movement down, up or horizontally occurs in each person independently of others, and
group mobility, when displacement occurs collectively, for example after a social revolution old class yields dominant positions to a new class.
Individual mobility and group mobility are in a certain way connected with ascribed and achieved statuses. Do you think individual mobility is more consistent with ascribed or achieved status? (Try to figure this out on your own first, and then read the rest of the chapter.)
These are the main types, types and forms (between these terms significant differences no) social mobility. In addition to them, sometimes they distinguish organized mobility, when the movement of individuals or entire groups up, down or horizontally is controlled by the state A) with the consent of the people themselves, b) without their consent. Towards voluntary organized mobility should include the so-called socialist organizational set, public calls for Komsomol construction sites, etc. TO involuntary organized mobility can be attributed repatriation(resettlement) of small peoples and dispossession during the years of Stalinism.
It is necessary to distinguish from organized mobility structural mobility. It is caused by changes in the structure National economy and occurs beyond the will and consciousness of individual individuals. For example, the disappearance or reduction of industries or professions leads To movements of large masses of people. In the 50s - 70s USSR small villages were reduced and enlarged.
The main and non-main types (types, forms) of mobility differ as follows.
Main types characterize all or most societies in any historical era. Of course, the intensity or volume of mobility is not the same everywhere.
Non-main species mobility is inherent in some types of society and not in others. (Find specific examples to prove this thesis.)
The main and non-main types (types, forms) of mobility exist in three main spheres of society - economic, political, professional. Mobility practically does not occur (with rare exceptions) in the demographic sphere and is quite limited in the religious sphere. Indeed, it is impossible to migrate from a man to a woman, and the transition from childhood in youth does not apply to mobility. Voluntary and forced changes in religion have occurred more than once in human history. Suffice it to recall the baptism of Rus', the conversion of Indians to Christianity after Columbus's discovery of America. However, such events do not occur regularly. They are of interest to historians rather than to sociologists.
Let us now turn to specific types and types of mobility.
GROUP MOBILITY
It occurs where and when the social significance of an entire class, estate, caste, rank, or category increases or decreases. October Revolution led to the rise of the Bolsheviks, who previously did not have a recognized high position. The Brahmins became the highest caste as a result of a long and persistent struggle, and previously they were on a par with the Kshatriyas. IN Ancient Greece after the adoption of the constitution, most people were freed from slavery and rose up the social ladder, while many of their former masters fell down.
The transfer of power from a hereditary aristocracy to a plutocracy (an aristocracy based on wealth) had the same consequences. In 212 AD. Almost the entire population of the Roman Empire received the status of Roman citizenship. Thanks to this, huge masses of people previously considered inferior have increased their social status. The invasion of barbarians (Huns and Goths) disrupted the social stratification of the Roman Empire: one after another, the old aristocratic families disappeared, and they were replaced by new ones. Foreigners founded new dynasties and new nobility.
As P. Sorokin showed using vast historical material, the following factors served as the reasons for group mobility:
Social revolutions;
Foreign interventions, invasions;
Interstate wars;
Military coups;
Change of political regimes;
Replacing the old constitution with a new one;
Peasant uprisings;
The internecine struggle of aristocratic families;
Creation of an empire.
Group mobility takes place where there is a change in the stratification system itself.
3.4. Individual mobility:
COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS
Social mobility in the United States and the former USSR has both similar and distinctive features. The similarities are explained by the fact that both countries are industrialized powers, and the differences are explained by the originality political regime board. Thus, studies by American and Soviet sociologists, covering approximately the same period (70s), but conducted independently of each other, gave the same figures: up to 40% of employees in both the USA and Russia come from blue-collar backgrounds ; In both the USA and Russia, more than two-thirds of the population is involved in social mobility.
Another pattern is also confirmed: social mobility in both countries greatest influence It is not the father’s profession and education that influences, but the son’s own educational achievements. The higher the education, the greater the chances of moving up the social ladder.
In both the United States and Russia, another curious fact has been discovered: a well-educated son of a worker has as much chance of advancement as a poorly educated son of the middle classes, particularly white-collar workers. Although the second one can be helped by parents.
The uniqueness of the United States lies in the large flow of immigrants. Unskilled workers - immigrants arriving in the country from all parts of the world - occupy the lower rungs of the social ladder, displacing or hastening the upward mobility of native Americans. Migration from rural areas has the same effect, not only in the United States, but also in Russia.
In both countries, upward mobility has so far been on average 20% higher than downward mobility. But both types of vertical mobility were inferior to horizontal mobility in their own way. This means the following: in two countries there is a high level of mobility (up to 70 - 80% of the population), but 70% is horizontal mobility - movement within the boundaries of the same class and even layer (stratum).
Even in the USA, where, according to belief, every sweeper can become a millionaire, the conclusion made back in 1927 by P. Sorokin remains valid: most people begin their working career at the same social level as their parents and only a very few manage to move forward significantly. In other words, the average citizen moves one step up or down during his life; rarely does anyone manage to move up several steps at once.
Thus, 10% of Americans, 7% of Japanese and Dutch, 9% of the British, 2% of the French, Germans and Danes, 1% of Italians rise from workers to the upper middle class. To the factors of individual mobility, i.e. the reasons that allow one person to achieve greater success than another, sociologists in both countries attribute:
social status of the family;
level of education;
nationality;
physical and mental abilities, external data;
receiving education;
location;
profitable marriage.
Mobile individuals begin socialization in one class and end in another. They are literally torn between dissimilar cultures and lifestyles. They do not know how to behave, dress, talk from the point of view of the standards of another class. Often adaptation to new conditions remains very superficial. A typical example is Molière's tradesman among the nobility. (Remember other literary characters who would illustrate the superficial assimilation of manners of behavior when moving from one class, layer to another.)
In all industrial developed countries It is more difficult for women to move up than for men. Often they increase their social status only through a profitable marriage. Therefore, when getting a job, women of this orientation choose those professions where they are most likely to find " the right man"What do you think these professions or places of work are? Give examples from life or literature when marriage acted as a “social elevator” for women of humble origin.
During the Soviet period, our society was the most mobile society in the world, along with America. Available to all layers free education opened up for everyone the same opportunities for advancement that existed only in the United States. Nowhere in the world is the elite of society behind short term was not formed from literally all strata of society. At the end of this period, mobility slowed down, but increased again in the 1990s.
The most dynamic Soviet society was not only in terms of education and social mobility, but also in the field of industrial development. For many years, the USSR held first place in terms of the pace of industrial progress. All these are signs of a modern industrial society that put the USSR, as Western sociologists wrote, among the leading countries in the world in terms of the pace of social mobility.
Structural mobility
Industrialization opens up new vacancies in vertical mobility. The development of industry three centuries ago required the transformation of the peasantry into the proletariat. At the late stage of industrialization, the working class became the largest part of the employed population. The main factor in vertical mobility was the education system.
Industrialization is associated not only with inter-class, but also with intra-class changes. At the stage of assembly line or mass production at the beginning of the twentieth century, low- and unskilled workers remained the predominant group. Mechanization and then automation required an expansion of the ranks of skilled and highly skilled workers. In the 1950s, 40% of workers in developed countries were low- or unskilled. In 1966, only 20% remained.
As unskilled labor declined, the need for employees, managers, and businessmen grew. The sphere of industrial and agricultural labor narrowed, and the sphere of service and management expanded.
In an industrial society, the structure of the national economy determines mobility. In other words, professional
mobility in the USA, England, Russia or Japan depends not on the individual characteristics of people, but on the structural features of the economy, the relationship of industries and the shifts taking place here. Number of employees in agriculture The USA decreased by 10 times from 1900 to 1980. Small farmers became a respectable petty bourgeois class, and agricultural workers swelled the ranks of the working class. The stratum of professionals and managers doubled during that period. The number of sales workers and clerks increased 4 times.
Such transformations are typical for modern societies: from farm to factory in the early stages of industrialization and from factory to office in the later stages. Today in developed countries over 50% work force are engaged in mental work compared to 10 - 15% at the beginning of the century.
Over the course of this century, blue-collar jobs in industrialized countries have declined and management jobs have expanded. But managerial vacancies were filled not by workers, but by the middle class. However, the number of management jobs grew faster than the number of children in the middle class available to fill them. The vacuum created in the 50s was partially filled by working youth. This was made possible due to the availability of higher education to ordinary Americans.
In developed capitalist countries, industrialization was completed earlier than in former socialist countries (USSR, GDR, Hungary, Bulgaria, etc.). The lag could not but affect the nature of social mobility: in capitalist countries the share of leaders and intelligentsia - people from workers and peasants - is one third, and in former socialist countries - three quarters. In countries like England, which have long passed the stage of industrialization, the proportion of workers of peasant origin is very low; there are more so-called hereditary workers. On the contrary, in Eastern European countries this share is very high and sometimes reaches 50%.
It is thanks to structural mobility that the two opposite poles of the professional pyramid turned out to be the least mobile. In the former socialist countries, the most closed were two layers - the layer of top managers and the layer of auxiliary workers located at the bottom of the pyramid - layers that fill the most prestigious and least prestigious spheres of activity. (Try to answer the question “why?” on your own)
People are in constant motion, and society is in development. The totality of social movements of people in society, i.e. changes in their status, is called social mobility. This topic has interested humanity for a long time. The unexpected rise of a person or his sudden fall is a favorite plot of folk tales: a cunning beggar suddenly becomes a rich man, a poor prince becomes a king, and the hardworking Cinderella marries a prince, thereby increasing her status and prestige.
However, human history consists not so much of individual destinies as of the movements of large social groups. The landed aristocracy is being replaced by the financial bourgeoisie, low-skilled professions are being forced out of modern production by representatives of the so-called “white collar” workers - engineers, programmers, operators of robotic systems. Wars and revolutions reshaped the social structure of society, raising some to the top of the pyramid and lowering others. Similar changes took place in Russian society after the October Revolution of 1917. They are still happening today, when the business elite is replacing the party elite.
Between ascent and descent there is a well-known asymmetry: everyone wants to go up and no one wants to go down the social ladder. Usually, ascent - the phenomenon is voluntary, and descent - forced.
Research shows that those with higher statuses prefer high positions for themselves and their children, but those with low statuses also want the same for themselves and their children. This is how it works in human society: everyone strives upward and no one strives downward.
In this chapter we will look at essence, reasons, typology, mechanisms, channels And factors, influencing social mobility.
Exist two main types social mobility - intergenerational and intragenerational, and two main types - vertical and horizontal. They, in turn, break down into subspecies And subtypes, which are closely related to each other.
Intergenerational mobility suggests that children achieve a higher social position or fall to a lower level than their parents. Example: a miner's son becomes an engineer.
Intragenerational mobility occurs where the same individual, without comparison with his father, changes social positions several times throughout his life. Otherwise it is called social career. Example: a turner becomes an engineer, and then a workshop manager, a plant director, and a minister of the engineering industry.
The first type of mobility refers to long-term, and the second - to short-term processes. In the first case, sociologists are more interested in interclass mobility, and in the second, in the movement from the sphere of physical labor to the sphere of mental labor.
Vertical mobility implies movement from one stratum (estate, class, caste) to another. Depending on the direction of movement, there are upward mobility (social rise, upward movement) and downward mobility (social descent, downward movement). Promotion is an example of upward mobility, dismissal, demotion is an example of downward mobility.
Horizontal mobility implies the transition of an individual from one social group to another located at the same level. Examples include moving from an Orthodox to a Catholic religious group, from one citizenship to another, from one family (parental) to another (one’s own, newly formed), from one profession to another. Such movements occur without a noticeable change in social position in the vertical direction.
A type of horizontal mobility is geographic mobility . It does not imply a change in status or group, but a movement from one place to another while maintaining the same status. An example is international and interregional tourism, moving from city to village and back, moving from one enterprise to another.
If a change of location is added to a change of status, then geographic mobility becomes migration. If a villager came to the city to visit relatives, then this is geographical mobility. If he moved to the city for permanent residence and found work here, then this is already migration. He changed his profession.
Vertical and horizontal mobility are influenced by gender, age, birth rate, death rate, and population density. In general, young people and men are more mobile than older people and women. Overpopulated countries are more likely to experience the effects of emigration than immigration. Where the birth rate is high, the population is younger and therefore more mobile, and vice versa.
Young people are characterized by professional mobility, adults - economic mobility, and older people - political mobility. Fertility rates are not equally distributed across classes. The lower classes tend to have more children, while the upper classes tend to have fewer. There is a pattern: the higher a person climbs the social ladder, the fewer children he has. Even if every son of a rich man follows in his father's footsteps, there will still be voids at the top of the social pyramid that are filled by people from the lower classes. In no class do people plan the exact number of children needed to replace parents. The number of vacancies and the number of applicants for occupying certain social positions in different classes is different.
Professionals (doctors, lawyers, etc.) and skilled employees do not have enough children to fill their jobs in the next generation. In contrast, farmers and agricultural workers in the US have 50% more children than they need to replace themselves. It is not difficult to calculate in which direction social mobility should occur in modern society.
High and low fertility in different classes creates the same effect on vertical mobility that population density in different countries. Strata, like countries, can be overpopulated or underpopulated.
It is possible to propose a classification of social mobility according to other criteria. So, for example, they distinguish:
· individual mobility, when movement down, up or horizontally occurs in each person independently of others, and
· group mobility, when movements occur collectively, for example, after a social revolution, the old class cedes its dominant position to a new class.
Individual mobility and group mobility are in a certain way connected with ascribed and achieved statuses. Individual mobility corresponds more to the achieved status, while group mobility corresponds more to the ascribed status.
Individual mobility occurs where and when the social significance of an entire class, estate, caste, rank, or category increases or decreases. The October Revolution led to the rise of the Bolsheviks, who previously had no recognized high position. The Brahmins became the highest caste as a result of a long and persistent struggle, and previously they were on a par with the Kshatriyas. In Ancient Greece, after the adoption of the constitution, most people were freed from slavery and rose up the social ladder, while many of their former masters fell down.
The transition from a hereditary aristocracy to a plutocracy (an aristocracy based on the principles of wealth) had the same consequences. In 212 AD e. Almost the entire population of the Roman Empire received the status of Roman citizens. Thanks to this, huge masses of people, previously considered inferior, increased their social status. The invasion of barbarians (Huns, Lobards, Goths) disrupted the social stratification of the Roman Empire: one after another, the old aristocratic families disappeared, and they were replaced by new ones. Foreigners founded new dynasties and new nobility.
Mobile individuals begin socialization in one class and end in another. They are literally torn between dissimilar cultures and lifestyles. They do not know how to behave, dress, talk from the point of view of the standards of another class. Often adaptation to new conditions remains very superficial. A typical example is Molière's tradesman among the nobility.
These are the main types, types and forms (there are no significant differences between these terms) of social mobility. In addition to them, organized mobility is sometimes distinguished, when the movement of a person or entire groups up, down or horizontally is controlled by the state a) with the consent of the people themselves, b) without their consent. Voluntary organized mobility includes the so-called socialist organizational set, public calls for Komsomol construction sites, etc. Involuntary organized mobility includes repatriation (resettlement) of small peoples and dispossession during the years of Stalinism.
It is necessary to distinguish from organized mobility structural mobility. It is caused by changes in the structure of the national economy and occurs beyond the will and consciousness of individuals. For example, the disappearance or reduction of industries or professions leads to the displacement of large masses of people. In the 50-70s, the USSR carried out the reduction of small villages and their consolidation.
Social mobility can be vertical and horizontal. At horizontal mobility is the social movement of individuals and social groups into different but equal social communities. These can be considered moving from government to private structures, moving from one enterprise to another, etc. Varieties of horizontal mobility are: territorial (migration, tourism, relocation from village to city), professional (change of profession), religious (change of religion) , political (transition from one political party to another).
With vertical mobility, there is upward and downward movement of people. An example of such mobility is the reduction of workers from the “hegemon” in the USSR to simple class in today's Russia and, conversely, the rise of speculators into the middle and upper class. Vertical social movements are associated, firstly, with profound changes in the socio-economic structure of society, the emergence of new classes, social groups striving to achieve a higher social status, and secondly, with a change in ideological guidelines, value systems and norms, political priorities. In this case, there is an upward movement of those political forces, who were able to capture changes in the mentality, orientations and ideals of the population.
To quantitatively characterize social mobility, indicators of its speed are used. The speed of social mobility refers to the vertical social distance and the number of strata (economic, professional, political, etc.) that individuals pass through in their upward or downward movement over a certain period of time. For example, after graduating from college, a young specialist can take the position of senior engineer or head of department, etc., within several years.
The intensity of social mobility is characterized by the number of individuals changing social positions in a vertical or horizontal position over a certain period of time. The number of such individuals gives the absolute intensity of social mobility. For example, during the years of reforms in post-Soviet Russia (1992-1998), up to one third of the “Soviet intelligentsia”, who made up the middle class of Soviet Russia, became “shuttle traders”.
The aggregate index of social mobility includes its speed and intensity. In this way, one society can be compared with another to find out (1) in which one or (2) in which period social mobility is higher or lower in all respects. Such an index can be calculated separately for economic, professional, political and other social mobility. Social mobility is an important characteristic of the dynamism of society. Those societies where the aggregate index of social mobility is higher develop much more dynamically, especially if this index relates to the governing strata.
Social (group) mobility is associated with the emergence of new social groups and affects the relationship between the main social strata, whose status no longer corresponds to the existing hierarchy. By the middle of the 20th century, managers of large enterprises, for example, became such a group. Based on this fact, Western sociology developed the concept of a “revolution of managers” (J. Bernheim). According to it, the administrative stratum begins to play a decisive role not only in the economy, but also in social life, complementing and displacing the class of owners of the means of production (captains).
Vertical social movements are intensive during times of structural restructuring of the economy. The emergence of new prestigious, highly paid professional groups contributes to mass movement up the ladder of social status. The decline in the social status of the profession, the disappearance of some of them provokes not only a downward movement, but also the emergence of marginal layers that lose their usual position in society and lose the achieved level of consumption. There is an erosion of the values and norms that previously united them and determined their stable place in the social hierarchy.
Marginalized people are social groups that have lost their previous social status, are deprived of the opportunity to engage in usual activities, and have found themselves unable to adapt to the new sociocultural (value and normative) environment. Their old values and norms were not supplanted by new norms and values. The efforts of marginalized people to adapt to new conditions give rise to psychological stress. The behavior of such people is extreme: they are either passive or aggressive, and also easily commit crimes. moral standards, are capable of unpredictable actions. A typical leader of the marginalized in post-Soviet Russia is V. Zhirinovsky.
During periods of acute social cataclysms, fundamental changes social structure There may be an almost complete renewal of the upper echelons of society. Thus, the events of 1917 in our country led to the overthrow of the old ruling classes (nobility and bourgeoisie) and the rapid rise of a new ruling layer (the communist party bureaucracy) with nominally socialist values and norms. Such a radical replacement of the upper stratum of society always takes place in an atmosphere of extreme confrontation and tough struggle.
Question No. 10 “Concept social institution, its signs"
A social institution in a sociological interpretation is considered as historically established, stable forms of organization joint activities of people; in a narrower sense it is organized system social connections and norms, designed to satisfy the basic needs of society, social groups and individuals.
Social institutions (insitutum - institution) are value-normative complexes (values, rules, norms, attitudes, patterns, standards of behavior in certain situations), as well as bodies and organizations that ensure their implementation and approval in the life of society.
All elements of society are interconnected by social relations - connections that arise between and within social groups in the process of material (economic) and spiritual (political, legal, cultural) activity.
In the process of development of society, some connections may die out, others may appear. Connections that have proven their benefits to society are streamlined, become generally significant patterns and are subsequently repeated from generation to generation. The more stable these connections that are useful for society are, the more stable the society itself is.
Social institutions (from the Latin institutum - structure) are elements of society that represent stable forms of organization and regulation of social life. Such institutions of society as the state, education, family, etc., organize social relations, regulate the activities of people and their behavior in society.
The main goal of social institutions is to achieve stability in the development of society. In accordance with this goal, the functions of institutions are distinguished:
· meeting the needs of society;
· regulation of social processes (during which these needs are usually satisfied).
The needs that are satisfied by social institutions are diverse. For example, society's need for security can be supported by the institution of defense, spiritual needs by the church, and the need to understand the world around us by science. Each institution can satisfy several needs (the church is able to satisfy religious, moral, cultural needs), and the same need can be satisfied by different institutions (spiritual needs can be satisfied by art, science, religion, etc.).
The process of satisfying needs (say, the consumption of goods) can be institutionally regulated. For example, there are legal restrictions on the purchase of a number of goods (weapons, alcohol, tobacco). The process of meeting society's needs for education is regulated by institutions of primary, secondary, and higher education.
The structure of a social institution is formed by:
social groups and social organizations designed to satisfy the needs of groups and individuals;
a set of norms, social values and patterns of behavior that ensure satisfaction of needs;
· system of symbols regulating relationships in economic sphere activities ( trademark, flag, brand, etc.);
· ideological justifications for the activities of a social institution;
· social resources used in the activities of the institute.
The characteristics of a social institution include:
· a set of institutions, social groups whose purpose is to satisfy certain needs of society;
· system of cultural patterns, norms, values, symbols;
· a system of behavior in accordance with these norms and patterns;
· material and human resources necessary to solve problems;
· socially recognized mission, goal, ideology.
Let us consider the characteristics of an institute using the example of secondary vocational education. It includes:
· teachers, officials, administration educational institutions etc.;
· norms of behavior of students, society’s attitude towards the system of professional education;
· the established practice of relations between teachers and students;
buildings, auditoriums, teaching aids;
mission - meeting the needs of society for good specialists with secondary vocational education.
In accordance with the spheres of public life, four main groups of institutions can be distinguished:
economic institutions - division of labor, property, market, trade, wage, banking system, stock exchange, management, marketing, etc.;
· political institutions - state, army, militia, police, parliamentarism, presidency, monarchy, court, parties, civil society;
· institutions of stratification and kinship - class, estate, caste, gender discrimination, racial segregation, nobility, social security, family, marriage, paternity, maternity, adoption, twinning;
· cultural institutes - school, higher school, secondary professional education, theaters, museums, clubs, libraries, church, monasticism, confession.
The number of social institutions is not limited to the given list. Institutions are numerous and varied in their forms and manifestations. Large institutions may include lower level institutions. For example, the institute of education includes institutes of primary, vocational and higher education; court - institutions of the legal profession, prosecutor's office, judging; family - institutions of motherhood, adoption, etc.
Since society is a dynamic system, some institutions may disappear (for example, the institution of slavery), while others may appear (the institution of advertising or the institution of civil society). The formation of a social institution is called the process of institutionalization.
Institutionalization is the process of streamlining social relations, forming stable patterns of social interaction based on clear rules, laws, patterns and rituals. For example, the process of institutionalization of science is the transformation of science from the activity of individuals into an ordered system of relations, including a system of titles, academic degrees, research institutes, academies, etc.
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Downward mobility can also cause extreme unpleasant consequences for individuals and, naturally, to an even greater extent than the ascending one. Social decline breaks primary ties with friends and many relatives, can break up families, and put barriers between fathers and children. Let's take, for example, a young married couple in which the spouses are equally strongly motivated by mobility and achievement. If the spouses have different abilities, various conditions and circumstances will exalt one of them, the other will experience painful difficulties. Mutual tension and breakdown of relationships may occur. Statistics show that families often break up for this very reason.
Downward mobility can also cause extremely unpleasant consequences for individuals and, naturally, to an even greater extent than upward mobility. Social decline breaks primary ties with friends and many relatives, can break up families, and put barriers between fathers and children. Let's take, for example, a young married couple in which the spouses are equally strongly motivated by mobility and achievement.
Similarly, downward mobility exists in the form of both pushing individuals from high social statuses to lower ones and lowering the social statuses of an entire group. An example of the second form of downward mobility is the decline in the social status of a professional group of engineers, which once occupied very high positions in our society, or the decline in the status of a political party that is losing real power.
Indeed, the market, even in its initial state, increased the requirements for the qualities of both the employer and the employee. This was partly due to negative factors downward mobility. But the influence of bringing the illusory social status to the real one prevails.
Although downgrading in social status is less common than upgrading, downward mobility is still a widespread phenomenon. About 20% of the UK population is subject to it during the process of generational change (intergenerational mobility), although most of these are short social movements. There is also intragenerational downgrading. It is this type of downward mobility that most often gives rise to psychological problems, as people lose the ability to maintain their usual lifestyle.
Society can elevate the status of some individuals and lower the status of others. And this is understandable: some individuals who have talent, energy, and youth must displace other individuals who do not have these qualities from higher statuses. Depending on this, a distinction is made between upward and downward social mobility, or social ascent and social decline. Upward currents of professional, economic and political mobility exist in two main forms: as individual ascent, or the infiltration of individuals from a lower stratum to a higher one, and as the creation of new groups of individuals with the inclusion of groups in the upper stratum next to or instead of existing groups of this stratum [92 , With. Similarly, downward mobility exists in the form of both pushing individuals from high social statuses to lower ones and lowering the social statuses of an entire group. An example of the second form of downward mobility is the decline in the social status of a professional troupe of engineers that once occupied very high positions in our society, or the decline in the status of a political party that is losing real power.
Let us highlight one more mechanism social stratification, which is associated with a change in a person’s position in the system of social statuses - social mobility. At birth, a person receives the social status of his parents, the so-called ascriptive, or prescribed, status. Parents, relatives and people close to the family pass on to the child those norms of behavior, ideas about what is proper and prestigious that prevail in their environment. However, during the active period of his activity, a person may not be content with his position in this layer, but may aspire and achieve more. In the latter case, it acquires the achieved status. If a person’s status is changed to a more prestigious, better one, then we can say that upward mobility has taken place. However, as a result of life disasters (job loss, illness, etc.) a person can move to a lower status group - and downward mobility is triggered. Researchers have a system of statistical procedures and indicators that allow them to identify different types social mobility (intergenerational, professional, etc.), which generally makes it possible to analyze different kinds population movements.
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Social mobility- this is an opportunity to change social stratum.
Social mobility- change by an individual or group of the place occupied in the social structure (social position), movement from one social stratum (class, group) to another (vertical mobility) or within the same social stratum (horizontal mobility)
Kinds:
Under vertical social mobility refers to those relationships that arise when an individual or social object moves from one social layer to another
Horizontal mobility- this is the transition of an individual or social object from one social position to another lying at the same level, for example, the transition of an individual from one family to another, from one religious group to another, as well as a change of place of residence
Upward mobility- social rise, upward movement (For example: promotion).
Downward mobility- social descent, downward movement (For example: demotion).
Individual mobility- this is when movement occurs downwards, upwards or horizontally in an individual independently of others.
Group mobility- a process in which movements occur collectively. “It occurs where and when the social significance of an entire class, estate, caste, rank, category increases or decreases”
Structural social mobility- a change in the social status of a significant number of people, mostly due to changes in society itself, and not to individual efforts. It is caused by changes in the structure of the national economy and occurs beyond the will and consciousness of individuals
Voluntary mobility this is mobility at will, and forced- due to forced circumstances.
Intergenerational mobility suggests that children achieve a higher social position or fall to a lower level than their parents
Intragenerational mobility– change in the social position of an individual throughout his life. (social career)
Channels of social mobility There are methods called “steps of the ladder”, “elevators”, which allow people to move up and down the social hierarchy. " Social elevator- this is a way to give rise and help in taking a more pleasant position in society.
For Pitirim Sorokin, such channels as the army, church, school, political, economic and professional organizations were of particular interest.
Army. It is used most of all as a vertical circulation channel in wartime. Major losses among the command staff provide an opportunity for lower ranks to rise up the career ladder. lead to filling vacancies from lower ranks.
Church . It is the second channel among the main ones. But at the same time, “the church performs this function only when its social significance increases. During periods of decline or at the beginning of the existence of a particular confession, its role as a channel of social stratification is insignificant and insignificant” 1 .
School . “Institutions of education and upbringing, no matter what specific form they take, have in all centuries been means of vertical social circulation. In societies where schools are available to all its members, the school system represents a “social elevator”, moving from the very bottom of society to the very top.”2 .
Government groups, political organizations and political parties as channels of vertical circulation. In many countries, there is automatic promotion of officials over time, regardless of what position the person entered into.
Professional organization How channel vertical circulation . Some of the organizations play a large role in the vertical movement of individuals. Such organizations are: scientific, literary, creative institutes. “Entry into these organizations was relatively free for everyone who showed appropriate abilities, regardless of their social status, and promotion within such institutions was accompanied by general advancement up the social ladder” 3.
Wealth creation organizations as channels of social circulation. The accumulation of wealth has always led to the social advancement of people. Throughout history there has been a close relationship between wealth and nobility. The forms of “enriching” organizations can be: land ownership, oil production, banditry, mining, etc.
Family and other channels of social circulation . Marriage (especially between representatives of different social statuses) can lead one of the partners to social advancement or to social degradation. In democratic societies, we can observe how rich brides marry poor but titled grooms, thereby one moves up the social ladder thanks to the title, and the other - material reinforcement of his titled status
Task 2
Charles Ogier de Batz de Castelmore, Count d'Artagnan (French Charles Ogier de Batz de Castelmore, comte d "Artagnan, 1611, Castlemore Castle, Gascony, France - June 25, 1673, Maastricht, Netherlands) - Gascon nobleman who made a brilliant career at Louis XIV in the company of the royal musketeers.
1. Type of social mobility:
Vertical mobility. Rising. Individual. Voluntary. (D'Artagnan made a career as a courier for Cardinal Mazarin in the years after the First Fronde => Lieutenant of the French Guard (1652) => Captain (1655) => Second Lieutenant (that is, deputy to the actual commander) in the reconstituted company of the Royal Musketeers (1658) = > captain-lieutenant of the musketeers (1667) => position of governor of Lille (1667) => field marshal (major general) (1672).
Horizontal mobility. Charles de Batz moved to Paris in the 1630s from Gascony.
2. Channel of social mobility - army
Factors that determined social mobility: personal qualities (high level of motivation, initiative, sociability), physical and mental abilities, migration process (moving to a large city), demographic factors (male gender, age of entry into service), social status of the family (D 'Artagnan was a descendant of counts on his mother's side; his father had a title of nobility, which he assumed after his marriage)
3. Charles de Batz achieved a new social status and a high standard of living
4. There was no cultural barrier, D-Artagnan was easily accepted into the new society, he was a close associate of the king, respected both at court and in the army.
Louis XIV: “almost the only man who managed to make people love him without doing anything for them that would oblige them to do so”
1Sorokin P. A. Man. Civilization. Society. – M.: Politizdat, 1992.
2Sorokin P. A. Man. Civilization. Society. – M.: Politizdat, 1992.
3Sorokin P. A. Man. Civilization. Society. – M.: Politizdat, 1992.
