Characteristics and classification of exogenous processes. Results of exogenous processes

reservoirs 10.10.2019

reservoirs

Our body is a rather complex and at the same time fragile mechanism. Its activity can be disturbed due to the influence of a variety of factors, far from always depending on the person himself. There are several options for classifying the causes contributing to the development of diseases. And one of them involves the division of such factors into external and internal. Let's try to understand their features in a little more detail. Consider exogenous and endogenous pathogenic factors.

Only having information about the causes of ailments, you can successfully cope with them and prevent their development. Diseases can be provoked by various environmental stimuli - exogenous factors. Other ailments are formed due to the special properties of the body, such causes of development are called internal - endogenous. In general, external and internal factors cannot be considered in isolation, because the internal environment of our body interacts quite closely with the external one.

Exogenous and endogenous factors of the disease

Exogenous causes

The conditions in which we live and with which we interact can become an external cause that provokes various diseases. All exogenous factors can be divided into mechanical, physical, as well as chemical and biological. In addition, some experts also include insufficiently proper nutrition, the influence of the social environment and the so-called verbal stimulus in this group.

Mechanical exogenous causes are considered to be a variety of mechanical injuries, various kinds of bruises and wounds. The same group should include fractures, articular dislocations, sprains, the appearance of ruptures and crushing of tissues, concussions, etc.

Physical causes are represented by temperature influences, radiant energy (solar energy, as well as energy arising from radioactive decay), electric shock, changes in atmospheric pressure, etc.

Chemical Factors quite diverse, because the effects of chemicals on the body can provoke a variety of problems, depending on their type, properties, quantity, and also the place of contact.

If we talk about such a factor as malnutrition, then it is worth recognizing that it can cause a variety of body disorders, provoke protein, carbohydrate or fat starvation, hypovitaminosis and vitamin deficiency, contribute to the development of anemia or even tuberculosis. Excessive food intake is fraught with the development of obesity, diabetes, atherosclerosis, etc.

Another exogenous factor that provokes diseases is the social environment. So living in underdeveloped countries contributes to the spread of malaria, typhus, tuberculosis, rickets, etc. Excessive physical work, unemployment, starvation and poverty increase the overall percentage of morbidity. Unfavorable social conditions provoke an overstrain of the central nervous system and can cause a number of somatic ailments - internal, skin, allergic, etc.

Endogenous causes

As for the internal causes of diseases, they are represented by those factors that develop in the body itself due to some special structure of organs, due to changes in their functions, or against the background of metabolic disorders. All these features can be inherited or acquired throughout life due to prolonged human interaction with various aggressive environmental conditions.

A separate group of endogenous factors are hereditary diseases, they themselves or a predisposition to them is transmitted at the genetic level. Known ailments of this type include color blindness, albinism, hemophilia, allergic diseases, etc.

From hereditary ailments, it is worth separating congenital pathologies that have developed in the fetus. For example, the impact of some factors can cause abnormal development of the child even at the stage of pregnancy. These endogenous factors include congenital deformities, defects and diseases (for example, syphilis).

Even to endogenous factors in the development of diseases, some experts include age and gender. After all, the characteristics of age and gender anatomical and physiological differences can also predispose to the formation of certain ailments. So in childhood, the body is often affected by whooping cough, rickets, chickenpox, in adolescence and young - pulmonary tuberculosis and rheumatism. Older people are characterized by the occurrence of atherosclerosis, metabolic diseases, etc. If we talk about gender characteristics, then women are more likely to have inflammatory lesions of the gallbladder and cholelithiasis, while men are more likely to suffer from ulcerative lesions and atherosclerosis.

It should be borne in mind that in addition to exogenous and endogenous, all causes of diseases can be divided into those that directly cause the disease, and those that contribute to its development. So, for example, tuberculosis is provoked by an infection, but insufficiently favorable living conditions can be attributed to the predisposing factors for its occurrence.

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Endogenous processes:

Endogenous processes - geological processes associated with energy arising in the bowels of the solid Earth. Endogenous processes include tectonic processes, magmatism, metamorphism, and seismic activity.

Tectonic processes - the formation of faults and folds.

Magmatism is a term that combines effusive (volcanism) and intrusive (plutonism) processes in the development of folded and platform areas. Magmatism is understood as the totality of all geological processes, the driving force of which is magma and its derivatives. Magmatism is a manifestation of the deep activity of the Earth; it is closely related to its development, thermal history and tectonic evolution.

Metamorphism is a process of solid-phase mineral and structural change of rocks under the influence of temperature and pressure in the presence of fluid.

Seismic activity is a quantitative measure of the seismic regime, determined by the average number of earthquake sources in a certain energy range that occur in the area under consideration for a certain observation time.

Exogenous processes:

Exogenous processes - geological processes occurring on the surface of the Earth and in the most upper parts earth's crust(weathering, erosion, glacier activity, etc.); driven mainly by energy solar radiation, the force of gravity and the vital activity of organisms.

Erosion is the destruction of rocks and soils by surface water flows and wind, which includes the separation and removal of fragments of material and is accompanied by their deposition.

According to the rate of development, erosion is divided into normal and accelerated. Normal occurs always in the presence of any pronounced runoff, proceeds more slowly than soil formation and does not lead to a noticeable change in the level and shape of the earth's surface. Accelerated is faster than soil formation, leads to soil degradation and is accompanied by a noticeable change in relief.

For reasons, natural and anthropogenic erosion are distinguished.

Interactions:

The relief is formed as a result of the interaction of endogenous and exogenous processes.

21. Physical weathering of rocks:

Physical weathering of rocks is the process of mechanical fragmentation of rocks without changing the chemical composition of the minerals that form them.

Physical weathering actively proceeds with large fluctuations in daily and seasonal temperatures, for example, in hot deserts, where the soil surface sometimes heats up to 60 - 70 ° C, and cools down to almost 0 ° C at night.

The process of destruction is enhanced by condensation and freezing of water in the cracks of rocks, because, freezing, the water expands and presses against the walls with great force.

In a dry climate, a similar role is played by salts that crystallize in the cracks of rocks. Thus, the calcium salt CaSO4, turning into gypsum (CaSO4 - 2H2O), increases in volume by 33%. As a result, individual fragments begin to fall off from the rock, broken by a network of cracks, and over time, its surface may undergo complete mechanical destruction, which favors chemical weathering.

22. Chemical weathering of rocks:

Chemical weathering is the process of chemical change in rocks and minerals and the formation of new, simpler compounds as a result of dissolution, hydrolysis, hydration and oxidation reactions. The most important factors in chemical weathering are water, carbon dioxide and oxygen. Water acts as an active solvent of rocks and minerals, and carbon dioxide dissolved in water enhances the destructive effect of water. Main chemical reaction water with minerals of igneous rocks - hydrolysis - leads to the replacement of cations of alkaline and alkaline earth elements of the crystal lattice with hydrogen ions of dissociated water molecules. Hydration is also associated with the activity of water - chemical process addition of water to minerals. As a result of the reaction, the surface of minerals is destroyed, which in turn enhances their interaction with the environment. aqueous solution, gases and other weathering factors. The reaction of oxygen addition and the formation of oxides (acidic, basic, amphoteric, salt-forming) is called oxidation. Oxidative processes are widespread during the weathering of minerals containing metal salts, especially iron. As a result of chemical weathering, the physical state of minerals changes, their crystal lattice is destroyed. The rock is enriched with new (secondary) minerals and acquires such properties as connectivity, moisture capacity, absorption capacity, etc.

23. Organic weathering of rocks:

Weathering of rocks is a complex process in which several forms of its manifestation are distinguished. The 1st form - mechanical crushing of rocks and minerals without a significant change in their chemical properties - is called mechanical or physical weathering. The 2nd form - a chemical change in matter, leading to the transformation of the original minerals into new ones - is called chemical weathering. 3rd form - organic (biological-chemical) weathering: minerals and rocks physically and mainly chemically change under the influence of the vital activity of organisms and organic matter formed during their decomposition.

Organic weathering:

The destruction of rocks by organisms is carried out by physical or chemical means. The simplest plants - lichens - are able to settle on any rock and extract nutrients from it with the help of organic acids secreted by them; this is confirmed by experiments on planting lichens on smooth glass. After some time, cloudiness appeared on the glass, indicating its partial dissolution. The simplest plants prepare the ground for life on the surface of rocks of more highly organized plants.

Woody vegetation sometimes also appears on the surface of rocks that do not have a loose soil cover. The roots of plants use the cracks in the rock, gradually expanding them. They are able to break even a very dense rock, since the turgor, or pressure developed in the cells of the root tissue, reaches 60-100 atm. A significant role in the destruction of the earth's crust in its upper part is played by earthworms, ants and termites, which make numerous underground passages, contributing to the penetration into the soil of air containing moisture and CO2 - powerful factors of chemical weathering.

24. Minerals formed during the weathering of rocks:

WEATHERING DEPOSITS - deposits of minerals that have arisen in the weathering crust during the decomposition of rocks near the Earth's surface under the influence of water, carbon dioxide, oxygen, as well as organic and inorganic acids. Among the weathering of deposits, infiltration deposits and residual deposits are distinguished. Weathering deposits include some deposits of ores Fe, Mn, S, Ni, bauxite, kaolin, apatite, barite.

K infiltration B. m. include deposits of ores of uranium, copper, native sulfur. Their example is the widespread deposits of uranium ores in sandstone strata (eg, the Colorado Plateau). The deposits of ores of silicate nickel, iron, manganese, bauxite, magnesite, and kaolin belong to the residual mineral deposits. Among them, the deposits of nickel ores of the CCCP (Southern Urals), Kuba, and H. Caledonia are the most characteristic.

25. Geological wind activity:

The activity of the wind is one of the most important factors forming the relief. The processes associated with the activity of the wind are called aeolian (Eol is the god of the winds in Greek mythology).

The influence of wind on the relief occurs in two directions:

Weathering - the destruction and transformation of rocks.

Movement of material - giant accumulations of sand or clay particles.

The destructive activity of the wind consists of two processes - deflation and corrosion.

Deflation is the process of blowing and wind blowing particles of loose rocks.

Corrosion (scraping, scraping) is the process of mechanical abrasion of rocks by detrital material carried by the wind. It consists in turning, grinding, and drilling rocks.

26. Geological activity of the sea:

The seas and oceans occupy about 361 million km2. (70.8% of the entire earth's surface). The total volume of water is 10 times the volume of land above the water level, which is 1370 million km2. This huge mass of water is in constant motion and therefore performs a great destructive and creative work. Over the long history of the development of the earth's crust, the seas and oceans have changed their boundaries more than once. Almost the entire surface of modern land was repeatedly flooded with their waters. Thick layers of sediments accumulated at the bottom of the seas and oceans. Various sedimentary rocks were formed from these sediments.

The geological activity of the sea is mainly reduced to the destruction of rocks on the coast and bottom, the transfer of fragments of material and the deposition of sediments, from which sedimentary rocks of marine origin are subsequently formed.

The destructive activity of the sea consists in the destruction of the shores and the bottom and is called abrasion, which is most pronounced on steep coasts at great coastal depths. This is due to the high height of the waves and their high pressure. It enhances the destructive activity of the clastic material contained in sea water and air bubbles, which burst and a pressure drop occurs ten times higher than abrasion. Under the influence of sea surf, the coast gradually moves away and in its place (at a depth of 0–20 m) a flat area is formed - a wave-cut or abrasion terrace, the width of which can be > 9 km, the slope is ~ 1°.

If the sea level remains constant for a long time, then the steep coast gradually recedes and a boulder-pebble beach appears between it and the abrasion terrace. The coast from abrasion becomes accumulative.

The shores are intensively destroyed during the transgression (advance) of the sea and turn, leaving from under the water level, into a sea terrace during the regression of the sea. Examples: coasts of Norway and Novaya Zemlya. Abrasion does not occur during rapid continuous uplifts and on gently sloping banks.

The destruction of the coast is also facilitated by the tides, sea currents (Gulf Stream).

Sea water transports substances in a colloidal, dissolved state and in the form of mechanical suspensions. She drags the coarser material along the bottom.

27. Precipitation of the shelf zone of the sea:

Seas and oceans occupy about 71% of the Earth's surface. Water is in constant motion, which leads to the destruction of the banks (abrasion), the movement of a huge amount of clastic material and dissolved substances carried by the rivers, and, finally, their deposition with the formation of a variety of sediments.

Shelf (from English) - a continental shelf, is an underwater slightly sloping plain. The shelf is a leveled part of the underwater margin of the continent, adjacent to the land and characterized by a common geological structure with it. From the ocean side, the shelf is limited by a clearly defined ridge, located to depths of 100–200 m.

The main factors determining the type of marine deposits are the nature of the relief and the depth of the seabed, the degree of remoteness from the coast, and climatic conditions.

The littoral zone is called the coastal shallow part of the sea, periodically flooded during high tides and drained at low tides. This zone has a lot of air, light and nutrients. The sediments of the littoral zone are characterized primarily by strong variability, which is a consequence of the periodically changing hydrodynamic regime of water.

A beach is formed in the littoral zone. The beach is an accumulation of detrital material in the zone of action of the surf. The beaches are composed of a wide variety of materials - from large boulders to fine sand. Waves crashing onto the beach sort the material they carry. As a result, areas enriched with heavy minerals may appear in the beach zone, which leads to the formation of coastal-marine placers.

In areas of the littoral, where there are no strong disturbances, the nature of the deposits is significantly different. The sediments here are predominantly fine-grained: silty and clayey. Sometimes the entire intertidal zone is occupied by sandy-argillaceous silts.

The neritic zone is an area of shallow water, stretching from a depth where waves cease to appear to the outer edge of the shelf. Terrigenous, organogenic and chemogenic sediments accumulate in this zone.

Terrigenous sediments are most widespread, due to the proximity of land. Among them, coarse clastic sediments are distinguished: blocks, boulders, pebbles and gravel, as well as sandy, silty and clayey sediments. On the whole, the following distribution of sediments is observed in the shelf zone: coarse clastic material and sands accumulate near the shore, followed by silty sediments, and even further clayey sediments (silts). Sediment sorting deteriorates as the impact from the coast due to the weakening of the sorting work of the waves.

28. Sediments of the continental slope, continental foot and ocean floor:

The main elements of the topography of the bottom of ocean basins are:

1) Continental shelf, 2) Continental slope with submarine canyons, 3) Continental foot, 4) Mid-ocean ridge system, 5) island arcs, 6) Ocean bed with abyssal plains, positive landforms (mainly volcanoes, guillots and atolls) ) and deep sea trenches.

Continental slope - represents the margins of the continents, submerged up to 200 - 300 m below sea level at their outer edge, from where the steeper subsidence of the seabed begins. The total area of the shelf is about 7 million km2, or about 2% of the area of the bottom of the World Ocean.

Continental slope with canyons. From the edge of the shelf, the bottom descends steeper, forming a continental slope. Its width is from 15 to 30 km and it plunges to a depth of 2000 - 3000 m. It is cut by deep valleys - canyons up to 1200 m deep and having a V - shaped transverse profile. In the lower part of the canyons reach a depth of 2000 - 3000 and below sea level. The walls of the canyons are rocky, and the bottom sediments unloaded at their mouths on the continental foot indicate that the canyons play the role of flumes, along which fine and coarse sedimentary material from the shelf is carried to great depths.

The continental foot is a sedimentary rim with a gently sloping surface at the base of the continental slope. It is an analogue of foothill alluvial plains formed by river sediments at the foot of mountain ranges.

The ocean floor, in addition to the deep-water plains, also includes other large and small landforms.

29. Minerals and landforms of marine origin:

A significant percentage of minerals are found in the ocean.

Shell rock and shell sand are mined for the cement industry. The sea also supplies significant masses of material for alluvial shores, islands, and dams.

However, iron-manganese nodules and phosphorites are of the greatest interest. Rounded or disk-shaped concretions and their aggregates are found on large areas of the ocean floor and gravitate towards the zones of development of volcanoes and metal-bearing hydrotherms.

Pyrite nodules are typical for the geologically calm Arctic Ocean, and disks of iron-manganese nodules have been found at the bottom of the Black Sea rift valley.

A significant amount of phosphorus is dissolved in ocean water. The concentration of phosphates at a depth of 100 meters varies from 0.5 to 2 or more micrograms per liter. Phosphate concentrations are especially significant on the shelf. Probably, these concentrations are secondary. The original source of phosphorus - volcanic eruptions that took place in the distant past. Then phosphorus was relay-race transferred from minerals to living matter and vice versa. Large burials of phosphorus-rich sediments form deposits of phosphorites, usually enriched in uranium and other heavy metals.

Seabed relief:

The relief of the ocean floor in its complexity is not much different from the relief of the land, and often the intensity of the vertical dissection of the bottom is greater than the surface of the continents.

Most The bottom of the ocean is occupied by oceanic platforms, which are sections of the crust that have lost considerable mobility and the ability to deform.

There are four main forms of relief of the ocean floor: the underwater margin of the continents, the transition zone, the ocean floor and mid-ocean ridges.

The underwater margin consists of the shelf, the continental slope and the continental foot.

*The shelf is a shallow water zone around the continents, extending from the coastline to a sharp inflection of the bottom surface at an average depth of 140 m (in specific cases, the depth of the shelf can vary from several tens to several hundreds of meters). The average shelf width is 70-80 km, and the largest is in the area of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago (up to 1400 km)

*The next form of the continental margin, the continental slope, is a relatively steep (slope 3-6°) part of the bottom, located at the outer edge of the shelf. Off the coast of volcanic and coral islands, slopes can reach 40-50°. The width of the slope is 20-100 km.

* The mainland foot is an inclined, often slightly undulating plain, bordering the base of the mainland slope at depths of 2-4 km. The mainland foot can be both narrow and wide (up to 600-1000 km wide) and have a stepped surface. It is characterized by a significant thickness of sedimentary rocks (up to 3 km or more).

* The area of the ocean floor exceeds 200 million km2, i.e. makes up approximately 60% of the area of the oceans. The characteristic features of the bed are the wide development of the flat relief, the presence of large mountain systems and uplands not associated with the median ridges, as well as the oceanic type of the earth's crust.

The most extensive forms of the ocean floor are oceanic basins submerged to a depth of 4-6 km and representing flat and hilly abyssal plains.

*Mid-ocean ridges are characterized by high seismic activity, expressed by modern volcanism and earthquake sources.

30. Geological activity of lakes:

It is characterized by both destructive work and creative work, i.e. accumulation of sedimentary material.

Coastal erosion is carried out only by waves and rarely by currents. Naturally, in large lakes with a large water surface, the destructive effect of waves is stronger. But if the lake is ancient, then the coastlines have already been determined, the balance profile has been reached, and the waves, rolling onto narrow beaches, only carry sand and pebbles over short distances. If the lake is young, then abrasion tends to cut off the shores and reach an equilibrium profile. Therefore, the lake, as it were, expands its borders. A similar phenomenon is observed in recently created large reservoirs, in which waves cut the banks at a speed of 5-7 m per year. As a rule, lake shores are covered with vegetation, which reduces wave action. Sedimentation in lakes is carried out both due to the supply of clastic material by rivers, and biogenic, as well as chemogenic ways. Rivers flowing into lakes, as well as temporary water flows, carry with them material of various sizes, which is deposited near the shore, or carried along the lake, where the suspension precipitates.

Organogenic sedimentation is due to abundant vegetation in shallow waters, well warmed by the Sun. The shores are covered with weeds. And algae grow under water. In winter, after the death of vegetation, it accumulates at the bottom, forming a layer rich in organic matter. Phytoplankton develops in the surface layer of water and blooms in summer. In autumn, when algae, grass and phytoplankton. They sink to the bottom, where a muddy layer is formed, saturated with organic matter. Because there is almost no oxygen at the bottom in stagnant lakes, then anaerobic bacteria turn silt into a fatty, jelly-like mass - sapropel containing up to 60-65% carbon, which is used as fertilizer or therapeutic mud. The sapropelic layers are 5-6 meters thick, although sometimes they reach 30 or even 40 meters, as, for example, in Pereyaslavsky Lake on the Russian Plain. The reserves of valuable sapropel are huge and only in Belarus they amount to 3.75 billion m3, where they are intensively mined.

In some lakes, unseasoned limestone layers are formed - shell rocks or diatomites, formed from diatoms with a siliceous skeleton. Many lakes today are subjected to a large anthropogenic load, which changes their hydrological regime, reduces water transparency, and the content of nitrogen and phosphorus increases sharply. The technogenic impact on the lakes consists in the reduction of catchment areas, the redistribution of groundwater flows, the use of lake waters as coolants for power plants, including nuclear power plants.

Chemogenic sediments are especially typical for lakes in arid zones, where water evaporates intensively and therefore table and potassium salts (NaCl), (KCl, MgCl2), boron, sulfur and other compounds precipitate. Depending on the most characteristic chemogenic sediments, lakes are divided into sulfate, chloride, and borate lakes. The latter are characteristic of the Caspian lowland (Baskunchak, Elton, Aral).

31. Geological activity of flowing water:

Rivers move soil, stones and other rocks. Running water has no small force, in a fast chaotic flow, large stones crumble into small pieces. The geological activity of rivers, like other flowing waters, is expressed mainly by: 1) Erosion, destruction of rocks, 2) transfer of eroded material either in dissolved form, or in mechanical suspension, 3) deposition of transferred material in places more or less distant from that area . The erosion is most pronounced in the upper reaches where the slopes are steeper. Groundwater refers to all natural waters that are under the surface of the Earth in a mobile state, which wash out the soil layer. River sediments fertilize the soil, level the earth's surface.

32. Concepts of balance profile, bottom and side erosion:

Equilibrium profile (watercourse) - longitudinal profile of the channel of the watercourse in the form of a smooth curve, steeper in the upper reaches and almost horizontal in the lower reaches; such a flow should not produce bottom erosion throughout its entire length. The shape of the equilibrium profile depends on the change in the length of the river of a number of factors (water discharge, the nature of sediments, features of rocks, the shape of the channel, etc.) that affect erosion-accumulation processes. However, the determining factor is the nature of the relief along the river valley. Thus, the exit of the river from the mountainous area to the plain causes a rapid decrease in the slopes of the channel.

The equilibrium profile of a river is the limiting shape of the profile towards which a stream tends with a stable basis of erosion.

Erosion (from Latin erosio - corrosive) - the destruction of rocks and soils by surface water flows and wind, which includes the separation and removal of fragments of material and is accompanied by their deposition.

Linear erosion occurs in small areas of the surface and leads to the dissection of the earth's surface and the formation of various erosional forms (gullies, ravines, gullies, valleys).

Types of linear erosion

Deep (bottom) - destruction of the bottom of the watercourse. Bottom erosion is directed from the mouth upstream and occurs before the bottom reaches the level of the erosion basis.

Lateral - destruction of the coast.

In each permanent and temporary watercourse (river, ravine), both forms of erosion can always be found, but at the first stages of development, the deep one prevails, and in the subsequent stages, the lateral one.

33. Landforms and minerals of river origin:

River landforms are erosive and accumulative landforms that have arisen as a result of the work of flowing waters, both temporary and permanent. These include different types of valleys, erosion ledges and slopes (which are also formed by gravitational processes), terraces, floodplains complicated by oxbow lakes, riverbeds, riverbed dunes, waterfalls, rapids, alluvial fans, dry deltas, deltas (together with the sea). Carbonate rocks cf. Carboniferous, limestones, clays, carbonaceous shales.

34. Geological activity of swamps:

A swamp is a piece of land (or landscape) characterized by excessive moisture, sewage or flowing waters, but without a permanent layer of water on the surface. The swamp is characterized by the deposition of incompletely decomposed organic matter on the soil surface, which later turns into peat. The layer of peat in swamps is at least 30 cm, if less, then these are just wetlands.

The main result of the geological work of the swamps is the accumulation of peat. In addition to peat, other precipitations are often formed, including mineral ones. The color of the peat is usually dark. In fresh (not compacted) peat, moisture is 85-95%, mineral impurities from - 2 to 20% of the dry mass of peat. Peat bogs differ in the amount of ash residue. Most of the ash gives lowland peat (8-20%), less - transitional (4-6%) and least of all - high-moor peat (2-4%). Depending on the predominance of vegetation, wood, grass and moss peat are distinguished.

35. Geological work of glaciers:

The moving masses of ice do an enormous amount of geological work. Ice carries frozen stone blocks (Fig. 3, scratching the bed of the ice flow, tearing off pieces of rocks and grinding them, shifts rock layers. Ice plows soft rocks, forming grooves and hollows in them. Stones frozen into ice smooth and cover rocks with strokes, forming ram foreheads, curly rocks and hatched boulders.

Descending to the sea, the glacier breaks off, and mountains of floating ice are formed - icebergs that melt for years. Icebergs can carry boulders, blocks and other torn rock material on and in themselves.

As it moves from the mountains below the snow line and across the mainland, the ice melts, as the continental ice of ice ages melted in the relatively recent geological past. The melted ice leaves coarse, inhomogeneous, unsorted, unstratified clastic material. Most often, these are boulder sandy red-brown loams and clays or gray inequigranular clayey sands with boulders. Boulders of various sizes (from centimeters to several meters in diameter) consist of granite, gabbro, quartzite, limestone and, in general, rocks of various petrographic compositions. This is due to the fact that the glacier brings material from afar and at the same time captures fragments and blocks of local rocks.

37. Genetic classification of sedimentary rocks:

by origin and geological features All rocks are divided into 3 classes:

Sedimentary

Igneous

Metamorphic.

According to the way they form, sedimentary rocks are divided into three main genetic groups:

Clastic rocks (breccias, conglomerates, sands, silts) are coarse products of predominantly mechanical destruction of parent rocks, usually inheriting the most stable mineral associations of the latter;

Clay rocks are dispersed products of deep chemical transformation of silicate and aluminosilicate minerals of parent rocks, which have passed into new mineral species;

Chemogenic, biochemogenic and organogenic rocks - products of direct precipitation from solutions (for example, salts), with the participation of organisms (for example, siliceous rocks), accumulation of organic matter (for example, coals) or waste products of organisms (for example, organogenic limestones).

A characteristic feature of sedimentary rocks associated with the conditions of formation is their layering and occurrence in the form of more or less regular geological bodies (layers).

38. Structures and textures of sedimentary rocks:

Sedimentary rocks are formed only on the surface of the earth's crust during the destruction of any pre-existing rocks, as a result of the vital activity and death of organisms and precipitation from supersaturated solutions.

The structure is understood as the internal structure of the rock, a set of features determined by the degree of crystallinity, absolute and relative sizes, shape, mutual arrangement and ways of combining mineral components.

The structure is the most important characteristic of the rock, expressing its granularity.

Texture is understood as the features of the external structure of the rock, characterizing the degree of its uniformity and continuity.

Internal textures are divided into non-layered and layered.

39. Forms of geological bodies composed of sedimentary rocks:

Sedimentary rocks form layers, layers, lenses and other geological bodies of various shapes and sizes, occurring in the earth's crust normally horizontally, obliquely or in the form of complex folds. The internal structure of these bodies, determined by the orientation and mutual arrangement of grains (or particles) and the way space is filled, is called the texture of sedimentary rocks. Most of these rocks are characterized by a layered texture: the types of texture depend on the conditions of their formation (mainly on the dynamics of the environment).

Sedimentary rocks are formed by following scheme: the emergence of initial products by the destruction of parent rocks, the transfer of matter by water, wind, glacier and its deposition on the land surface and in water basins. As a result, a loose and porous sediment saturated with water, completely or partially, is formed, composed of heterogeneous components.

40. Origin and forms of groundwater:

By origin, groundwater can be divided into infiltration and sedimentation.

Infiltration water is formed by seepage, penetration of atmospheric precipitation and surface water in porous and fractured rocks. of infiltration origin. ground water, as well as part of the artesian waters.

Sedimentary waters are waters formed during the process of sedimentation. Sediments deposited in the aquatic environment are saturated with the water of the basin in which sedimentation occurs.

Forms of groundwater location:

Water, filling the pores, cracks and voids of rocks, can be present in them in three phases: liquid, vapor and solid. The last phase is most typical for permafrost zones, as well as for areas the globe with negative winter temperatures.

Gravitational water, i.e., water that obeys the forces of gravity, can fill the pores and voids of rock layers (in sands, sandstones, etc.) - these are formation waters or be in rock cracks (in granites, basalts, etc.) .) are fissure waters. Formation-fissure waters are also known, contained in cracks in porous rocks (some sandstones and other sedimentary deposits). Finally, waters can fill voids, channels, pipes of karst rocks - these are karst waters (in limestones, dolomites, salts, etc.).

41. Water properties of rocks:

The main water properties of soils include moisture, moisture capacity, water loss, water permeability, capillarity.

Moisture capacity is the property of a rock to contain one or another amount of water in its pores.

Total moisture capacity - the amount of water that fills all the voids of the rock.

The actual water capacity is determined by the amount of water actually contained in the rock.

Capillary moisture capacity is the amount of water held by the rock in the capillaries with free flow. The capillary moisture capacity is the smaller, the greater the permeability of the rock.

Water yield refers to the amount of gravitational water that can be contained in the rock and which it can give up when pumped out. Water yield can be expressed as a percentage of the volume of water flowing freely from the rock to the volume of the rock.

The water saturation of rocks represents the amount of water that is given off by the rock. According to the degree of water abundance, the rocks are divided into highly water-bearing wells with a flow rate of more than 10 l / s, water-abundant wells with a flow rate of 1 - 10 l / s, and weakly water-abundant - 0.1 - 1 l / s.

Water-pumping rocks, as well as layers, lenses, etc., are those in which pores, cracks and other voids are filled with gravitational waters - gravitational aquifers, capillary waters and film aquifers.

Water permeability - the property of rocks to pass water due to the presence of pores, cracks and other voids in them. The value of water permeability is determined by the coefficient of water permeability. According to the degree of permeability, rocks can be divided into permeable, semipermeable and impervious.

Water resistance - the property of rocks not to let water through. These include, for example, non-fractured limestones, crystalline schists, etc.

Questions

1.Endogenous and exogenous processes

.Earthquake

.Physical properties of minerals

.Epeirogenic movements

.Bibliography

1. EXOGENOUS AND ENDOGENOUS PROCESSES

Exogenous processes - geological processes occurring on the surface of the Earth and in the uppermost parts of the earth's crust (weathering, erosion, glacier activity, etc.); are mainly due to the energy of solar radiation, gravity and vital activity of organisms.

Often, especially in foreign literature, erosion is understood as any destructive activity of geological forces, such as sea surf, glaciers, gravity; in this case, erosion is synonymous with denudation. However, there are also special terms for them: abrasion (wave erosion), exaration (glacial erosion), gravitational processes, solifluction, etc. The same term (deflation) is used in parallel with the concept of wind erosion, but the latter is much more common.

The work of glaciers is the relief-forming activity of mountain and sheet glaciers, consisting in the capture of rock particles by a moving glacier, their transfer and deposition when ice melts.

Endogenous processes Endogenous processes are geological processes associated with the energy that arises in the depths of the solid Earth. Endogenous processes include tectonic processes, magmatism, metamorphism, and seismic activity.

Tectonic processes - the formation of faults and folds.

Magmatism is a manifestation of the deep activity of the Earth; it is closely related to its development, thermal history and tectonic evolution.

Allocate magmatism:

geosynclinal

platform

oceanic

magmatism of activation areas

Depth of manifestation:

abyssal

hypabyssal

surface

According to the composition of magma:

ultrabasic

basic

alkaline

In the modern geological era, magmatism is especially developed within the Pacific geosynclinal belt, mid-ocean ridges, reef zones of Africa and the Mediterranean, etc. The formation of a large number variety of mineral deposits.

2. EARTHQUAKES

geological crust epeirogenic

The action of the internal forces of the Earth is most clearly revealed in the phenomenon of earthquakes, which are understood as tremors of the earth's crust caused by displacements of rocks in the bowels of the Earth.

Earthquakeis a fairly common phenomenon. It is observed in many parts of the continents, as well as at the bottom of the oceans and seas (in the latter case, they speak of a “seaquake”). The number of earthquakes on the globe reaches several hundred thousand a year, i.e., on average, one or two earthquakes occur per minute. The strength of an earthquake is different: most of them are caught only by highly sensitive instruments - seismographs, others are felt directly by a person. The number of the latter reaches two to three thousand a year, and they are distributed very unevenly - in some areas such strong earthquakes are very frequent, while in others they are unusually rare or even practically absent.

Earthquakes can be divided into endogenousassociated with the processes occurring in the depths of the Earth, and exogenous, depending on the processes occurring near the Earth's surface.

To endogenous earthquakesinclude volcanic earthquakes, caused by the processes of volcanic eruptions, and tectonic, due to the movement of matter in the deep bowels of the Earth.

To exogenous earthquakesinclude earthquakes occurring as a result of underground collapses associated with karst and some other phenomena, gas explosions, etc. Exogenous earthquakes can also be caused by processes occurring on the very surface of the Earth: rock falls, meteorite impacts, water falling from great heights and other phenomena, as well as factors associated with human activity (artificial explosions, machine operation, etc.).

Genetically, earthquakes can be classified as follows: natural

Endogenous: a) tectonic, b) volcanic. Exogenous: a) karst-landslide, b) atmospheric c) from the impact of waves, waterfalls, etc. Artificial

a) from explosions, b) from artillery fire, c) from artificial collapse of rocks, d) from transport, etc.

In the geology course, only earthquakes related to endogenous processes.

In cases where strong earthquakes occur in densely populated areas, they cause great harm to humans. Earthquakes cannot be compared with any other natural phenomenon in terms of disasters caused to man. For example, in Japan, during the earthquake of September 1, 1923, which lasted only a few seconds, 128,266 houses were completely destroyed and 126,233 partially destroyed, about 800 ships perished, 142,807 people were killed and went missing. More than 100 thousand people were injured.

It is extremely difficult to describe the phenomenon of an earthquake, since the whole process lasts only a few seconds or minutes, and a person does not have time to perceive all the variety of changes that occur during this time in nature. Attention is usually fixed only on those colossal destructions that appear as a result of an earthquake.

Here is how M. Gorky describes the earthquake that occurred in Italy in 1908, which he witnessed: ... Startled and staggered, the buildings leaned, cracks snaked along their white walls like lightning and the walls crumbled, falling asleep narrow streets and people among them ... The underground rumble, the roar of stones, the screech of wood drown out cries for help, cries of madness. The earth is agitated like the sea, throwing palaces, shacks, temples, barracks, prisons, schools from its chest, destroying hundreds and thousands of women, children, rich and poor with each shudder. ".

As a result of this earthquake, the city of Messina and a number of other settlements were destroyed.

The general sequence of all phenomena during an earthquake was studied by I. V. Mushketov during the largest Central Asian earthquake in Alma-Ata in 1887.

On May 27, 1887, in the evening, as eyewitnesses wrote, there were no signs of an earthquake, but domestic animals behaved restlessly, did not take food, were torn from a leash, etc. On the morning of May 28 at 4:35 an underground rumble was heard and quite strong push. The shaking lasted no more than a second. A few minutes later the rumble resumed, it resembled the muffled ringing of numerous powerful bells or the roar of passing heavy artillery. The rumble was followed by strong crushing blows: plaster fell in the houses, windows flew out, stoves collapsed, walls and ceilings fell: the streets were filled with gray dust. Massive stone buildings suffered the most. At the houses located along the meridian, the northern and southern walls fell out, while the western and eastern ones were preserved. For the first minute it seemed that the city no longer existed, that all the buildings were destroyed without exception. Blows and concussions, but less severe, continued throughout the day. Many damaged but previously standing houses fell from these weaker shocks.

Collapses and cracks formed in the mountains, through which flows of underground water came to the surface in some places. clay soil on the slopes of the mountains, and before that already heavily moistened with rain, she began to crawl, blocking up the riverbeds. Caught up by the streams, all this mass of earth, rubble, boulders, in the form of dense mudflows, rushed to the foot of the mountains. One of these streams stretched for 10 km with a width of 0.5 km.

The destruction in Alma-Ata itself was enormous: out of 1,800 houses, only a few survived, but the number of human casualties was relatively small (332 people).

Numerous observations have shown that in the houses, first (a fraction of a second earlier), the southern walls collapsed, and then the northern ones, that the bells in the Intercession Church (in the northern part of the city) struck a few seconds after the destruction that occurred in the southern part of the city. All this testified that the center of the earthquake was located south of the city.

Most of the cracks in the houses were also inclined to the south, or rather to the southeast (170°) at an angle of 40-60°. Analyzing the direction of the cracks, I. V. Mushketov came to the conclusion that the source of the earthquake waves was located at a depth of 10-12 km, 15 km south of the city of Alma-Ata.

The deep center, or focus of an earthquake, is called the hypocenter. Vplan it is outlined as a rounded or oval area.

The area located on the surface The land above the hypocenter is calledepicenter . It is characterized by maximum destruction, and many objects here are shifted vertically (bounce), and the cracks in the houses are located very steeply, almost vertically.

The area of the epicenter of the Alma-Ata earthquake was determined at 288 km ² (36 *8 km), and the area where the earthquake was the strongest covered an area of 6000 km ². Such an area was called pleistoseist ("pleisto" - the largest and "seistos" - shaken).

The Alma-Ata earthquake lasted more than one day: after the shocks of May 28, 1887, shocks of lesser strength c. at intervals, first of several hours, and then of days. In just two years there were over 600 blows, more and more weakened.

In the history of the Earth, earthquakes have been described since large quantity shocks. So, for example, in 1870, aftershocks began in the province of Phokis in Greece, which continued for three years. In the first three days, shocks followed every 3 minutes, during the first five months there were about 500 thousand shocks, of which 300 had destructive power and followed each other with an average interval of 25 seconds. Over three years, more than 750 thousand strokes occurred in total.

Thus, an earthquake occurs not as a result of a single act occurring at depth, but as a result of some long-term developing process of the movement of matter in the inner parts of the globe.

Usually, an initial large shock is followed by a chain of smaller shocks, and this whole period can be called an earthquake period. All shocks of one period come from a common hypocenter, which can sometimes shift in the process of development, and therefore the epicenter also shifts.

This is clearly seen in a number of examples of Caucasian earthquakes, as well as an earthquake in the Ashgabat region, which occurred on October 6, 1948. The main shock followed at 01:12 without preliminary shocks and lasted 8-10 seconds. During this time, huge destruction occurred in the city and surrounding villages. One-story houses crumbled from raw bricks, and the roofs were covered with these piles of bricks, household utensils, etc. In more solidly built houses, separate walls, collapsed pipes and furnaces. It is interesting to note that round-shaped buildings (elevator, mosque, cathedral, etc.) withstood the shock better than ordinary quadrangular buildings.

The epicenter of the earthquake was located 25 km. southeast of Ashgabat, near the state farm "Karagaudan". The epicentral region turned out to be elongated in a northwestern direction. The hypocenter was located at a depth of 15-20 km. The pleistoseist region was 80 km long and 10 km wide. The period of the Ashgabat earthquake was long and consisted of many (more than 1000) shocks, the epicenters of which were located northwest of the main one within a narrow strip located in the foothills of the Kopet-Dag

The hypocenters of all these aftershocks were at the same shallow depth (about 20–30 km) as the hypocenter of the main shock.

Earthquake hypocenters can be located not only under the surface of the continents, but also under the bottom of the seas and oceans. During seaquakes, the destruction of coastal cities is also very significant and is accompanied by human casualties.

The strongest earthquake occurred in 1775 in Portugal. The pleistoseist region of this earthquake covered a huge area; the epicenter was located under the bottom of the Bay of Biscay near the capital of Portugal, Lisbon, which suffered the most.

The first shock occurred on the afternoon of November 1 and was accompanied by a terrible roar. According to eyewitnesses, the earth rose up and down for a whole cubit. Houses fell with a terrible crash. The huge monastery on the mountain swayed so violently from side to side that it threatened to collapse every minute. The shocks lasted 8 minutes. A few hours later, the earthquake resumed.

The marble embankment collapsed and went under water. People and ships that stood near the shore were carried away into the formed water funnel. After the earthquake, the depth of the bay at the place of the embankment reached 200 m.

The sea receded at the beginning of the earthquake, but then a huge wave 26 m high hit the shore and flooded the coast to a width of 15 km. There were three such waves following one after another. What survived the earthquake was washed away and carried away to the sea. Only in the harbor of Lisbon, more than 300 ships were destroyed or damaged.

The waves of the Lisbon earthquake passed through the entire Atlantic Ocean: near Cadiz, their height reached 20 m, on the African coast, off the coast of Tangier and Morocco - 6 m, on the islands of Funchal and Madera - up to 5 m. The waves crossed the Atlantic Ocean and were felt off the coast America on the islands of Martinique, Barbados, Antigua, etc. During the Lisbon earthquake, more than 60 thousand people died.

Such waves quite often occur during seaquakes, they are called tsutsnas. The propagation speed of these waves ranges from 20 to 300 m / s depending on: the depth of the ocean; wave height reaches 30 m.

The appearance of tsunamis and ebb waves is explained as follows. In the epicentral region, due to the deformation of the bottom, a pressure wave is formed that propagates upward. The sea in this place only swells strongly, short-term currents form on the surface, diverging in all directions, or “boil” with water tossing up to a height of up to 0.3 m. All this is accompanied by a hum. The pressure wave then transforms on the surface into tsunami waves that run in different directions. The ebb before the tsunami is explained by the fact that at first the water rushes into the underwater sinkhole, from which it is then pushed out into the epicentral region.

In the case when the epicenters are in densely populated areas, earthquakes bring great disasters. Especially destructive were the earthquakes of Japan, where 233 large earthquakes were recorded over 1500 years with the number of shocks exceeding 2 million.

Great disasters are caused by earthquakes in China. During the disaster on December 16, 1920, over 200 thousand people died in the Kansu region, and main reason deaths were collapses of dwellings dug in the loess. Earthquakes of exceptional magnitude have occurred in America. An earthquake in the Riobamba region in 1797 killed 40,000 people and destroyed 80% of the buildings. In 1812, the city of Caracas (Venezuela) was completely destroyed within 15 seconds. The city of Concepcion in Chile was repeatedly almost completely destroyed, the city of San Francisco was badly damaged in 1906. In Europe, the greatest destruction was observed after an earthquake in Sicily, where in 1693 50 villages were destroyed and more than 60 thousand people died.

On the territory of the USSR, the most destructive earthquakes were in the south Central Asia, in the Crimea (1927) and in the Caucasus. The city of Shamakhi in Transcaucasia suffered especially often from earthquakes. It was destroyed in 1669, 1679, 1828, 1856, 1859, 1872, 1902. Until 1859, the city of Shamakhi was the provincial center of Eastern Transcaucasia, but because of the earthquake, the capital had to be moved to Baku. On fig. 173 shows the location of the epicenters of Shamakhi earthquakes. Just like in Turkmenistan, they are located along a certain line, elongated in a north-western direction.

During earthquakes, significant changes occur on the surface of the Earth, expressed in the formation of cracks, dips, folds, the uplift of individual sections on land, the formation of islands in the sea, etc. These disturbances, called seismic, often contribute to the formation of powerful collapses, screes, landslides, mudflows and mudflows in the mountains, the emergence of new sources, the cessation of old ones, the formation of mud hills, gas emissions, etc. Disturbances formed after earthquakes are called postseismic.

Phenomena. associated with earthquakes both on the surface of the Earth and in its bowels are called seismic phenomena. The science that studies seismic phenomena is called seismology.

3. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS

Although the main characteristics of minerals (chemical composition and internal crystal structure) are established on the basis of chemical analyzes and X-ray diffraction, they are indirectly reflected in properties that are easily observed or measured. To diagnose most minerals, it is enough to determine their luster, color, cleavage, hardness, and density.

Shine(metallic, semi-metallic and non-metallic - diamond, glass, oily, waxy, silky, mother-of-pearl, etc.) is determined by the amount of light reflected from the surface of the mineral and depends on its refractive index. By transparency, minerals are divided into transparent, translucent, translucent in thin fragments and opaque. Quantitative determination of light refraction and light reflection is possible only under a microscope. Some opaque minerals reflect light strongly and have a metallic sheen. This is typical for ore minerals, for example, galena (lead mineral), chalcopyrite and bornite (copper minerals), argentite and acanthite (silver minerals). Most minerals absorb or transmit a significant portion of the light falling on them and have a non-metallic luster. Some minerals have a luster that transitions from metallic to non-metallic, which is called semi-metallic.

Minerals with non-metallic luster are usually light-colored, some of them are transparent. Often there are transparent quartz, gypsum and light mica. Other minerals (for example, milky white quartz) that transmit light, but through which objects cannot be clearly distinguished, are called translucent. Minerals containing metals differ from others in terms of light transmission. If light passes through a mineral, at least in the thinnest edges of the grains, then it is, as a rule, non-metallic; if the light does not pass, then it is ore. There are, however, exceptions: for example, light-colored sphalerite (zinc mineral) or cinnabar (mercury mineral) are often transparent or translucent.

Minerals differ in the qualitative characteristics of non-metallic luster. Clay has a dull earthy sheen. Quartz on the edges of crystals or on fracture surfaces is glassy, talc, which is divided into thin leaves along cleavage planes, is mother-of-pearl. Bright, sparkling, like a diamond, the brilliance is called diamond.

When light falls on a mineral with a non-metallic luster, it is partially reflected from the surface of the mineral, and partially refracted at this boundary. Each substance is characterized by a certain refractive index. Since this indicator can be measured with high accuracy, it is a very useful diagnostic feature of minerals.

The nature of the brilliance depends on the refractive index, and both of them depend on the chemical composition and crystal structure of the mineral. In general, transparent minerals containing heavy metal atoms are distinguished by high brilliance and a high refractive index. This group includes such common minerals as anglesite (lead sulfate), cassiterite (tin oxide) and titanite, or sphene (calcium and titanium silicate). Minerals composed of relatively light elements can also have high luster and a high refractive index if their atoms are tightly packed and held strong. chemical bonds. A striking example is diamond, which consists of only one light element, carbon. To a lesser extent, this is also true for the mineral corundum (Al 2O 3), the transparent colored varieties of which - ruby and sapphires - are precious stones. Although corundum is made up of light atoms of aluminum and oxygen, they are so tightly bound together that the mineral has a rather strong luster and a relatively high refractive index.

Some glosses (oily, waxy, matte, silky, etc.) depend on the state of the surface of the mineral or on the structure of the mineral aggregate; resinous luster is characteristic of many amorphous substances (including minerals containing radioactive elements uranium or thorium).

Color- a simple and convenient diagnostic feature. Examples are brass yellow pyrite (FeS 2), lead gray galena (PbS) and silvery white arsenopyrite (FeAsS 2). In other ore minerals with a metallic or semi-metallic luster, the characteristic color may be masked by the play of light in a thin surface film (tarnish). This is characteristic of most copper minerals, especially bornite, which is called "peacock ore" because of its iridescent blue-green tint, which quickly develops on a fresh fracture. However, other copper minerals are painted in well-known colors: malachite - in green, azurite - in blue.

Some non-metallic minerals are unmistakably recognized by the color due to the main chemical element (yellow - sulfur and black - dark gray - graphite, etc.). Many non-metallic minerals are composed of elements that do not give them a specific color, but colored varieties are known, the color of which is due to the presence of impurities. chemical elements in small quantities, not comparable with the intensity of the color they cause. Such elements are called chromophores; their ions are distinguished by the selective absorption of light. For example, deep purple amethyst owes its color to an insignificant impurity of iron in quartz, and the deep green color of emerald is associated with a small content of chromium in beryl. The coloration of normally colorless minerals may appear due to defects in the crystal structure (due to unoccupied positions of atoms in the lattice or the entry of foreign ions), which can cause selective absorption of certain wavelengths in the white light spectrum. Then the minerals are painted in complementary colors. Rubies, sapphires and alexandrites owe their coloration to precisely such lighting effects.

Colorless minerals can be colored by mechanical inclusions. So, a thin disseminated dissemination of hematite gives quartz a red color, chlorite - green. Milky quartz is turbid with gas-liquid inclusions. Although the color of minerals is one of the most easily determined properties in the diagnosis of minerals, it must be used with caution, as it depends on many factors.

Despite the variability in the color of many minerals, the color of the mineral powder is very constant, and therefore is an important diagnostic feature. Usually, the color of the mineral powder is determined by the line (the so-called “line color”) that the mineral leaves if it is drawn over an unglazed porcelain plate (biscuit). For example, the mineral fluorite is colored in different colours, but his line is always white.

Cleavage- very perfect, perfect, medium (clear), imperfect (obscure) and very imperfect - is expressed in the ability of minerals to split in certain directions. Fracture (smooth stepped, uneven, splintery, conchoidal, etc.) characterizes the surface of a mineral split that did not occur along cleavage. For example, quartz and tourmaline, whose fracture surface resembles a glass chip, have a conchoidal fracture. In other minerals, the fracture may be described as rough, jagged, or splintery. For many minerals, the characteristic is not a fracture, but cleavage. This means that they split along smooth planes that are directly related to their crystal structure. The bonding forces between the planes of the crystal lattice can be different depending on the crystallographic direction. If in some directions they are much larger than in others, then the mineral will split across the weakest bond. Since cleavage is always parallel to the atomic planes, it can be labeled with crystallographic directions. For example, halite (NaCl) has cube cleavage, i.e. three mutually perpendicular directions of a possible split. Cleavage is also characterized by the ease of manifestation and the quality of the resulting cleavage surface. Mica has a very perfect cleavage in one direction, i.e. easily splits into very thin leaves with a smooth shiny surface. Topaz has perfect cleavage in one direction. Minerals can have two, three, four or six cleavage directions, along which they are equally easy to crack, or several cleavage directions of varying degrees. Some minerals have no cleavage at all. Since cleavage as a manifestation of the internal structure of minerals is their invariable property, it serves as an important diagnostic feature.

Hardness- the resistance that the mineral provides when scratched. Hardness depends on the crystal structure: the more strongly the atoms in the structure of the mineral are bound together, the harder it is to scratch it. Talc and graphite are soft lamellar minerals built from layers of atoms linked together by very weak forces. They are greasy to the touch: when rubbing against the skin of the hand, the individual thinnest layers slip off. The hardest mineral is diamond, in which the carbon atoms are so tightly bound that it can only be scratched by another diamond. At the beginning of the 19th century Austrian mineralogist F. Moos arranged 10 minerals in order of increasing hardness. Since then, they have been used as standards for the relative hardness of minerals, the so-called. Mohs scale (Table 1)

Table 1. MOHS HARDNESS SCALE

MineralRelative hardnessTalc 1Gypsum 2 Calcite 3 Fluorite 4 Apatite 5 Orthoclase 6 Quartz 7 Topaz 8 Corundum 9 Diamond 10

To determine the hardness of a mineral, it is necessary to identify the hardest mineral that it can scratch. The hardness of the studied mineral will be greater than the hardness of the mineral scratched by it, but less than the hardness of the next mineral on the Mohs scale. Bond strengths can vary with crystallographic direction, and since hardness is a rough estimate of these forces, it can vary in different directions. This difference is usually small, with the exception of kyanite, which has a hardness of 5 in the direction parallel to the length of the crystal and 7 in the transverse direction.

For a less accurate determination of hardness, you can use the following, simpler, practical scale.

2-2.5 Thumbnail 3 Silver coin 3.5 Bronze coin 5.5-6 Penknife blade 5.5-6 Window glass 6.5-7 File

In mineralogical practice, it is also used to measure the absolute values of hardness (the so-called microhardness) using a sclerometer device, which is expressed in kg / mm 2.

Density.The mass of atoms of chemical elements varies from hydrogen (the lightest) to uranium (the heaviest). Other things being equal, the mass of a substance consisting of heavy atoms is greater than that of a substance consisting of light atoms. For example, two carbonates - aragonite and cerussite - have a similar internal structure, but aragonite contains light calcium atoms, and cerussite contains heavy lead atoms. As a result, the mass of cerussite exceeds the mass of aragonite of the same volume. The mass per unit volume of a mineral also depends on the packing density of the atoms. Calcite, like aragonite, is calcium carbonate, but in calcite the atoms are less tightly packed, because it has a lower mass per unit volume than aragonite. The relative mass, or density, depends on the chemical composition and internal structure. Density is the ratio of the mass of a substance to the mass of the same volume of water at 4 ° C. So, if the mass of a mineral is 4 g, and the mass of the same volume of water is 1 g, then the density of the mineral is 4. In mineralogy, it is customary to express density in g / cm 3.

Density is an important diagnostic feature of minerals and is easy to measure. The sample is first weighed in air and then in water. Since a sample immersed in water is subjected to an upward buoyancy force, its weight is less there than in air. The weight loss is equal to the weight of the water displaced. Thus, the density is determined by the ratio of the mass of the sample in air to the loss of its weight in water.

Pyro-electricity.Some minerals, such as tourmaline, calamine, etc., become electrified when heated or cooled. This phenomenon can be observed by pollinating a cooling mineral with a mixture of sulfur and red lead powders. In this case, sulfur covers the positively charged areas of the mineral surface, and red lead - areas with a negative charge.

Magnetism -this is the property of certain minerals to act on a magnetic needle or be attracted by a magnet. To determine the magnetism, a magnetic needle placed on a sharp tripod, or a magnetic horseshoe, a bar is used. It is also very convenient to use a magnetic needle or knife.

When testing for magnetism, three cases are possible:

a) when a mineral in its natural form (“by itself”) acts on a magnetic needle,

b) when the mineral becomes magnetic only after calcination in the reducing flame of a blowpipe

c) when the mineral neither before nor after calcination in a reducing flame exhibits magnetism. To ignite the reducing flame, you need to take small pieces of 2-3 mm in size.

Glow.Many minerals that do not glow by themselves begin to glow under certain special conditions.

There are phosphorescence, luminescence, thermoluminescence and triboluminescence of minerals. Phosphorescence is the ability of a mineral to glow after being exposed to certain rays (willemite). Luminescence - the ability to glow at the time of irradiation (scheelite when irradiated with ultraviolet and cathode beams, calcite, etc.). Thermoluminescence - glow when heated (fluorite, apatite).

Triboluminescence - glow at the moment of scratching with a needle or splitting (mica, corundum).

Radioactivity.Many minerals containing elements such as niobium, tantalum, zirconium, rare earths, uranium, thorium often have quite significant radioactivity, easily detectable even by household radiometers, which can serve as an important diagnostic feature.

To check the radioactivity, the background value is first measured and recorded, then the mineral is brought, possibly closer to the instrument's detector. An increase in readings by more than 10-15% can serve as an indicator of the radioactivity of the mineral.

Electrical conductivity.A number of minerals have significant electrical conductivity, which allows them to be unambiguously distinguished from similar minerals. Can be tested with a common household tester.

4. EPEIROGENIC MOVEMENTS OF THE EARTH'S CRUST

Epeirogenic movements- slow age-old uplifts and subsidences of the earth's crust, which do not cause changes in the primary occurrence of the layers. These vertical movements are oscillatory and reversible; uplift may be followed by a downturn. These movements include:

Modern, which are fixed in the memory of a person and can be measured instrumentally by re-leveling. The speed of modern oscillatory movements on average does not exceed 1-2 cm/year, and in mountainous areas it can reach 20 cm/year.

Neotectonic movements are movements for the Neogene-Quaternary time (25 million years). Fundamentally, they are no different from modern ones. Neotectonic movements are recorded in the modern relief and the main method of their study is geomorphological. The speed of their movement is an order of magnitude less, in mountainous areas - 1 cm / year; on the plains - 1 mm/year.

Ancient slow vertical movements are recorded in sections of sedimentary rocks. The rate of ancient oscillatory movements, according to scientists, is less than 0.001 mm/year.

Orogenic movementsoccur in two directions - horizontal and vertical. The first leads to the collapse of rocks and the formation of folds and overthrusts, i.e. to the reduction of the earth's surface. Vertical movements lead to the uplift of the area of manifestation of fold formation and the appearance of often mountain structures. Orogenic movements proceed much faster than oscillatory ones.

They are accompanied by active effusive and intrusive magmatism, as well as metamorphism. In recent decades, these movements are explained by the collision of large lithospheric plates, which move in a horizontal direction along the asthenospheric layer of the upper mantle.

TYPES OF TECTONIC FAULT

Types of tectonic disturbances

a - folded (plicate) forms;

In most cases, their formation is associated with compaction or compression of the Earth's matter. Folded disorders are morphologically divided into two main types: convex and concave. In the case of a horizontal cut, older layers are located in the core of the convex fold, and younger layers are located on the wings. Concave bends, on the contrary, have younger deposits in the core. In folds, convex wings are usually inclined laterally from the axial surface.

b - discontinuous (disjunctive) forms

Discontinuous tectonic disturbances are called such changes in which the continuity (integrity) of rocks is disturbed.

Faults are divided into two groups: faults without displacement of the rocks separated by them relative to each other and faults with displacement. The former are called tectonic cracks, or diaclases, the latter are called paraclases.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Belousov V.V. Essays on the history of geology. At the origins of Earth science (geology until the end of the 18th century). - M., - 1993.

Vernadsky V.I. Selected works on the history of science. - M.: Nauka, - 1981.

Cookery A.S., Onoprienko V.I. Mineralogy: past, present, future. - Kiev: Naukova Dumka, - 1985.

Modern ideas of theoretical geology. - L .: Nedra, - 1984.

Khain V.E. The main problems of modern geology (geology on the threshold of the XXI century). - M .: Scientific world, 2003 ..

Khain V.E., Ryabukhin A.G. History and methodology of geological sciences. - M.: MGU, - 1996.

Hallem A. Great geological disputes. M.: Mir, 1985.

Throughout the existence of the Earth, its surface has continuously changed. This process continues today. It proceeds extremely slowly and imperceptibly for a person and even for many generations. However, it is these transformations that ultimately radically change the appearance of the Earth. Such processes are divided into exogenous (external) and endogenous (internal).

Classification

Exogenous processes are the result of the interaction of the planet's shell with the hydrosphere, atmosphere and biosphere. They are studied in order to accurately determine the dynamics of the geological evolution of the Earth. Without exogenous processes, the patterns of the planet's development would not have developed. They are studied by the science of dynamic geology (or geomorphology).

Specialists have adopted a general classification of exogenous processes, divided into three groups. The first is weathering, which is a change in properties under the influence of not only wind, but also carbon dioxide, oxygen, vital activity of organisms and water. The next type of exogenous processes is denudation. This is the destruction of rocks (and not a change in properties, as in the case of weathering), their fragmentation by flowing waters and winds. The last type is accumulation. This is the formation of new ones due to precipitation accumulated in depressions of the earth's relief as a result of weathering and denudation. On the example of accumulation, one can note a clear interconnection of all exogenous processes.

mechanical weathering

Physical weathering is also called mechanical weathering. As a result of such exogenous processes, rocks turn into blocks, sand and gruss, and also break up into fragments. The most important factor of physical weathering is insolation. As a result of heating by sunlight and subsequent cooling, a periodic change in the volume of the rock occurs. It causes cracking and disruption of the bond between minerals. The results of exogenous processes are obvious - the rock is split into pieces. The larger the temperature amplitude, the faster this happens.

The rate of formation of cracks depends on the properties of the rock, its schistosity, layering, cleavage of minerals. Mechanical failure can take several forms. Pieces that look like scales break off from a material with a massive structure, which is why this process is also called scales. And granite breaks up into blocks with the shape of a parallelepiped.

Chemical destruction

Among other things, the dissolution of rocks is facilitated by the chemical action of water and air. Oxygen and carbon dioxide are the most active agents hazardous to the integrity of surfaces. Water carries salt solutions, and therefore its role in the process of chemical weathering is especially great. Such destruction can be expressed in the most different forms: carbonatization, oxidation and dissolution. In addition, chemical weathering leads to the formation of new minerals.

For thousands of years, water masses have been flowing down the surfaces every day and seeping through the pores formed in decaying rocks. The liquid carries out a large number of elements, thereby leading to the decomposition of minerals. Therefore, we can say that in nature there are no absolutely insoluble substances. The only question is how long they retain their structure in spite of exogenous processes.

Oxidation

Oxidation affects mainly minerals, which include sulfur, iron, manganese, cobalt, nickel and some other elements. This chemical process is especially active in an environment saturated with air, oxygen and water. For example, in contact with moisture, the oxides of metals that are part of the rocks become oxides, sulfides - sulfates, etc. All these processes directly affect the Earth's relief.

As a result of oxidation, deposits of brown iron ore (ortsands) accumulate in the lower layers of the soil. There are other examples of its influence on relief. Thus, weathered rocks containing iron are covered with brown crusts of limonite.

organic weathering

Organisms are also involved in the destruction of rocks. For example, lichens (the simplest plants) can settle on almost any surface. They support life by extracting nutrients with the help of secreted organic acids. After the simplest plants, woody vegetation settles on the rocks. In this case, the cracks become a home for the roots.

The characterization of exogenous processes cannot do without the mention of worms, ants and termites. They make long and numerous underground passages and thereby contribute to the penetration of atmospheric air into the soil, which contains destructive carbon dioxide and moisture.

Ice influence

Ice is an important geological factor. It plays a significant role in the formation of the earth's relief. In mountainous areas, ice, moving along river valleys, changes the shape of runoff and smoothes the surface. Geologists called such destruction exaration (ploughing). Moving ice performs another function. It carries clastic material that has broken away from rocks. Weathering products fall off the slopes of the valleys and settle on the surface of the ice. Such destroyed geological material is called moraine.

No less important is ground ice, which forms in the soil and fills ground pores in areas of long-term and permafrost. The climate is also a contributing factor. The lower the average temperature, the greater the depth of freezing. Where the ice melts in summer, pressure waters break out to the surface of the earth. They destroy the relief and change its shape. Similar processes are repeated cyclically from year to year, for example, in the north of Russia.

sea factor

The sea occupies about 70% of the surface of our planet and, no doubt, has always been an important geological exogenous factor. Ocean water moves under the influence of wind, tidal and tidal currents. Significant destruction of the earth's crust is associated with this process. Waves that splash even with the weakest sea waves off the coast, undermine the surrounding rocks without stopping. During a storm, the force of the surf can be several tons per square meter.

The process of demolition and physical destruction of coastal rocks by sea water is called abrasion. It flows unevenly. A eroded bay, a cape, or individual rocks may appear on the shore. In addition, the surf of the waves forms cliffs and ledges. The nature of destruction depends on the structure and composition of coastal rocks.

At the bottom of the oceans and seas, continuous denudation processes take place. This is facilitated by strong currents. During a storm and other cataclysms, powerful deep waves are formed, which on their way stumble upon underwater slopes. In the event of a collision, liquefying silt occurs and destroys the rock.

wind work

The wind changes like nothing else. It destroys rocks, transports small detrital material and deposits it in an even layer. At a speed of 3 meters per second, the wind moves the leaves, at 10 meters it shakes thick branches, raises dust and sand, at 40 meters it uproots trees and demolishes houses. Especially destructive work is done by dust whirlwinds and tornadoes.

The process of wind blowing rock particles is called deflation. In semi-deserts and deserts, it forms significant depressions on the surface, composed of solonchaks. The wind acts more intensively if the ground is not protected by vegetation. Therefore, it deforms mountain basins especially strongly.

Interaction

The interrelation of exogenous and endogenous geological processes plays a huge role in the formation. Nature is arranged in such a way that some give rise to others. For example, external exogenous processes eventually lead to the appearance of cracks in the earth's crust. Through these openings, magma enters from the bowels of the planet. It spreads in the form of covers and forms new rocks.

Magmatism is not the only example of how the interaction of exogenous and endogenous processes is arranged. Glaciers contribute to the leveling of the relief. This is an external exogenous process. As a result, a peneplain (plain with small hills) is formed. Then, as a result of endogenous processes (tectonic movement of plates), this surface rises. Thus, internal and can contradict each other. The relationship between endogenous and exogenous processes is complex and multifaceted. Today it is studied in detail within the framework of geomorphology.

Questions

1.Endogenous and exogenous processes

Earthquake

.Physical properties of minerals

.Epeirogenic movements

.Bibliography

1. EXOGENOUS AND ENDOGENOUS PROCESSES

The work of glaciers is the relief-forming activity of mountain and sheet glaciers, consisting in the capture of rock particles by a moving glacier, their transfer and deposition when ice melts.

Tectonic processes - the formation of faults and folds.

Magmatism is a manifestation of the deep activity of the Earth; it is closely related to its development, thermal history and tectonic evolution.

Allocate magmatism:

geosynclinal

platform

oceanic

magmatism of activation areas

Depth of manifestation:

abyssal

hypabyssal

surface

According to the composition of magma:

ultrabasic

basic

alkaline

In the modern geological epoch, magmatism is especially developed within the Pacific geosynclinal belt, mid-ocean ridges, reef zones of Africa and the Mediterranean, etc. The formation of a large number of various mineral deposits is associated with magmatism.

2. EARTHQUAKES

geological crust epeirogenic

Earthquakes can be divided into endogenousassociated with the processes occurring in the depths of the Earth, and exogenous, depending on the processes occurring near the Earth's surface.

To endogenous earthquakesinclude volcanic earthquakes, caused by the processes of volcanic eruptions, and tectonic, due to the movement of matter in the deep bowels of the Earth.

Genetically, earthquakes can be classified as follows: natural

Endogenous: a) tectonic, b) volcanic. Exogenous: a) karst-landslide, b) atmospheric c) from the impact of waves, waterfalls, etc. Artificial

a) from explosions, b) from artillery fire, c) from artificial collapse of rocks, d) from transport, etc.

In the course of geology, only earthquakes associated with endogenous processes are considered.

As a result of this earthquake, the city of Messina and a number of other settlements were destroyed.

The general sequence of all phenomena during an earthquake was studied by I. V. Mushketov during the largest Central Asian earthquake in Alma-Ata in 1887.

Collapses and cracks formed in the mountains, through which flows of underground water came to the surface in some places. Clay soil on the slopes of the mountains, already heavily moistened by rains, began to creep, blocking up the riverbeds. Caught up by the streams, all this mass of earth, rubble, boulders, in the form of dense mudflows, rushed to the foot of the mountains. One of these streams stretched for 10 km with a width of 0.5 km.

The destruction in Alma-Ata itself was enormous: out of 1,800 houses, only a few survived, but the number of human casualties was relatively small (332 people).

The deep center, or focus of an earthquake, is called the hypocenter. Vplan it is outlined as a rounded or oval area.

In the history of the Earth, earthquakes are described with even more aftershocks. So, for example, in 1870, aftershocks began in the province of Phokis in Greece, which continued for three years. In the first three days, shocks followed every 3 minutes, during the first five months there were about 500 thousand shocks, of which 300 had destructive power and followed each other with an average interval of 25 seconds. Over three years, more than 750 thousand strokes occurred in total.

Thus, an earthquake occurs not as a result of a single act occurring at depth, but as a result of some long-term developing process of the movement of matter in the inner parts of the globe.

This is clearly seen in a number of examples of Caucasian earthquakes, as well as an earthquake in the Ashgabat region, which occurred on October 6, 1948. The main shock followed at 01:12 without preliminary shocks and lasted 8-10 seconds. During this time, huge destruction occurred in the city and surrounding villages. One-story houses made of raw brick crumbled, and the roofs were covered with these piles of bricks, household utensils, etc. In more solidly built houses, individual walls flew out, pipes and stoves collapsed. It is interesting to note that round-shaped buildings (elevator, mosque, cathedral, etc.) withstood the shock better than ordinary quadrangular buildings.

The hypocenters of all these aftershocks were at the same shallow depth (about 20–30 km) as the hypocenter of the main shock.

Drainage of the coast before a tsunami usually lasts several minutes and in exceptional cases reaches an hour. Tsunamis occur only during those seaquakes, when a certain part of the bottom sinks or rises.

Great disasters are caused by earthquakes in China. During the catastrophe on December 16, 1920, more than 200 thousand people died in the Kansu region, and the main cause of death was the collapse of dwellings dug in the loess. Earthquakes of exceptional magnitude have occurred in America. An earthquake in the Riobamba region in 1797 killed 40,000 people and destroyed 80% of the buildings. In 1812, the city of Caracas (Venezuela) was completely destroyed within 15 seconds. The city of Concepcion in Chile was repeatedly almost completely destroyed, the city of San Francisco was badly damaged in 1906. In Europe, the greatest destruction was observed after an earthquake in Sicily, where in 1693 50 villages were destroyed and more than 60 thousand people died.

On the territory of the USSR, the most destructive earthquakes were in the south of Central Asia, in the Crimea (1927) and in the Caucasus. The city of Shamakhi in Transcaucasia suffered especially often from earthquakes. It was destroyed in 1669, 1679, 1828, 1856, 1859, 1872, 1902. Until 1859, the city of Shamakhi was the provincial center of Eastern Transcaucasia, but because of the earthquake, the capital had to be moved to Baku. On fig. 173 shows the location of the epicenters of Shamakhi earthquakes. Just like in Turkmenistan, they are located along a certain line, elongated in a north-western direction.

Phenomena. associated with earthquakes both on the surface of the Earth and in its bowels are called seismic phenomena. The science that studies seismic phenomena is called seismology.

3. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS

The nature of the brilliance depends on the refractive index, and both of them depend on the chemical composition and crystal structure of the mineral. In general, transparent minerals containing heavy metal atoms are distinguished by high brilliance and a high refractive index. This group includes such common minerals as anglesite (lead sulfate), cassiterite (tin oxide) and titanite, or sphene (calcium and titanium silicate). Minerals composed of relatively light elements can also have high luster and a high refractive index if their atoms are closely packed and held together by strong chemical bonds. A striking example is diamond, which consists of only one light element, carbon. To a lesser extent, this is also true for the mineral corundum (Al 2O 3), the transparent colored varieties of which - ruby and sapphires - are precious stones. Although corundum is made up of light atoms of aluminum and oxygen, they are so tightly bound together that the mineral has a rather strong luster and a relatively high refractive index.

Some non-metallic minerals are unmistakably recognized by the color due to the main chemical element (yellow - sulfur and black - dark gray - graphite, etc.). Many non-metallic minerals are composed of elements that do not provide them with a specific color, but they are known to have colored varieties, the color of which is due to the presence of impurities of chemical elements in small quantities, not comparable with the intensity of the color they cause. Such elements are called chromophores; their ions are distinguished by the selective absorption of light. For example, deep purple amethyst owes its color to an insignificant impurity of iron in quartz, and the deep green color of emerald is associated with a small content of chromium in beryl. The coloration of normally colorless minerals may appear due to defects in the crystal structure (due to unoccupied positions of atoms in the lattice or the entry of foreign ions), which can cause selective absorption of certain wavelengths in the white light spectrum. Then the minerals are painted in complementary colors. Rubies, sapphires and alexandrites owe their coloration to precisely such lighting effects.

Despite the variability in the color of many minerals, the color of the mineral powder is very constant, and therefore is an important diagnostic feature. Usually, the color of the mineral powder is determined by the line (the so-called “line color”) that the mineral leaves if it is drawn over an unglazed porcelain plate (biscuit). For example, the mineral fluorite can be colored in different colors, but its line is always white.

Table 1. MOHS HARDNESS SCALE

MineralRelative hardnessTalc 1Gypsum 2 Calcite 3 Fluorite 4 Apatite 5 Orthoclase 6 Quartz 7 Topaz 8 Corundum 9 Diamond 10

For a less accurate determination of hardness, you can use the following, simpler, practical scale.

2-2.5 Thumbnail 3 Silver coin 3.5 Bronze coin 5.5-6 Penknife blade 5.5-6 Window glass 6.5-7 File

In mineralogical practice, it is also used to measure the absolute values of hardness (the so-called microhardness) using a sclerometer device, which is expressed in kg / mm2 .

When testing for magnetism, three cases are possible:

a) when a mineral in its natural form (“by itself”) acts on a magnetic needle,

b) when the mineral becomes magnetic only after calcination in the reducing flame of a blowpipe

c) when the mineral neither before nor after calcination in a reducing flame exhibits magnetism. To ignite the reducing flame, you need to take small pieces of 2-3 mm in size.

Glow.Many minerals that do not glow by themselves begin to glow under certain special conditions.

Triboluminescence - glow at the moment of scratching with a needle or splitting (mica, corundum).

4. EPEIROGENIC MOVEMENTS OF THE EARTH'S CRUST

Ancient slow vertical movements are recorded in sections of sedimentary rocks. The rate of ancient oscillatory movements, according to scientists, is less than 0.001 mm/year.

TYPES OF TECTONIC FAULT

Types of tectonic disturbances

a - folded (plicate) forms;

b - discontinuous (disjunctive) forms

Discontinuous tectonic disturbances are called such changes in which the continuity (integrity) of rocks is disturbed.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Belousov V.V. Essays on the history of geology. At the origins of Earth science (geology until the end of the 18th century). - M., - 1993.

Vernadsky V.I. Selected works on the history of science. - M.: Nauka, - 1981.

Cookery A.S., Onoprienko V.I. Mineralogy: past, present, future. - Kiev: Naukova Dumka, - 1985.

Modern ideas of theoretical geology. - L .: Nedra, - 1984.

Khain V.E. The main problems of modern geology (geology on the threshold of the XXI century). - M .: Scientific world, 2003 ..

Khain V.E., Ryabukhin A.G. History and methodology of geological sciences. - M.: MGU, - 1996.

Hallem A. Great geological disputes. M.: Mir, 1985.

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Characteristics and classification of exogenous processes. Results of exogenous processes

Classification

mechanical weathering

Chemical destruction

Oxidation

organic weathering

Ice influence

sea ​​factor

wind work

Interaction

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