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Changing the nature of the mainland under the influence of human activities. Human impact on nature in South America began when indigenous people, engaged in agriculture, burned out areas of forests for this, drained swamps. However, these changes were not so great in comparison with those that arose with the arrival of Europeans on the mainland. From the 16th century began the exploitation of natural resources. Plowing of land, deforestation, pastoralism, the emergence of new plants imported from other continents have led to the weakening or complete destruction of the links between the components of nature, to major changes in natural complexes. For example, a significant part of the pampas is plowed up or used for grazing. The pastures are overgrown with weeds.

Pampa has lost its original appearance. It has been turned into endless fields of wheat and corn, cattle grazing. The most valuable forests of araucaria are almost destroyed - coniferous trees growing in the east of the Brazilian plateau. In place of tropical forests and savannahs, there have long been plantations of the coffee tree, brought here from Africa, and plantations of cocoa, the wild species of which grow in the forests of the Amazon.

The Amazon forests are being destroyed very quickly. The construction of the Trans-Amazon Highway (5000 km) opened the way to the selva. At the current rate of use, according to scientists, these forests may disappear by the beginning of the 21st century. But the forests of the Amazon give the atmosphere a lot of oxygen, have huge amount plant and animal species.

The problem of nature conservation in South America arose in the early twentieth century. But it was only very recently that they began to implement it: a program was outlined, lists of animals and plants were drawn up, for the conservation of which it was necessary to take urgent measures.

About a hundred species of mammals and birds are now included in the Red Book. The area of ​​protected areas on the entire continent is only about 1%.

Many countries in South America create nature reserves and National parks which also serve as centers of tourism.

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People began to have a significant impact on the state environment thousands of years ago. With the increase in the number of people on Earth, this influence only intensified. Usually a person negatively affects nature: he burns forests, drains rivers, changes the balance in ecosystems, transforms the landscape of the area where he lives.

But there are exceptions. Andrew Trant, a scientist at the University of Waterloo, believes that the Indians North America gradually improved the nature of the regions where they lived. This study also involved experts from the Hakai Institute and Victorian University. Scientists studied the history of the development of the region's ecosystems, linking this information with archaeological research data.

The study took place in a number of regions of North America. Scientists have discovered 15 ancient Indian sites in Calvert and the Hecate Islands. Researchers used to search various technologies, including archaeological methods, the study of the landscape, a comparison of the vegetation of a number of regions. This made it possible to find ancient sites on waste products (garbage heaps), the difference in pH and chemical composition soils.

Indians have lived on the coast and islands of North America for thousands of years. All this time they interacted with the environment. And this influence was in most cases positive. For example, trees near Indian camps where they lived for a long time were taller than trees of the same species in places where people did not live. In addition, these trees were healthier.

“It is incredible to realize that in our time, when most studies show Negative influence man on nature, the opposite effect is also open, ”says Andrew Trant. “These forests flourished because of the Indians who lived on the coast. For more than 13,000 years, the people who lived here, which is 500 generations, gradually changed the local landscape and nature. Therefore, when we look at an area that at first glance seems wild, we need to understand that this is the result of human influence.”

The Indians who lived along the coast and islands ate fish and shellfish. Food waste they were thrown in specially designated places. As a result, the organic remains thrown out by them over the past 6000 years lie underground, occupying territories of thousands square meters. The thickness of such ancient garbage heaps reaches five meters in some places. Thanks to the waste of the Indians, plants received the necessary for life nutrients. In particular, this applies to calcium, which plants received from the shells of mollusks eaten by the Indians.

According to the participants in the study, similar results are likely to be obtained in the study of coastal areas in other places - not necessarily just in North America.

"These data are changing our understanding of time and environmental impact," said Andrew Trant. "We will be doing more research to find out the extent of the change."

As for the settlement of America by the Indians, according to new data, the first settlers came to America about 23 thousand years ago. This happened during the last ice age. A number of scientists believe that the first people initially remained in the north, and only 13 thousand years ago the division into northern and southern populations began. 5.5 thousand years ago, the Inuit and Eskimos came to the continent.

Unfortunately, it is not possible to find out the exact picture of the settlement and connect it with the time scale due to the lack of sufficient evidence of the early periods of human existence in America. Most of the archaeological finds are from the Clovis culture. Evidence of the existence of representatives of this culture is found throughout North and Central America.

MAN: SETTLEMENT AND IMPACT ON THE NATURE OF SOUTH AMERICA

South America mastered by man uneven. Only the marginal areas of the mainland are densely populated, mainly the coast of the Atlantic Ocean and some areas of the Andes. At the same time, inland areas, such as the wooded Amazonian lowland, remained virtually undeveloped until recently.

The question of the origin of the indigenous population of South America - the Indians - has long been a matter of controversy.

The most common point of view about the settlement of South America by Mongoloids from Asia across North America approximately 17-19 thousand years ago (Fig. 23).

Rice. 23. Centers of human development and ways of its settlement in globe (according to V.P. Alekseev): 1 - the ancestral home of mankind and resettlement from it; 2 - primary western focus of race formation and settlement of proto-Australoids; 3 - settlement of proto-Caucasians; 4 - resettlement of proto-Negroids; 5 - primary eastern focus of race formation and settlement of proto-Americanoids; 6 - North American tertiary focus and settlement from it; 7 - Central South American focus and resettlement from it.

But, based on some anthropological commonality of the Indian peoples of South America with the peoples of Oceania (broad nose, wavy hair) and the presence of the same tools, some scientists expressed the idea of ​​settling South America from the Pacific Islands. However, this view is shared by few. Most scientists are inclined to explain the presence of Oceanian features among the inhabitants of South America by the fact that representatives of the Oceanian race could also penetrate through the northeast of Asia and North America with the Mongoloids.

Currently number of Indians in South America it is much larger than in North America, although during the period of colonization of the mainland by Europeans, it has greatly decreased. In some countries, Indians still make up a significant percentage of the population. In Peru, Ecuador and Bolivia, they are about half of the total, and in some areas they even significantly predominate. Most of The population of Paraguay is of Indian origin, many Indians live in Colombia. In Argentina, Uruguay, Chile, the Indians were almost completely exterminated during the first period of colonization, and now there are very few of them. The Indian population of Brazil is also steadily declining.

Anthropologically, all the Indians of South America are united and close to the North American Indians. The most developed classification of Indian peoples on linguistic grounds. The diversity of the languages ​​of the Indians of South America is very great, and many of them are so peculiar that they cannot be grouped into families or groups. In addition, separate language families and separate languages, formerly widespread on the mainland, have now almost or completely disappeared along with the peoples who spoke them, as a result of European colonization. The languages ​​of many Indian tribes and peoples living in isolation are still almost unexplored. By the beginning of European colonization, the territory east of the Andes was inhabited by peoples whose level of development corresponded to the primitive communal system. They earned their livelihood by hunting, fishing and gathering. But, according to recent studies, on some plains of the north and northeast of the mainland, a large population was engaged in farming on drained lands.

In the Andes and on the Pacific coast developed strong Indian states characterized by a high level of development of agriculture and cattle breeding, crafts, applied arts and the beginnings of scientific knowledge.

The agricultural peoples of South America gave the world such cultivated plants as potatoes, cassava, peanuts, pumpkins, and others (see the map "Centers of Origin of Cultivated Plants" in Fig. 19).

In the process of European colonization and a fierce struggle against the colonialists, some Indian peoples completely disappeared from the face of the Earth, others were pushed back from their ancestral territories to uninhabited and uncomfortable lands. Separate Indian peoples continue to live in areas of their former habitat. Until now, there are tribes living in isolation, retaining the level of development and way of life at which they were caught by the invasion of Europeans.

Listed below are only some of the most numerous and most well-studied groups of Indian peoples who now or in the past constituted a significant part of the population of the mainland.

In the hinterland of Brazil there are still remnants tribes of the language family "zhe". By the time the Europeans arrived on the mainland, they inhabited the eastern and southern parts of Brazil, but were pushed back by the colonialists into forests and swamps. This people is still at the level of development corresponding to the primitive communal system, and is distinguished by a wandering way of life.

At a very low stage of development were by the arrival of Europeans inhabitants of the extreme south of South America(of Tierra del Fuego). They protected themselves from the cold with animal skins, weapons were made of bone and stone, food was obtained by hunting guanacos and sea fishing. The fire-earthers were subjected to the most severe physical extermination in the 19th century, and now there are very few of them left.

For more high level development were tribes inhabiting the central and northern parts of the mainland in the Orinoco and Amazon basins ( peoples of the Tupi-Guarani, Arawakan, Caribbean language families). They are still engaged in agriculture, cultivating cassava, corn, and cotton. They hunt using bows and arrow-throwing tubes, and also use the instantly acting plant poison curare.

Before the arrival of Europeans, the main occupation of the tribes living in the territory Argentine Pampas and Patagonia, there was a hunt. The Spaniards brought horses to the mainland, which later became feral. The Indians learned how to tame horses and began to use them to hunt guanacos. The rapid development of capitalism in Europe was accompanied by the ruthless extermination of the population of the colonial lands. In Argentina, in particular, the Spaniards pushed the local residents to the extreme south of Patagonia, to lands unsuitable for grain farming. At present, the indigenous population is almost completely absent in Pampas. Only small groups of Indians have survived, working as farmhands in large agricultural holdings.

The highest socio-economic and cultural development by the arrival of Europeans was achieved by the tribes inhabiting the elevated Andean plateau within Peru, Bolivia and Ecuador, where one of the oldest centers of irrigated agriculture is located.

indian tribe, language family Quechua who lived in the XI-XIII centuries. on the territory of modern Peru, united the scattered small peoples of the Andes and formed a strong state, Tahuantinsuyu (XV century). The leaders were called "Inca". Hence the name of the whole people. The Incas subjugated the peoples of the Andes up to the modern territory of Chile, extended their influence also to more southern regions, where an independent, but close to the Incas, culture of settled farmers arose Araucanians (Mapuche).

Irrigated agriculture was the main occupation of the Incas, and they cultivated up to 40 species cultivated plants, placing the fields in terraces along the slopes of the mountains and bringing water from mountain streams to them. The Incas tamed wild llamas, using them as pack animals, and bred domestic llamas, from which they received milk, meat, and wool. The Incas were also famous for their ability to build mountain roads and bridges from vines. They knew many crafts: pottery, weaving, processing of gold and copper, etc. They made jewelry and objects of religious worship from gold. In the state of the Incas, private landownership was combined with collective ownership, and a supreme leader with unlimited power was at the head of the state. Taxes were collected from the conquered tribes of the Incas. The Incas are the creators of one of ancient civilizations In South America. Some monuments of their culture have survived to this day: ancient tracts, remains of architectural structures and irrigation systems.

Individual peoples that were part of the state of the Incas still inhabit the desert high plateaus of the Andes. They cultivate the land in a primitive way, cultivating potatoes, quinoa and some other plants.

The largest modern Indian people - Quechua- inhabits the mountainous regions of Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, Chile and Argentina. Live on the shores of Lake Titicaca Aymara- one of the most mountainous peoples of the world.

The basis of the indigenous population of Chile was a group of strong agricultural tribes united under common name araucans. They resisted the Spaniards for a long time, and only in the 18th century. part of them, under the onslaught of the colonialists, moved to Pampa. Now Araucans (Mapuche) live in the southern half of Chile, only a few of them live in the Argentine Pampa.

In the north of the Andes, on the territory of modern Colombia, by the arrival of the Spanish conquerors, a cultural state of peoples had developed chibcha muisca. Now small tribes - the descendants of the Chibcha, who have preserved remnants of the tribal system, live in Colombia and on the Isthmus of Panama.

The first settlers from Europe, who came to America without families, intermarried with Indian women. As a result, a mixed, mixed, population. The process of miscegenation continued later.

At present, "pure" representatives of the Caucasian race are almost completely absent on the mainland. The only exceptions are the latest immigrants. Most of the so-called "whites" contain, to one degree or another, an admixture of Indian (or Negro) blood. This mixed population (mestizo, cholo) predominates in almost all South American countries.

A significant part of the population, especially in the Atlantic regions (in Brazil, Guiana, Suriname, Guyana), are black people- descendants of slaves imported into South America at the beginning of colonization, when numerous and cheap work force used on plantations. Negroes partially mixed with the white and Indian population. As a result, mixed types were created: in the first case - mulattoes, in the second - sambo.

Fleeing from exploitation, Negro slaves fled from their masters to the rainforests. Their descendants, some of whom mixed with the Indians, in some areas still lead a primitive forest lifestyle.

Before the declaration of independence of the South American republics, i.e. before the first half 19th century, immigration to South America from other countries was prohibited. But subsequently the governments of the newly formed republics, interested in economic development their states, the development of vacant lands, opened access immigrants from different countries of Europe and Asia. Especially many citizens arrived from Italy, Germany, Balkan countries, partly from Russia, China and Japan. Settlers of a later period usually keep apart, preserving their language, customs, culture and religion. In some republics (Brazil, Argentina, Uruguay), they form significant population groups.

Features of the history of South America and, as a consequence, the great unevenness in the distribution of the modern population and its relatively low average density have led to a significant preservation of natural conditions in comparison with other continents. Large expanses of the Amazonian lowland, the central part of the Guiana Highlands (the Roraima massif), the southwestern part of the Andes and the Pacific coast remained for a long time untapped. Separate wandering tribes in the Amazonian forests, almost not in contact with the rest of the population, not so much influenced nature as they themselves depended on it. However, there are fewer and fewer such areas. Mining, laying of communication lines, in particular construction Transamazonian Highway, the development of new lands leave everything in South America less spaces unaffected by human activities.

The extraction of oil in the very thick of the Amazonian rainforests or of iron and other ores within the Guiana and Brazilian highlands required the construction of transport routes in recently still remote and inaccessible areas. This, in turn, led to population growth, the destruction of forests, and the expansion of arable and pasture land. As a result of the attack on nature with the use of the latest technology, the ecological balance is often disturbed, easily vulnerable natural complexes are destroyed (Fig. 87).

Rice. 87. Environmental problems South America

Development and significant transformations began primarily from the La Plata plain, the coastal parts of the Brazilian Highlands, the extreme north of the mainland. Areas developed even before the start of European colonization are located in the depths of the Andes of Bolivia, Peru and other countries. On the territory of the most ancient Indian civilizations, centuries-old human activity has left its mark on the desert plateaus and mountain slopes at an altitude of 3-4.5 thousand meters above sea level.

Answer left the guest

1. The zone of equatorial forests occupies in South America giant areas of the Amazonian lowland, the adjacent foothills of the Eastern Andes, the northern part of the Pacific coast in the region of the equatorial climate zone. These forests are called selvas, which means “forests” in Portuguese. A. Humboldt suggested calling them hylaea (from the Greek. "Gileion" - forest).

2. Zones of savannas, light forests and shrubs are located mainly in the subequatorial and partly in the tropical climatic zones. The savannahs occupy the Orinoc lowland, where they are called llanos, as well as the hinterland of the Guiana and Brazilian highlands (campos).

3. The zone of subtropical steppes, which are called pampas here, is located south of the savannas of the tropical belt. The soils in the pampa are reddish-black, formed as a result of the decay of dense vegetation from turf grasses - pampas grass, feather grass, bluegrass, etc. These soils have a significant humus horizon (up to 40 cm) and are very fertile. For the natural areas of the pampas, fast running animals are typical - pampas deer, pampas cat, llamas. There are many rodents along the banks of rivers and lakes - nutria, viscacha. At present, the natural landscapes in the pampas have been little preserved: convenient lands are plowed up (fields of wheat, corn), dry steppes are divided into huge paddocks for large cattle.

4. The zone of semi-deserts of the temperate belt prevails on the territory of the southern - narrowed part of the mainland, in Patagonia. Patagonia is located in the "rain shadow" of the Andes. In the conditions of dry continental climate, on sierozems and gray-brown soils (saline in some places), an open vegetation cover is common. It is formed by densely sod grasses (bluegrass, feather grass, fescue) and shrubs that form thorny pillows (undersized cacti, ephedra, verbena). Among the endemic representatives of the animal world of Patagonia, it should be noted skunk, Magellanic dog (similar to a fox), Darwin's ostrich (southern species of rhea). There are pampas cat and armadillos, small rodents (tuco-tuco, mara, etc.).

5. In the Andes is typical altitudinal zonality landscapes. Sections of the Andes, lying at different latitudes, differ in the number and composition of altitudinal belts. The most complete range of altitudinal belts is presented in the equatorial region.

6. Zone of deciduous and coniferous forests (this is in southern Chile)

Along the Pacific coast, there is a special change in meridional natural zones: in tropical latitudes, a zone of deserts and semi-deserts of the tropical belt is formed (in the Atacama, a loma formation is formed, which is characterized by bulbous and tuberous ephemeroids); in the subtropical zone between 32-38 ° S. sh. there is a zone of dry hard-leaved Mediterranean forests and shrubs. South of 38°S sh. in the subtropical zone - a zone of constantly moist evergreen forests (hemigile zone), which extends to the south and within the temperate zone up to 46 ° S. sh. Hemihylaea consist of evergreen southern beeches, Chilean araucaria, “Chilean cypresses” and other tree species.

7th grade.

Lesson Objectives

Educational:

to consolidate and deepen knowledge about the basic law of geography - latitudinal zonality on the example of the natural zones of South America;

study the features of the natural zones of South America.

Show the relationship between the components of the nature of the mainland, the influence of relief, climate and inland waters on the development of the organic world of South America;

Developing:

continue to improve the ability to analyze thematic maps;

develop students' ability to describe natural areas, identify relationships between natural components;

develop skills in choosing the rational implementation of the stages of work.

Educational:

assess the degree of change in nature under the influence economic activity person;

to cultivate mutual understanding, mutual assistance, friendship in the process of joint work for the result.

To educate students about respect for nature

Typelesson: learning new material. Equipment:

geography textbook "Continents, oceans and countries" I. V. Korinskaya, V.A. Dushina, geography atlases Grade 7,

notebooks, tables to fill out,

multimedia projector,

student drawings,

wall map of South America.

Methods and forms : partially exploratory, explanatory and illustrative, visual, reproductive, independent work, individual.

move lesson.

I. Organizational moment.

Today in the lesson we will continue studying the nature of South America: we will find out what natural zones are on this continent, we will give them a description. Let's get acquainted with new concepts, listen to the messages prepared by the guys. Let us consider how the nature of the continent changes under the influence of human cold, what negative impact a person has on the plant and animal world. Let's formulate the rules of respect for nature. Write the date and topic of the lesson in your notebook.

Learning new material.

(Guys, open the atlases on the PZ page. Let's see which natural zones have formed on the mainland).

Due to the predominance of a humid climate in South America, forests are widespread and there are relatively few deserts and semi-deserts. On both sides of the equator in the Amazon stretch constantly wet evergreen forests, changing to the north and south in the highlands of variable-humid deciduous tropical forests, woodlands and savannahs, especially extensive in the southern hemisphere. In the south of the mainland there are steppes and semi-deserts. A narrow strip within the tropical climatic zone in the west is occupied by the Atacama Desert, (they wrote down the natural zones in a notebook)

Like Australia, South America stands out among the continents with the originality of the organic world. Long-term isolation from other continents contributed to the formation of a rich and largely endemic flora and fauna in South America.It is the birthplace of the hevea rubber tree, chocolate tree, cinchona and mahogany trees, victoria regia, as well as many cultivated plants - potatoes, tomatoes, and beans. Among the endemics of the animal world, it is necessary to name edentulous (anteaters, armadillos, sloths), broad-nosed monkeys, llamas, some rodents (capybara, chinchillas).

Now we will listen to messages about the features of the flora and fauna, those PZ that occupy largest areas on the mainland. Be careful, I am giving you tables with a partial description of P.Z., however, not all columns contain information. The task is to fill them in as you write.

GP

Climate

Soils

Vegetation b

Animal world

Human influence

Moist equatorial forests - selva

On either side of the equator,

Amazonian th

lowlands

Equatorial

belt:

hot and humid

Red-yellow ferralite

Howler monkey, sloth, anteater, tapir, jaguar, parrots, hummingbird

Savannah

Orinokskaya

lowland,

Guiana, Brazilian

plateaus.

Sub-equatorial: hot, tropical zone:

dry and hot

Red ferralite

acacia,

palm trees, cactus,

mimosa,

spurge,

quebracho,

shrubs,

bottled

wood.

On site

rainforest

created

plantations

coffee

trees

Steppes - pampas

South of the savannahs to 40°S.

Subtropical

belt:

warm and humid

Reddish-

black

Feather grass,

millet,

reeds

Pampas deer, llama, nutria, armadillo,

pampas cat

Semi-desert - Patagonia

America

Subtropical, temperate zone: dry and cool "

brown,

gray

brown

Cereals,

pillow-shaped

bushes

Vizcacha, nutria, armadillos

GP

Climate

Soils

Vegetation

Animal world

Human influence

Moist equatorial forests - selva

Equatorial

belt:

hot and humid

Red-yellow ferralite

Chocolate tree, cinchona, palm trees, ceiba, spurge, melon tree, hevea, liana, orchid

Deforestation that gives a lot of oxygen

Savannah

Orinokskaya

low,

Guiana, Brazilian

plateaus.

Red ferralite

Deer, peccaries, anteaters, armadillos, jaguars, pumas, rhea ostrich

On site

rainforest

created

plantations

coffee

trees

Steppes - pampas

South of the savannahs to 40°S.

Reddish-

black

Feather grass,

millet,

reeds

Fields of wheat, corn, paddocks for grazing, cutting down coniferous trees

Semi-desert - Patagonia

A narrow strip along the Andes in the south of South.

America

Subtropical, temperate zone: dry and cool

brown,

gray

brown

Vizcacha, nutria, armadillos

The guys read out the messages, after each we check what we have added in the table.

1. Moist equatorial forests.

   Savannah.

   Steppes - pampas.

   Semi-deserts.

So, we listened to the messages about the main PZ with you, we proved that the flora and fauna of South America is endemic and diverse. And now let's give an assessment of the degree of change in the nature of the continent under the influence of human cold.

A poem about nature and a message are read.

Somehow, meeting with last strength,

The Lord created a beautiful planet.

Gave her the shape of a large ball,

And planted trees and flowers there,

Herbs of unparalleled beauty.

Many animals began to be found there:

Snakes, elephants, turtles and birds.

Here's a gift for you, people, own it.

Plow the land, sow bread.

I bequeath to you all from now on -

You protect this shrine!

Everything was fine, of course.

But .... civilization has come to Earth.

Technological progress broke free.

The scientific world, dormant hitherto, suddenly resurrected,

And gave to the earthly population

Infernal inventions.

Conclusion: we show a slide about the negative impact of a person. We draw the diagram in a notebook.

Your homework was to formulate the rules of caring for nature. Please, whoever prepared, let's hear it. Conservation slide.

In order to preserve the flora and fauna, it is necessary to take care of nature, create specially protected areas - nature reserves, - national parks, create various centers and organizations for environmental protection. After all, our health depends on how we treat nature. We draw the diagram in a notebook.

III. Making sense.

What explains the species diversity of the flora and fauna of South America?

List the main natural areas of South America, (according to the table)

IV. Summarizing.

All the guys who prepared the messages score "5"

Evaluate those who answered during the lesson.

V. Homework

§ 44 attach the table in a notebook, learn.