Rice. 25. Position of the rp-process relative to the line β of stability.

The process that is sometimes associated with the p-process is the rp-process, the fast proton capture process. This process creates proton-rich nuclei with Z = 7-26. It includes a series of (p, γ) and β + - decays, which are characteristic of p-enriched nuclei. The process starts as a "fall out" from the CNO cycle. It is a side chain of the CNO cycle, creating p-rich nuclei such as 21 Na

and 19 Ne. These cores form the basis for further capture

neutrons, leading to the nucleosynthesis pathway shown in Fig. 25 . rp -process creates a small number of CA cores<100. Процесс следует по пути, аналогичному r -процессу, но на протон-обогащённой стороне стабильности. В настоящее время источником протонов

for this process are some double stars. Note that this process is at times close to the β stability line, approaching the proton line as the nucleus becomes heavier.

6. THE PROBLEM OF THE SOLAR NEUTRINO

Many nuclear reactions that provide energy to stars are accompanied by the emission of neutrinos. Due to the small absorption cross section of neutrinos by matter (σ 10-44 cm2), they are practically not absorbed by the Sun and other stars. (These neutrino losses correspond to a loss of 2% of the Sun's energy). Therefore, the neutrino is a window into the star. At the same time, a small absorption cross section makes it difficult to detect neutrinos, since almost all neutrinos pass the planet Earth without absorption.

Therefore, there is the problem of the solar neutrino. Tab. 4. Predicted solar neutrino fluxes.

Source	Flow (part/s/cm2)
	5.94x1010
	1.40x108
	7.88x103
	4.86x107
	5.82x106
	5.71x108
	5.03x108
	5.91x106

6.1 Expected Solar Neutrino Sources, Energies and Fluxes

AT Due to its proximity to our planet, the Sun is the main source of neutrinos reaching the Earth.

The Sun emits 1.8x1038 neutrinos/sec, which reach the Earth's surface in 8 minutes with a flux density of 6.4x1010 neutrinos/s/cm2. The predictions of the standard solar model for neutrino fluxes on the Earth's surface for various nuclear reactions are presented in Table. 4, and for the distribution of energies - in Fig. 26 . Every nuclear reaction has

characteristic energy distribution.

Rice. 25. Prediction of neutrino fluxes from various nuclear reactions on the Sun. The energy regions where the detectors are sensitive to neutrinos are shown at the top.

13N → 13C+ β ++ ν e 15O → 15N+ β ++ ν e 17F → 17O+ β ++ ν e

Source marked "rr", in Table. 4 and Fig. 26 reflects the reaction

p+p→ d+e+ +v e (65)

and is the main reaction producing one neutrino for each synthesized 4 He nucleus. "rep" the source is the reaction

p+p+e- → d+v e , (66)

which produces monoenergetic neutrinos, while "hep" means the reaction: p+3 He→ 4 He+e+ +ν e (67)

This last reaction produces the highest energy neutrino with a maximum energy of 18.77 MeV (due to the high Q value of the reaction). The intensity of this source is 107 times less than the pp source. "7 Be" source means pp-chain of decay reaction by electron capture

in which the first excited state 8 Be is populated (at 3.04 MeV). Weak sources "13 N", "15 O" and "17 F" denote β+ decays occurring in the CNO cycle:

6.2 Neutrino detection

As already mentioned, the detection of weakly interacting neutrinos is difficult due to the low value of the interaction cross section. To overcome this obstacle, two types of detectors have been proposed: radiochemical detectors and Cherenkov detectors. Radiochemical detectors register the products of neutrino-induced reactions, while Cherenkov detectors observe the scattering of neutrinos. So, in a cave in South Dakota, 1500 m below the earth's surface, a massive radiochemical detector was placed containing 100,000 gallons of purified liquid, C2 Cl4. The purified liquid weighed 610 tons (the volume of 10 railway tanks). The following reaction takes place in the detector:

ν e +37 Cl→ 37 Ar+e-

The reaction product 37 Ar decomposes by electron capture with T=35 days. After purification, the liquid is exposed to solar neutrinos for a certain period of time, the formed 37 Ar is washed out of the detector by a flow of gaseous helium and enters a proportional counter, which detects 2,8 Auger electrons formed during electron capture. The detected reaction has a threshold of 0.813 MeV, i.e. the detector is sensitive to 8 V, hep, pep and 7 Be (ground state decay) neutrinos. Here the registration of 8 V is the most important. Usually 3 atoms of 37 Ar are formed in a week and must be isolated from 1010 atoms of the liquid. The detector is placed deep underground and protected from cosmic radiation.

Other detectors are based on the reaction
ν e +71 Ga→ 71 Ge+e-

These detectors have a threshold of 0.232 MeV and can be used for direct detection of the dominant pp neutrinos from the Sun. Gallium is present as a solution of GaCl3 .71 Ge is collected by flushing the detector with nitrogen and converting Ge to GeH4 before counting. These detectors use 30-100 tons of gallium and consume a significant proportion of the annual gallium production.

Cherenkov detectors operate on the effect of neutrino scattering by charged particles. After a collision with a neutrino, the ejected electron emits Cherenkov radiation, which can be detected by scintillation detectors. The first of these detectors was placed in the Kamioka mine in Japan. Super Kamioka contained 50,000 tons of high purity water. The detected reaction in this case is the scattering reaction ν +e- →ν +e- , and the detection threshold is 8 MeV, which makes it possible to detect 8 V neutrinos.

Rice. 27. Comparison of predictions of the standard solar model and experimental measurements.

The Canadian SNO detector was mounted in a nickel mine at a depth of 2 km and contained 1000 tons of heavy water (D2O). In addition to neutrino electron scattering, this detector is capable of using nuclear reactions on deuterium:

ν e+d→ 2p+e- (72)ν +d→ n+p+ν (73)

The latter reaction can be used to detect all types of neutrinos, ν e , ν μ and ν τ , while the first reaction is sensitive only to electron neutrinos. The set of reactions occurring in the detector can be used to observe neutrino oscillations. In the last reaction, the emitted neutron is detected by an (n,γ) reaction in which γ rays are recorded by a scintillation detector (The heavy water detector is surrounded by 7000 tons of ordinary water to protect the detector from neutrons associated with the radioactivity of the mine walls). The Canadian detector required the development of new methods for deep water purification, because. the purity of the water required a uranium or thorium content of less than 10 atoms per 1015 water molecules.

6.3 The solar neutrino problem

The problem of solar neutrinos arose from the fact that the detectors registered only 1/3 of what was expected by the standard solar neutrino model, which suggests that 98.5% of the Sun's energy comes from the pp chain and 1.5 from the CNO cycle.

Rice. 28. Energy spectra of galactic cosmic rays, GCR.

Such a discrepancy indicates that either the model of the Sun is incorrect or there are fundamental errors in the nuclear physics used.

The solar neutrino problem lies in the erroneous ideas about the fundamental structure of matter given by the standard model. The Standard Model predicts that three types of neutrinos have no mass and that, once created, they continue to exist unchanged for the rest of the time. The main idea of ​​the alternative model, the neutrino oscillation model, is that while neutrinos leave the Sun, they transform from electron neutrinos to muon neutrinos and vice versa. These oscillations

are possible if neutrinos have a mass and this mass is different for electron and muon neutrinos. These oscillations are amplified by neutron-electron interactions in the Sun. They believe that

neutrino mass τ>neutrino mass μ>electron neutrino mass. The upper limit of these masses

Rice. 29. Relative (by silicon) abundance of elements in the solar system and in cosmic rays.

Neutrino oscillations - the transformation of a neutrino (electron, muon or taon) into a neutrino of another type (generation), or into an antineutrino. The theory predicts the existence of a law of periodic change in the probability of detecting a particle of a certain type depending on the time elapsed since the creation of the particle. The presence of neutrino oscillations is important for solving the problem of solar neutrinos. It is assumed that such transformations are a consequence of the neutrino having a rest mass or (for the case of neutrino↔antineutrino transformations) non-conservation of the lepton charge at high energies. The Standard Model in its original version does not describe neutrino masses and their oscillations, but they can be included in this theory with a relatively minor modification - the inclusion of a mass term and a neutrino mixing PMNS matrix in the general Lagrangian.

Direct evidence for neutrino oscillations came from observations of the Cherenkov glow. The SNO detector found one third of the expected number of electron neutrinos coming from the Sun, in agreement with previous data obtained by radiochemical detectors. Japanese detector, which is sensitive mainly to electron neutrinos, but has

sensitivity to other types of neutrinos, found half of the neutrino flux expected from

All stars, including our Sun, produce energy using thermonuclear fusion. The scientific world is in trouble. Scientists do not know all the ways in which such fusion (thermonuclear) can be obtained. The fusion of light atomic nuclei and their transformation into heavier ones indicates that energy has been obtained, which can be either controlled or explosive. The latter is used in thermonuclear explosive structures. A controlled thermonuclear process differs from the rest of nuclear energy in that it uses a decay reaction when heavy nuclei are split into lighter ones, but nuclear reactions using deuterium (2 N) and tritium (3 N) - fusion, that is, controlled thermonuclear fusion. In the future, it is planned to use helium-3 (3 He) and boron-11 (11 V).

Dream

One should not confuse the traditional and well-known thermonuclear fusion with what is the dream of today's physicists, in the embodiment of which no one yet believes. This refers to a nuclear reaction at any, even room temperature. Also, this is the absence of radiation and cold thermonuclear fusion. Encyclopedias tell us that a nuclear fusion reaction in atomic-molecular (chemical) systems is a process that does not require significant heating of a substance, but humanity has not yet produced such energy. This is despite the fact that absolutely all nuclear reactions in which fusion occurs are in the state of plasma, and its temperature is millions of degrees.

At the moment, this is not even a dream of physicists, but science fiction writers, but nevertheless, developments have been ongoing for a long time and persistently. Thermonuclear fusion without the constantly accompanying danger of the level of Chernobyl and Fukushima - is this not a great goal for the benefit of mankind? foreign scientific literature gave different names to this phenomenon. For example, LENR stands for low-energy nuclear reactions, and CANR stands for chemically induced (assisted) nuclear reactions. Successful implementation of such experiments was declared quite often, representing the most extensive databases. But either the media gave out another "duck", or the results spoke of incorrectly staged experiments. Cold thermonuclear fusion has not yet received truly convincing evidence of its existence.

star element

Hydrogen is the most abundant element in space. Approximately half of the mass of the Sun and most of the other stars falls on its share. Hydrogen is not only in their composition - there is a lot of it in interstellar gas and in gas nebulae. And in the depths of stars, including the Sun, the conditions for thermonuclear fusion are created: there the nuclei of hydrogen atoms are converted into helium atoms, through which huge energy is generated. Hydrogen is its main source. Every second, our Sun radiates energy equivalent to four million tons of matter into space.

This is what the fusion of four hydrogen nuclei into one helium nucleus gives. When one gram of protons burns, the energy of thermonuclear fusion is released twenty million times more than when the same amount is burned. hard coal. Under terrestrial conditions, the power of thermonuclear fusion is impossible, since such temperatures and pressures as exist in the depths of stars have not yet been mastered by man. Calculations show that for at least another thirty billion years, our Sun will not die out or weaken due to the presence of hydrogen. And on Earth, people are just beginning to understand what hydrogen energy is and what the reaction of thermonuclear fusion is, since working with this gas is very risky, and it is extremely difficult to store it. So far, humanity can only split the atom. And every reactor (nuclear) is built on this principle.

Thermonuclear fusion

Nuclear energy is a product of the splitting of atoms. Synthesis, on the other hand, receives energy in a different way - by combining them with each other, when deadly radioactive waste is not formed, and a small amount of sea water would be enough to produce the same amount of energy as is obtained from burning two tons of coal. In the laboratories of the world it has already been proven that controlled thermonuclear fusion is quite possible. However, power plants that would use this energy have not yet been built, even their construction is not foreseen. But two hundred and fifty million dollars were spent by the United States alone to investigate the phenomenon of controlled thermonuclear fusion.

Then these studies were literally discredited. In 1989, chemists S. Pons (USA) and M. Fleshman (Great Britain) announced to the whole world that they had achieved a positive result and launched thermonuclear fusion. The problems were that scientists were too hasty, not subjecting their discovery to review by the scientific world. The media immediately seized the sensation and filed this claim as the discovery of the century. The verification was carried out later, and not just errors in the experiment were discovered - it was a failure. And then not only journalists succumbed to disappointment, but also many highly respected world-class physicists. The reputable laboratories at Princeton University spent more than fifty million dollars to test the experiment. Thus, cold thermonuclear fusion, the principle of its production, were declared pseudoscience. Only small and scattered groups of enthusiasts continued these studies.

essence

Now the term is proposed to be replaced, and instead of cold nuclear fusion, the following definition will sound: a nuclear process induced by a crystal lattice. This phenomenon is understood as anomalous low-temperature processes, which are simply impossible from the point of view of nuclear collisions in a vacuum - the release of neutrons through the fusion of nuclei. These processes can exist in nonequilibrium solids, stimulated by transformations of elastic energy in the crystal lattice under mechanical influences, phase transitions, sorption or desorption of deuterium (hydrogen). This is an analogue of the already well-known hot thermonuclear reaction, when hydrogen nuclei merge and turn into helium nuclei, releasing tremendous energy, but this happens at room temperature.

Cold fusion is more precisely defined as chemically induced photonuclear reactions. Direct cold thermonuclear fusion was never achieved, but completely different strategies were suggested by searches. A thermonuclear reaction is triggered by the generation of neutrons. Mechanical stimulation by chemical reactions leads to the excitation of deep electron shells, giving rise to gamma or X-ray radiation, which is intercepted by the nuclei. That is, a photonuclear reaction occurs. Nuclei decay, and thus generate neutrons and, quite possibly, gamma rays. What can excite internal electrons? Probably a shock wave. From the explosion of conventional explosives.

Reactor

For more than forty years, the world thermonuclear lobby has been spending about a million dollars annually on research into thermonuclear fusion, which is supposed to be obtained with the help of TOKAMAK. However, almost all progressive scientists are against such research, since a positive result is most likely impossible. Western Europe and the United States disappointedly began to dismantle all of its TOKAMAKS. And only in Russia they still believe in miracles. Although many scientists consider this idea an ideal brake alternative to nuclear fusion. What is TOKAMAK? This is one of two projects. fusion reactor, which is a toroidal chamber with magnetic coils. And there is also a stellarator, in which the plasma is kept in a magnetic field, but the coils that induce the magnetic field are external, in contrast to the TOKAMAK.

This is a very complex design. TOKAMAK is quite worthy of the Large Hadron Collider in terms of complexity: more than ten million elements, and the total costs, together with construction and project costs, significantly exceed twenty billion euros. The collider was much cheaper, and maintaining the ISS also costs no more. Toroidal magnets require eighty thousand kilometers of superconducting filament, their total weight exceeds four hundred tons, and the entire reactor weighs about twenty-three thousand tons. The Eiffel Tower, for example, weighs just over seven thousand. The TOKAMAK plasma is eight hundred and forty cubic meters. Height - seventy-three meters, sixty of them - underground. For comparison: the Spasskaya Tower is only seventy-one meters high. The area of ​​the reactor platform is forty-two hectares, like sixty football fields. The plasma temperature is one hundred and fifty million degrees Celsius. At the center of the Sun, it is ten times lower. And all this for the sake of controlled thermonuclear fusion (hot).

Physicists and chemists

But let's get back to the "rejected" discovery of Fleshman and Pons. All of their colleagues claim that they still managed to create conditions where deuterium atoms obey wave effects, nuclear energy is released in the form of heat in accordance with the theory of quantum fields. The latter, by the way, is perfectly developed, but hellishly complex and hardly applicable to the description of some specific phenomena of physics. That is probably why people do not want to prove it. Flashman demonstrates a cut in the laboratory's concrete floor from an explosion he claims was caused by a cold fusion. However, physicists do not believe chemists. I wonder why?

After all, how many opportunities for humanity are closed with the cessation of research in this direction! The problems are simply global, and there are many of them. And they all require a solution. This is an environmentally friendly source of energy, through which it would be possible to decontaminate huge volumes of radioactive waste after the operation of nuclear power plants, desalinate sea water and much more. If we could master the production of energy by turning some elements of the periodic table into completely different ones without using neutron fluxes for this purpose, which create induced radioactivity. But science officially and now considers it impossible to transform any chemical elements into completely different ones.

Rossi-Parkhomov

In 2009, the inventor A. Rossi patented an apparatus called the Rossi Energy Catalyst, which implements cold thermonuclear fusion. This device has been repeatedly demonstrated to the public, but has not been independently verified. Physicist Mark Gibbs on the pages of the journal morally destroyed both the author and his discovery: without an objective analysis, they say, confirming the coincidence of the results obtained with the declared ones, this cannot be news of science.

But in 2015, Alexander Parkhomov successfully repeated Rossi's experiment with his low-energy (cold) nuclear reactor (LENR) and proved that the latter has great prospects, although its commercial significance is questionable. Experiments, the results of which were presented at a seminar at the All-Russian Research Institute of Operation nuclear power plants, show that the most primitive copy of the brainchild of Rossi - his nuclear reactor, can produce two and a half times more energy than it consumes.

Energoniva

The legendary scientist from Magnitogorsk, A. V. Vachaev, created the Energoniva installation, with the help of which he discovered a certain effect of transmutation of elements and the generation of electricity in this process. It was hard to believe. Attempts to draw the attention of fundamental science to this discovery were futile. Criticism came from everywhere. Probably, the authors did not need to build their own theoretical calculations regarding the observed phenomena, or physicists of the higher classical school should have been more attentive to experiments with high-voltage electrolysis.

But on the other hand, such a relationship was noted: not a single detector registered a single radiation, but it was impossible to be near the operating installation. The research team consisted of six people. Five of them soon died between the ages of forty-five and fifty-five, and the sixth became disabled. Death came for completely different reasons after some time (for about seven to eight years). Nevertheless, at the Energoniva installation, the followers of the third generation and the student of Vachaev carried out experiments and made the assumption that a low-energy nuclear reaction took place in the experiments of the deceased scientist.

I. S. Filimonenko

Cold thermonuclear fusion was studied in the USSR already in the late fifties of the last century. The reactor was designed by Ivan Stepanovich Filimonenko. However, no one managed to understand the principles of operation of this unit. That is why, instead of the position of an undisputed leader in the field of nuclear energy technologies, our country has taken the place of a raw material appendage that sells its own natural resources, depriving entire generations of the future. But the pilot plant had already been created, and it produced a warm fusion reaction. The author of the most breakthrough energy structures that suppress radiation was a native of the Irkutsk region, who went through the entire war from his sixteen to twenty years as a scout, an order bearer, an energetic and talented physicist I. S. Filimonenko.

Cold-type thermonuclear fusion was closer than ever. Warm fusion took place at a temperature of only 1150 degrees Celsius, and heavy water was the basis. Filimonenko was denied a patent: supposedly a nuclear reaction is impossible at such a low temperature. But the synthesis was on! Heavy water was decomposed by electrolysis into deuterium and oxygen, deuterium was dissolved in the palladium of the cathode, where the nuclear fusion reaction took place. The production is waste-free, that is, without radiation, and neutron radiation was also absent. Only in 1957, having enlisted the support of academicians Keldysh, Kurchatov and Korolev, whose authority was indisputable, Filimonenko managed to get things off the ground.

Decay

In 1960, in connection with a secret decree of the Council of Ministers of the USSR and the Central Committee of the CPSU, work began on the invention of Filimonenko under the control of the Ministry of Defense. During the experiments, the researcher found that during the operation of the reactor, some kind of radiation appears, which reduces the half-life of isotopes very quickly. It took half a century to understand the nature of this radiation. Now we know what it is - neutronium with dineutronium. And then, in 1968, the work practically stopped. Filimonenko was accused of political disloyalty.

In 1989, the scientist was rehabilitated. His installations began to be recreated in the NPO Luch. But the matter did not go further than the experiments - they did not have time. The country perished, and the new Russian had no time for fundamental science. One of the best engineers of the twentieth century died in 2013 without seeing the happiness of mankind. The world will remember Ivan Stepanovich Filimonenko. Cold thermonuclear fusion will someday be established by his followers.

Page 1

Nuclear fusion reactions are called thermonuclear because the only way to initiate reactions is to heat the nuclear fuel to a high temperature.

The nuclear fusion reaction can also serve as a source of energy.

Nuclear fusion reactions require extremely high temperatures and pressures.

Hydrogen-3 is the easiest to enter into the nuclear fusion reaction, but it is present in the earth's atmosphere in such small quantities and its production is very costly that the very feasibility of using it as a fuel is called into question.

This reaction is called a nuclear fusion reaction, since the result of the combination of nuclei is a heavier nucleus.

In order for a nuclear fusion reaction to begin, it is necessary to reach a temperature of the order of a million degrees. Since the only currently known means of achieving such temperatures are nuclear fission reactions, a fission-based atomic bomb is used to initiate the hydrogen fusion reaction. It is assumed that the energy released by stars, including our Sun, is formed as a result of nuclear fusion reactions, similar to the above reactions. Depending on the age and temperature of the star, carbon, oxygen, and nitrogen nuclei, as well as hydrogen and helium isotopes, can take part in such reactions.

The main problem with the fusion reaction is to develop a technology capable of holding a gas of charged particles, a plasma, at a temperature of the order of many millions of degrees for quite a long time in order to release the required amount of energy, while the plasma is in an isolated state. . There are two methods by which this process is controlled: the method of magnetic fields and the method of holding heavy hydrogen atoms with the help of powerful lasers. This method is the easiest way to carry out nuclear fusion, which involves deuterium and tritium and which takes place in a plasma held by magnetic fields at a temperature of more than 100 million C. The end products of the fusion reaction are helium ions (He-4) and neutrons. About 80% of the energy released as a result of fusion comes from neutrons. Heat transfer and heat conversion systems, which are the next step, are similar to those used in nuclear reactors division.

Learning how to generate useful energy through nuclear fusion is important primarily because thermonuclear fusion is an almost inexhaustible source of energy. The cost of fusion fuel is small compared to the cost of fossil fuels; it is available everywhere, and the process of obtaining it has only a minor impact on the environment. Further, although thermonuclear energy is also one of the types of atomic energy, it differs significantly from conventional atomic energy, which is released during the fission of uranium, plutonium, and thorium. Compared to nuclear fission reactors and the dangers they create, a fusion reactor appears to be far less dangerous.

The rate of energy release as a result of all the reactions of nuclear fusion occurring in every second turns out to be a strikingly small value, if expressed in calories per gram of matter. It will be more than 100 times less than the rate at which the human body releases heat in one second during its metabolism. Of course, the total amount of heat given off by the Sun cannot be compared with the heat of our body due to the extremely huge amount of the total mass of the Sun. But the question arises how the Sun can be so hot if the rate of heat release per gram of mass in it is 100 times less than in our body.

It is generally accepted that generating energy through nuclear fusion should cause less pollution. environment than by nuclear fission. However, it should be taken into account that the materials of construction for the internal parts of a fusion reactor must become very radioactive and often have to be replaced. What is the cause of these complications.

The abundance of an element is related to the stability of its nucleus and the course of nuclear fusion reactions of elements. In accordance with this, there are approximate rules that determine the abundance of an element. Thus, it has been observed that elements with small atomic masses are more common than heavy elements. Further, the atomic masses of the most common elements are expressed in multiples of four; elements with even ordinal numbers are several times more common than their neighboring odd elements.

Truly immense prospects for the development of the energy basis of production promises society the mastery of a controlled nuclear fusion reaction. Solving the problem of controlling thermonuclear reactions is on the agenda Soviet science. Among its tasks is the discovery of ways to directly convert thermal, nuclear, solar and chemical energy into electrical energy.

If the protons manage to get close to distances r r0, then a nuclear fusion reaction occurs, the nucleons form connected system is the nucleus of a deuterium atom. The bound state corresponds to the model of a particle in a potential well. But such approach of particles is prevented by a potential barrier. To elucidate the possibility of a reaction, it is necessary to solve the problem of the passage of particles through a barrier at different energies.

Lithium is a source of the heavy isotope of hydrogen, tritium, which is used in nuclear fusion reactions.

Of the four main sources of nuclear energy, only two have now been brought to industrial implementation: the energy of radioactive decay is utilized in current sources, and the fission chain reaction is utilized in nuclear reactors. The third source of nuclear energy is annihilation elementary particles until he left the realm of fantasy. The fourth source controlled thermonuclear fusion, UTS, is on the agenda. Although this source is less than the third one in its potential, it significantly exceeds the second one.

Thermonuclear fusion in laboratory conditions is quite simple to implement, but so far it has not been possible to achieve the reproduction of energy. However, work in this direction is being carried out, and radiochemical methods are also being developed, in the first place, technologies for producing tritium fuel for UTS installations.

This chapter considers some radiochemical aspects of thermonuclear fusion and discusses the prospects for the use of facilities for CTS in the nuclear power industry.

Controlled thermonuclear fusion- the reaction of fusion of light atomic nuclei into heavier nuclei, occurring at superhigh temperatures and accompanied by the release of huge amounts of energy. Unlike explosive thermonuclear fusion (used in the hydrogen bomb), it is controlled. In the main nuclear reactions that are planned to be used for the implementation of controlled thermonuclear fusion, -H and 3 H will be used, and in the more distant future, 3 He and “B”.

Hopes for controlled thermonuclear fusion are associated with two circumstances: i) it is believed that stars exist due to a stationary thermonuclear reaction, and 2) an uncontrolled thermonuclear process was quite simply implemented in the explosion of a hydrogen bomb. It seems that there are no fundamental obstacles to maintaining a controlled nuclear fusion reaction. However, intensive attempts to implement CTS in laboratory conditions with energy gain ended in complete failure.

However, TCF is now seen as an important technological solution to replace fossil fuels in energy production. The worldwide need for energy requiring an increase in electricity production and the exhaustibility of non-renewable raw materials stimulate the search for new solutions.

Thermonuclear reactors use the energy released during the fusion of light atomic nuclei. Reminiscent of:

The fusion reaction of tritium and deuterium nuclei is promising for the implementation of controlled thermonuclear fusion, since its cross section is quite large even at low energies. This reaction provides a specific calorific value of 3.5-11 J/g. The main reaction D+T=n+a has the largest cross section o t ah=5 barn at resonance at deuteron energy E pSh x= 0.108 MeV, compared with the reactions D+D=n+3He a,„ a *=0.i05 barn; E max = 1.9 MeV, D+D=p+T o tah = 0.09 barn; E max = 2.0 MeV, as well as with the reaction 3He+D=p+a a m ax=0.7 barn; Eotax= 0.4 MeV. In the last reaction, 18.4 MeV is released. In reaction (3), the sum of energies n+a is equal to 17.6 MeV, the energy of the resulting neutrons? n = 14.1 MeV; and the energy of the resulting a-particles is 3.5 MeV. If in the reactions T(d,n)a and:) He(d,p)a the resonances are rather narrow, then in the reactions D(d,n)3He and D(d,p)T there are very broad resonances with large values cross sections in the region from 1 to 10 MeV and linear growth from 0.1 MeV to 1 MeV.

Comment. The problems with easily combustible DT fuel are that tritium is not found in nature and must be obtained from lithium in the breeder blanket of a fusion reactor; tritium is radioactive (Ti/ 2 =12.6 years), the DT-reactor system contains from 10 to 10 kg of tritium; 80% of the energy in the DT reaction is released with 14-MeV neutrons, which induce artificial radioactivity in the reactor structures and produce radiation damage.

On fig. 1 shows the energy dependences of the reaction cross sections (1 - h). The graphs for the cross sections of reactions (1) and (2) are practically the same - with increasing energy, the cross section increases and at high energies the probability of the reaction tends to a constant value. The cross section for reaction (3) first increases, reaches a maximum of 10 barn at energies of the order of 90 MeV, and then decreases with increasing energy.

Rice. 1. Cross sections of some thermonuclear reactions as a function of particle energy in the center of mass system: 1 - nuclear reaction (3); 2 - reactions (1) and (2).

Due to the large scattering cross section during the bombardment of tritium nuclei by accelerated deuterons, the energy balance of the thermonuclear fusion process according to the D - T reaction can be negative, because more energy is spent on accelerating deuterons than is released during fusion. A positive energy balance is possible if the bombarding particles, after an elastic collision, are able to participate in the reaction again. To overcome the electrical repulsion, the nuclei must have a large kinetic energy. These conditions can be created in a high-temperature plasma, in which atoms or molecules are in a completely ionized state. For example, the D-T reaction begins to proceed only at temperatures above 10 8 K. Only at such temperatures is more energy released per unit volume and per unit "time than it is spent. CTS consists in solving two problems: heating the substance to the required temperatures and holding it for a time sufficient to “burn” a noticeable part of the thermonuclear fuel.

It is believed that controlled thermonuclear fusion can be realized if the Lawson criterion is fulfilled (lt>10‘4 s cm-z, where P - density of high-temperature plasma, t - time of its retention in the system).

When this criterion is met, the energy released during CTS exceeds the energy introduced into the system.

Plasma must be kept inside a given volume, because in free space, the plasma instantly expands. Due to the high temperatures, the plasma cannot be placed into a tank from any

material. To contain the plasma, it is necessary to use a high-strength magnetic field, which is created using superconducting magnets.

Rice. 2. Schematic diagram of a tokamak.

If you do not set the goal of obtaining an energy gain, then in laboratory conditions it is quite simple to implement the CTS. To do this, it is enough to lower an ampoule with lithium deuteride into the channel of any slow reactor operating on the uranium fission reaction (you can use lithium with natural isotopic composition(7% 6 Li), but it is better if it is enriched with a stable isotope 6 Li). Under the action of thermal neutrons, the following nuclear reaction occurs:

As a result of this reaction, there are "hot" tritium atoms. The energy of the recoil atom of tritium (~3 MeV) is sufficient for the reaction of interaction of tritium with deuterium located in LiD:

For energy purposes, this method is not suitable: the energy costs of the process exceed the energy released. Therefore, one has to look for other options for implementing the CTS, options that provide a large energy gain.

They try to implement CTS with energy gain either in quasi-stationary (t > 1 s, tg>yu see "Oh, or in impulse systems (t * io -8 s, n>u 22 cm*h). In the former (tokamak, stellarator, mirror trap, etc.), plasma is confined and thermally isolated in magnetic fields of various configurations. In pulsed systems, plasma is created by irradiating a solid target (grains of a mixture of deuterium and tritium) with focused radiation from a powerful laser or electron beams: when a beam of small solid targets hits the focus, a successive series of thermonuclear microexplosions occurs.

Among various chambers for confining plasma, a chamber with a toroidal configuration is promising. In this case, the plasma is created inside the toroidal chamber using an electrodeless ring discharge. In a tokamak, the current induced in the plasma is, as it were, the secondary winding of the transformer. The magnetic field, while holding the plasma, is created both by the current flowing through the coil around the chamber and by the current induced in the plasma. To obtain a stable plasma, an external longitudinal magnetic field is used.

A thermonuclear reactor is a device for generating energy due to fusion reactions of light atomic nuclei occurring in plasma at very high temperatures (> 0 8 K). The main requirement that a thermonuclear reactor must satisfy is that the energy release as a result of

thermonuclear reactions more than compensated for the energy costs from external sources to maintain the reaction.

Rice. h. The main components of the reactor for controlled thermonuclear fusion.

A thermonuclear reactor of the TOKAMAK type (Toroidal Chamber with Magnetic Coils) consists of a vacuum chamber forming a channel where the plasma circulates, magnets that create a field and plasma heating systems. This is accompanied by vacuum pumps that constantly pump out gases from the channel, a fuel delivery system as it burns out, and a diverter - a system through which the energy obtained as a result of a thermonuclear reaction is removed from the reactor. The toroidal plasma is in a vacuum shell. a-Particles formed in the plasma as a result of thermonuclear fusion and located in it, increase its temperature. Neutrons penetrate the wall of the vacuum chamber into the zone of a blanket containing liquid lithium, or a lithium compound enriched in 6 Li. When interacting with lithium, the kinetic energy of neutrons is converted into heat, and tritium is simultaneously generated. The blanket is placed in a special shell that protects the magnet from emitted neutrons, y-radiation, and heat fluxes.

In tokamak-type devices, plasma is created inside a toroidal chamber using an electrodeless ring discharge. For this purpose, an electric current is created in the plasma bunch, and at the same time it has its own magnetic field - the plasma bunch itself becomes a magnet. Now, using an external magnetic field of a certain configuration, it is possible to suspend a plasma cloud in the center of the chamber, preventing it from touching the walls.

Divertor - a set of devices (special poloidal magnetic coils; panels in contact with plasma - plasma neutralizers), with the help of which the area of ​​direct contact of the wall with the plasma is maximally removed from the main hot plasma. It serves to remove heat from the plasma in the form of a stream of charged particles and to pump out the reaction products neutralized on the divertor plates: helium and protium. Purifies plasma from contaminants that interfere with the fusion reaction.

A thermonuclear reactor is characterized by a power amplification factor equal to the ratio of the thermal power of the reactor to the power of the cost of its production. Thermal power reactor is composed of:

• - from the power released during a thermonuclear reaction in plasma;
• - from the power that is introduced into the plasma to maintain the combustion temperature of a thermonuclear reaction or a stationary current in the plasma;
• - from the power released in the blanket - a shell surrounding the plasma, in which the energy of thermonuclear neutrons is utilized and which serves to protect the magnetic coils from radiation exposure. Blanket fusion reactor - one of the main parts of a thermonuclear reactor, a special shell surrounding the plasma in which thermonuclear reactions occur and which serves to utilize the energy of thermonuclear neutrons.

The blanket covers the plasma ring from all sides, and the main energy carriers born during D-T fusion - 14-MeV neutrons - give it to the blanket), heating it. The blanket contains heat exchangers through which water is passed. Power plant steam rotates the steam turbine, and she - the rotor of the generator.

The main task of the blanket is to harvest energy, transform it into heat and transfer it to power generating systems, as well as protect operators and the environment from ionizing radiation generated by a thermonuclear reactor. Behind the blanket in a thermonuclear reactor there is a layer of radiation protection, the functions of which are to further weaken the neutron flux and the y-quanta formed during reactions with matter to ensure the operability of the electromagnetic system. This is followed by biological protection, for which station personnel can work.

"Active" blanket - breeder, designed to produce one of the components of thermonuclear fuel. In reactors that consume tritium, the blanket includes breeder materials (lithium compounds) designed to ensure efficient production of tritium.

When operating a thermonuclear reactor on deuterium-tritium fuel, it is necessary to replenish the amount of fuel (D + T) in the reactor and remove 4He from the plasma. As a result of reactions in the plasma, tritium burns out, and the main part of the fusion energy is transferred to neutrons, for which the plasma is transparent. This leads to the need to place a special zone between the plasma and the electromagnetic system, in which the burnable tritium is reproduced and the main part of the neutron energies is absorbed. This area is called the breeder blanket. It reproduces tritium burnt in plasma.

Tritium in a blanket can be produced by irradiating lithium with neutron fluxes according to nuclear reactions: 6 Li (n, a) T + 4.8 MeV and 7 Li (n, n'a) - 2.4 MeV.

When producing tritium from lithium, it should be taken into account that natural lithium consists of two isotopes: 6 Li (7.52%) and 7 Li (92.48%). The absorption cross section of thermal neutrons with pure 6 Li 0 = 945 barn, and the activation cross section for the reaction (p, p) is 0.028 barn. In natural lithium, the cross section for the removal of neutrons produced during the fission of uranium is 1.01 barn, and the cross section for the absorption of thermal neutrons is about a = 70.4 barn.

The energy spectra of y-radiation during radiative capture of thermal neutrons 6 Li are characterized by the following values: .94 MeV. total energy

In a thermonuclear reactor operating on D-T fuel, as a result of the reaction:

y-radiation per neutron capture is equal to 1.45 MeV. For 7 Li, the absorption cross section is 0.047 barn and the activation cross section is 0.033 barn (at neutron energies above 2.8 MeV). The cross section for the extraction of fission neutrons LiH of natural composition = 1.34 barn, metallic Li - 1.57 barn, LiF - 2.43 barn.

thermonuclear neutrons are formed, which, leaving the plasma volume, fall into the blanket region containing lithium and beryllium, where the following reactions occur:

Thus, the fusion reactor will burn deuterium and lithium, and as a result of the reactions, the inert gas helium will be formed.

At D-T reactions in the plasma, tritium burns out and a neutron with an energy of 14.1 MeV is formed. In a blanket, this neutron must generate at least one tritium atom to cover its losses in the plasma. Tritium reproduction rate to("the amount of tritium formed in the blanket per one incident thermonuclear neutron") depends on the neutron spectrum in the blanket, the magnitude of neutron absorption and leakage. k> 1,05.

Rice. Fig. 4. Dependences of the cross section of nuclear reactions of tritium formation on the neutron energy: 1 - reaction 6 Li (n, t) ‘» He, 2 – reaction 7 Li (n, n’, 0 4 He.

For the 6 Li nucleus, the absorption cross section of thermal neutrons with the formation of tritium is very large (953 barn at 0.025 eV). At low energies, the neutron absorption cross section in Li follows the law (l/u) and, in the case of natural lithium, reaches 71 barn for thermal neutrons. For 7 Li, the cross section for interaction with neutrons is only 0.045 barn. Therefore, to increase the performance of the breeder, natural lithium should be enriched in the 6 Li isotope. However, an increase in the content of 6 Li in a mixture of isotopes has little effect on the breeding ratio of tritium: there is an increase by 5% with an increase in the enrichment in the 6 Li isotope to 50% in the mixture. In the reaction 6 Li(n, T)» Not all slowed down neutrons are absorbed. In addition to strong absorption in the thermal region, there is a small absorption (

The dependence of the cross section for the reaction 6 Li(n,T) 4 He on the neutron energy is shown in Fig. . 7. As is typical for many other nuclear reactions, the cross section for the 6 Li(n,f) 4 He reaction decreases as the neutron energy increases (with the exception of the resonance at 0.25 MeV).

The reaction with the formation of tritium on the ?Li isotope proceeds with fast neutrons at an energy of ?n>2.8 MeV. In this reaction

tritium is produced and there is no loss of a neutron.

A nuclear reaction for 6 Li cannot give an extended reproduction of tritium and only compensates for the burnt out tritium

The reaction to ?1l results in the appearance of one tritium nucleus for each absorbed neutron and the regeneration of this neutron, which is then absorbed during slowing down and gives one more tritium nucleus.

Comment. In natural Li, the tritium reproduction coefficient to"2. For Li, LiFBeF 2 , Li 2 0, LiF, Y^Pbz k= 2.0; 0.95; 1.1; 1.05 and i.6, respectively. Molten salt LiF (66%) + BeF 2 (34%) is called flyb ( FLiBe), its use is preferable in terms of safety and reduction of tritium losses.

Since not every neutron of the D-T reaction participates in the formation of a tritium atom, it is necessary to multiply the primary neutrons (14.1 MeV) using the (n, 2n) or (n, cn) reaction, on elements that have a sufficiently large cross section during the interaction of fast neutrons , for example, on y Be, Pb, Mo, Nb and many other materials with Z> 25. For beryllium, the threshold (n, 2 P) reactions 2.5 MeV; at 14 MeV 0=0.45 barn. As a result, in versions of the blanket with liquid or ceramic lithium (LiA10 2), it is possible to achieve to* 1.1+1.2. If the reactor chamber is surrounded by a uranium blanket, neutron multiplication can be significantly increased due to fission reactions and (n, 2n), (n, zl) reactions.

Remark 1. The induced activity of lithium upon irradiation with neutrons is practically absent, since the resulting radioactive isotope 8Li (cr-radiation with an energy of 12.7 MeV and /?-radiation with an energy of ~6 MeV) has a very short half-life - 0.875 s. The low activation of lithium and the short half-life facilitate the biological protection of the plant.

Remark 2. The activity of tritium contained in the blanket of a thermonuclear DT-reactor is ~*10 6 Ci; therefore, the use of DT-fuel does not exclude the theoretical possibility of an accident on a scale of several percent of the Chernobyl one (the release was 510 7 Ci). The release of tritium with the formation of T 2 0 can lead to radioactive fallout, the ingress of tritium into ground water, reservoirs, living organisms, plants with accumulation, ultimately, in food.

The choice of material and aggregate state of the breeder is a serious problem. The material of the breeder should provide a high percentage of lithium to tritium conversion and easy extraction of the latter for subsequent transfer to the fuel preparation system.

The main functions of the breeder blanket include: formation of a plasma chamber; tritium production with coefficient k>i; conversion of the kinetic energy of the neutron into heat; utilization of heat generated in the blanket during the operation of a thermonuclear reactor; radiation protection of the electromagnetic system; biological radiation protection.

A thermonuclear reactor on D-T-fuel, depending on the material of the blanket, can be "clean" or hybrid. The blanket of a "clean" thermonuclear reactor contains Li, in which, under the action of neutrons, tritium is obtained and the thermonuclear reaction is enhanced from 17.6 MeV to 22.4

MeV. In the blanket of a hybrid ("active") thermonuclear reactor not only is tritium produced, but there are also zones in which waste 2 s 8 and 2 39 Pu are placed. In this case, an energy equal to 140 MeV per neutron is released in the blanket. The energy efficiency of a hybrid fusion reactor is six times higher than that of a clean one. At the same time, better absorption of thermonuclear neutrons is achieved, which increases the safety of the installation. However, the presence of fissile radioactive substances creates a radiation environment similar to that in nuclear fission reactors.

Rice. 5.

There are two pure breeder blanket concepts, based on the use of liquid tritium-fertile materials, or on the use of solid lithium-containing materials. Blanket design options are associated with the type of selected coolants (liquid metal, liquid salt, gas, organic, water) and the class of possible structural materials.

In the liquid version of the blanket, lithium is the coolant, and tritium is the fertile material. The blanket section consists of the first wall, a breeder zone (molten lithium salt, a reflector (steel or tungsten) and a light shielding component (for example, titanium hydride). The main feature of a self-cooled lithium blanket is the absence of an additional neutron moderator and neutron breeder. use the following salts: Li 2 BeF 4 ( T pl = 459°), LiBeF 3 (T wx .=380°), FLiNaBe (7^=305-320°). Among the given salts, Li 2 BeF 4 has the lowest viscosity, but the highest Twl. Perspective is the Pb-Li eutectic and the FLiNaBe melt, which also acts as a self-cooler. The neutron breeders in such a breeder are spherical Be granules 2 mm in diameter.

In a blanket with a solid breeder, lithium-containing ceramics are used as the breeder material, and beryllium serves as a neutron breeder. The composition of such a blanket includes such elements as the first wall with coolant collectors; neutron breeding zone; tritium breeding zone; channels for cooling the breeding and reproduction zones of tritium; iron protection; blanket fastening elements; lines for inlet and outlet of coolant and tritium carrier gas. Structural materials - vanadium alloys and steel of ferritic or ferritic-martensitic class. Radiation protection is made of steel sheets. The coolant used is gaseous helium under UMPA pressure with an inlet temperature of 300 0 , and an outlet temperature of the coolant of 650 0 .

The radiochemical task is to isolate, purify and return tritium to the fuel cycle. At the same time, the choice of functional materials for regeneration systems of fuel components (breeder materials) is important. The material of the breeder (breeder) must ensure the removal of thermonuclear fusion energy, the generation of tritium and its efficient extraction for subsequent purification and transformation into reactor fuel. For this purpose, a material with high temperature, radiation and mechanical resistance is required. Equally important are the diffusion characteristics of the material, which ensure high tritium mobility and, as a consequence, good efficiency of tritium extraction from the breeder material at relatively low temperatures.

The working substances of the blanket can be: ceramics Li 4 Si0 4 (or Li 2 Ti0 3) - a reproducing material and beryllium - a neutron breeder. Both breeder and beryllium are used in the form of a layer of monodisperse pebbles (granules with a shape close to spherical). The diameters of Li 4 Si0 4 and Li 2 Ti0 3 granules vary in the ranges of 0.2–10.6 mm and 0.8 mm, respectively, while beryllium granules have a diameter of 1 mm. The share of the effective volume of the layer of granules is 63%. To breed tritium, the ceramic breeder is enriched with the 6 Li isotope. Typical enrichment level for 6 Li: 40% for Li 4 Si0 4 and 70% for Li 2 Ti0 3 .

At present, lithium metatitanate 1l 2 TiO 3 is considered the most promising because of the relatively high rate of tritium release at relatively low temperatures (from 200 to 400 0), radiation and chemical resistance. It was demonstrated that lithium titanate granules enriched up to 96% 6 Li under conditions of intense neutron irradiation and thermal effects make it possible to generate lithium at a practically constant rate for two years. The extraction of tritium from neutron-irradiated ceramics is carried out by programmed heating of the breeder material in the continuous pumping mode.

It is assumed that in the nuclear industry, thermonuclear fusion facilities can be used in three areas:

• - hybrid reactors, in which the blanket contains fissile nuclides (uranium, plutonium), the fission of which is controlled by a powerful flux of high-energy (14 MeV) neutrons;
• - combustion initiators in electronuclear subcritical reactors;
• - transmutation of long-lived environmentally hazardous radionuclides in order to neutralize radioactive waste.

The high energy of thermonuclear neutrons provides great opportunities for separating the energy groups of neutrons for burning a specific radionuclide in the resonant region of the cross sections.

This is a popular science article in which I want to tell those who are interested in nuclear fusion about its principles. These are "cold" and "hot" fusion, radioactive decay, nuclear fission reaction and available data on the synthesis of a wide range of substances in the so-called transmutation process.
What is the "philosopher's stone" that will allow a person to get at his disposal nuclear fusion?
- In my opinion, this is knowledge! Knowledge without dogmas and quackery! When comprehending which there will be failures and the conquest of new peaks.
Perhaps after reading it, you will be interested in these problems and in the future will deal with them thoroughly prepared. Here I tried to talk about the basic principles inherent in the nature of matter - matter and once again confirming the idea of ​​the simplicity and optimality of nature.

What is nuclear fusion?

In the literature, we often find the term "thermonuclear fusion".

Thermonuclear reaction, thermonuclear fusion (synonym: nuclear fusion reaction)

A type of nuclear reaction in which light atomic nuclei combine to form heavier nuclei. http://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/ enter to search - Fusion

More precisely, under the term "Thermonuclear fusion" it is customary to consider "Nuclear fusion" with the release of energy (heat).

At the same time, the concept of "Nuclear Fusion" includes:

1. The division of the nucleus of the original, heavier element, usually into two light nuclei, with the formation of new chemical elements.
   When the condition of equality of the number of nucleons of a heavy nucleus to the sum of nucleons of light nuclei plus the free nucleons obtained in the process of fission is fulfilled. And the total binding energy in a heavy nucleus is equal to the sum of the binding energies in light nuclei plus the released free (excess energy). An example is the nuclear fission reaction of the U nucleus.
2. The combination of two smaller nuclei into one larger one, with the formation of a new chemical element.
   When the condition of equality of the number of nucleons of a heavy nucleus to the sum of nucleons of light nuclei plus the free nucleons obtained in the process of fission is fulfilled. And the total binding energy in a heavy nucleus is equal to the sum of the binding energies in light nuclei plus the released free (excess energy). An example is the production of transuranium elements in physical experiments “target of the initial substance - accelerator - accelerated nuclei (protons).

There is a special concept for this process Nucleosynthesis is the process of formation of nuclei of chemical elements heavier than hydrogen in the course of a nuclear fusion reaction (fusion).

In the process of primary nucleosynthesis, elements no heavier than lithium are formed, the theoretical Big Bang model assumes the following ratio of elements:

H - 75%, 4He - 25%, D - 3 10 -5 , 3He - 2 10 -5 , 7Li - 10 -9 ,

which is in good agreement with the experimental data on determining the composition of matter in objects with a large redshift (from the lines in the spectra of quasars.

Stellar nucleosynthesis is a collective concept for the nuclear reactions of formation of elements heavier than hydrogen, inside stars, and also, to a small extent, on their surface.

In both cases, I will say a phrase that may be blasphemous for some, synthesis can take place both with the release of excess binding energy and with the absorption of the missing one. Therefore, it is more correct to speak not about thermo nuclear fusion but about more common process- nuclear fusion.

Conditions for the existence of nuclear fusion

Well-known criteria existence thermonuclear fusion(for D-T reactions), which is possible under the simultaneous fulfillment of two conditions:

where n is the high-temperature plasma density, τ is the plasma confinement time in the system.

The value of these two criteria mainly determines the rate of a particular thermonuclear reaction.

At present (2012), controlled thermonuclear fusion has not yet been carried out on an industrial scale. The construction of the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER) is in initial stage. And this is not the first time its launch date has been postponed.

Almost the same criteria, but more general, for the synthesis of nuclei, it is necessary to bring them closer to a distance of about 10 −15 m, on which the action of the strong interaction will exceed the forces of electrostatic repulsion.

Conversion Conditions

The transformation conditions are known, this is the approach of nuclei to distances when intranuclear forces begin to act.

But this is a simple condition, not so easy to fulfill. There are Coulomb forces of positively charged nuclei participating in a nuclear reaction, which must be overcome in order to bring the nuclei closer to the distance when intranuclear forces begin to act and the nuclei combine.

What is needed to overcome the Coulomb forces?

If we ignore the necessary energy costs for this, then we can definitely say that by bringing any two or more nuclei closer to a distance less than 1/2 of the nucleus diameter, we will bring them to a state where intranuclear forces will lead to their fusion. As a result of the fusion, a new nucleus is formed, the mass of which will be determined by the sum of nucleons in the original nuclei. The resulting nucleus, in case of its instability, as a result of one or another decay will come after some time to a certain stable state.

Usually, the nuclei involved in the synthesis process exist in the form of ions that have partially or completely lost electrons.

The convergence of nuclei is achieved in several ways:

1. Heating up a substance to give its nuclei the necessary energy (velocity) for their possible convergence,
2. Creation of ultrahigh pressure in the field of synthesis sufficient for the convergence of the nuclei of the original substance,
3. The creation of an external electric field in the synthesis zone is sufficient to overcome the Coulomb forces,
4. Creation of a super-powerful magnetic field of the compressing nucleus of the original substance.

Leaving the terminology for the time being, let's see what thermonuclear fusion is.

Recently, we rarely hear about the research of "hot" thermonuclear fusion.

We are overcome by our own problems, more vital for us than for all of humanity. Yes, this is understandable, the crisis continues and we strive to survive.

But research and work in the field of thermonuclear fusion continues. There are two areas of work:

1. so-called "hot" nuclear fusion,
2. "cold" nuclear fusion, anathematized by official science.

Moreover, their difference between hot and cold only describes the conditions that must be created for these reactions to occur.

It means that in the "hot" nuclear fusion, the products involved in the thermonuclear reaction must be heated in order to give their nuclei a certain speed (energy) to overcome the Coulomb barrier, than to create conditions for the nuclear fusion reaction to proceed.

In the case of “cold” nuclear fusion, the fusion proceeds under external normal conditions (averaged over the volume of the installation, and the temperature in the fusion zone (in micro volume) fully corresponds to the energy released), but since the very fact of nuclear fusion exists, the conditions necessary for the fusion of nuclei are are being performed. As you understand, certain reservations and clarifications are required when talking about "cold" nuclear fusion. Therefore, the term “cold” is hardly applicable for this term, the designation, LENR (low energy nuclear reactions), is more suitable.

But, I think you understand that a thermonuclear reaction proceeds with the release of energy, and in both cases its result is “hot” - this is the release of heat. For example, in "cold" nuclear fusion, as soon as the number of fusion events becomes large enough, the temperature of the active medium will begin to rise.

Not afraid to be tedious, I repeat, the essence of nuclear fusion lies in the convergence of the nuclei of the substance participating in the reaction at a distance when intranuclear forces begin to act (predominate) on the atoms participating in nuclear fusion under the influence of which the nuclei will merge.

"Hot" nuclear fusion

Experiments with "Hot" nuclear fusion are carried out on complex and expensive facilities that use the most advanced technologies and allow heating the plasma to temperatures above 10 8 K and keep it in a vacuum chamber with the help of super strong magnetic fields for quite a long time (in in an industrial installation, this should be done in a continuous mode - this is all the time of its operation, in research it can be a mode of single pulses and for the time necessary for the thermonuclear reaction to proceed, in accordance with the Lawson criterion (if interested, see http://ru.wikipedia .org/wiki/ search for Lawson's test).

There are several types of such installations, but the most promising is the installation of the TOKAMAK type - a TO rhoidal KA measure with MA magnetic coils.

The proposal to use controlled thermonuclear fusion for industrial purposes and a specific scheme using the thermal insulation of high-temperature plasma by an electric field were first formulated by the Soviet physicist O. A. Lavrentiev in the mid-1950s. This work served as a catalyst for Soviet research on the problem of controlled thermonuclear fusion. A. D. Sakharov and I. E. Tamm in 1951 proposed to modify the scheme by proposing theoretical basis thermonuclear reactor, where the plasma would have the shape of a torus and be held by a magnetic field. The term "tokamak" ”was invented later by I.N. Golovin, a student of academician Kurchatov. Initially, it sounded like "tokamag" - an abbreviation for the words " then rhoidal ka measure magician thread", but N. A. Yavlinsky, the author of the first toroidal system, suggested replacing "-mag" with "-pop" for euphony. Subsequently, this version was borrowed by all languages. First tokamak was built in 1955, and for a long time tokamaks existed only in the USSR. Only after 1968, when on the T-3 tokamak, built at the Institute of Atomic Energy. I. V. Kurchatov, under the leadership of Academician L. A. Artsimovich, a plasma temperature of 10 million degrees was reached, and British scientists with their equipment confirmed this fact, which at first they refused to believe, a real boom of tokamaks began in the world. Beginning in 1973, B. B. Kadomtsev headed the program of research into plasma physics using tokamaks. Official physics considers the tokamak the only promising device for controlled thermonuclear fusion.

At present (2011), controlled thermonuclear fusion has not yet been carried out on an industrial scale. Construction of the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER) is in its early stages. (Design completed)

Project iter- path - project of an international experimental thermonuclear reactor. The design of the reactor has been completely completed and a site has been selected for its construction in the south of France, 60 km from Marseille, on the territory of the Cadarache research center.
Current plans:
Initial date, years	new date, y.
2007-2019	2010-2022	the period of construction of the reactor.
2026	2029	First fusion reactions
2019-2037	2022 - 2040	experiments are expected, after which the project will be closed,
After 2040	2043	the reactor will produce electricity (subject to successful experiments)
Due to the economic situation, a delay of another 3 years is possible, which may lead to the need to finalize the project. This will result in a total delay of approximately 5 years.
The ITER project involves Russia, the USA, China, the EU, the Republic of Korea, India and Japan. Since the reactor will be built on the territory of the European Union, it will finance 40% of the project cost. The rest of the participating countries finance 10% of the project. Initially, the total cost of this program was estimated at 13 billion euros. Of these, 4.7 billion will be spent on the capital construction of the demonstration plant. Fusion power ITER reactor will be 500 MW. Subsequently, the cost increased to 15 billion euros, a similar amount will be required for research. In Japan, the construction of ITER had already begun earlier in the north of the island of Honshu in the town of Rokkase, Aomori Prefecture, but in Tokyo they were forced to abandon the independent construction of the reactor, since 600-800 billion yen (about $ 6-8 billion) had to be invested in the project.

"Cold" nuclear fusion

The so-called "cold" nuclear fusion (as I already said, it is cold as long as the number of fusion events - fusion is small), despite the attitude of official science, it also takes place.

Logic suggests that the conditions for the approach of the nuclei can be achieved in other ways. So far, we simply cannot understand the physics of the processes occurring in the microcosm, explain them, and therefore obtain the repeatability of the experiment as a result of practical application.

There is instrumental confirmation of the occurrence of nuclear reactions.

In many experiments, signs inherent in nuclear fusion (both individual and in combination) were registered: neutron release, heat release, side radiation, nuclear fusion products.

Logic suggests the possibility of the existence of NS without the release of neutrons, spurious radiation, and even with the absorption of energy. But there is always the appearance of new chemical elements in the products of nuclear fusion.

For example, a nuclear reaction can take place without neutrons and other radiation

D + 6Li → 2 + 22.4 MeV

Moreover, similar phenomena are recorded in nature.

Nuclear fusion during the splitting of matter

radioactive decay.

In nature, the synthesis of new chemical elements in the process of radioactive decay is known.

Radioactive decay (from lat. radius"beam" and activus"effective") - a spontaneous change in the composition of unstable atomic nuclei (charge Z, mass number A) by emitting elementary particles or nuclear fragments. The process of radioactive decay is also called radioactivity, and the corresponding elements are radioactive. Substances containing radioactive nuclei are also called radioactive.

All have been found to be radioactive. chemical elements with an atomic number greater than 82 (that is, starting with bismuth), and many lighter elements (promethium and technetium do not have stable isotopes, and some elements, such as indium, potassium or calcium, have some natural isotopes that are stable, while others are radioactive) .

Types of radioactive decay

Splitting of matter, 238 U

Nuclear fission reaction of the nucleus of Uranus 238 U can also be attributed to nuclear fusion reactions, with the difference that lighter nuclei are synthesized with one or another fission of the heavy nucleus 238 U. In this case, energy is released which is used in nuclear energy. But I will not talk here about a chain reaction, a nuclear reactor ...

The foregoing is already enough to classify the nuclear fission reaction as a nuclear fusion reaction.

Substance transmutations

The word transmutation, so disliked by official science, perhaps because it was actively used by alchemists in the old days (when there were no scientific titles yet), still most fully reflects the process of transformation of matter.

Transmutation (from lat. trans - through, through, behind; lat. mutatio - change, change)

The transformation of one object into another. The term has several meanings, but we will omit the meanings that are not relevant to our topic:

• Transmutation in physics- the transformation of atoms of some chemical elements into others as a result of the radioactive decay of their nuclei or nuclear reactions; the term is rarely used in physics today.

And perhaps the word "transformation" seems to them akin to the word "magic", but after all, there is a natural "transformation" of isotopes of some chemical elements into other chemical elements that is understandable to everyone.

Among the heavy natural radioactive elements, 3 families are known 238 92 U, 235 92 U, 232 90 U after a series of successive α and β decays turn into stable 206 82 Pb, 207 82 Pb, 208 82 Pb.

And a number of others [L. 5]:

And the word transformation is very useful here.

Of course, to whom this is closer, they can rightfully use the term synthesis.

Here it is impossible not to mention the work on industrial wastewater treatment carried out by Vachaev A.V. [L.7], which led to the discovery of completely new effects of nuclear fusion, the experiment of Urutskoev L.I. [L.6], which confirmed the possibility of nuclear transformation (transmutation ) and studies conducted by Pankov V.A., Kuzmin B.P. [L.10], which fully confirmed the results of Vachaev A.L. on the transformation of matter in an electric discharge. But in detail you can see their work on the links.

Experimenters are discussing the possibility of converting substances in plants.

The term "transmutation" can also denote the synthesis of superheavy elements.

Synthesis of superheavy elements is also nuclear fusion

First Transuranic elements (TE) were synthesized in the early 1940s. 20th century in Berkeley (USA) by a group of scientists led by E. Macmillan and G. Seaborg, who were awarded the Nobel Prize for the discovery and study of these elements. There are several ways to synthesize TE. They come down to irradiating the target with neutron or charged particle fluxes. If U is used as a target, then with the help of powerful neutron fluxes generated in nuclear reactors or during the explosion of nuclear devices, it is possible to obtain all TE up to Fm (Z = 100) inclusive. The synthesis process consists either in the successive capture of neutrons, with each act of capture being accompanied by an increase in the mass number A, leading to β-decay and an increase in the nuclear charge Z, or in the instantaneous capture of a large number of neutrons (an explosion) with a long chain of β-decays. The possibilities of this method are limited, it does not allow obtaining nuclei with Z > 100. The reasons are the insufficient density of neutron fluxes, the low probability of capturing a large number of neutrons, and (most importantly) the very rapid radioactive decay of nuclei with Z > 100.

For the synthesis of distant TE two types of nuclear reactions are used - fusion and fission. In the first case, the target nuclei and the accelerated ion completely merge, and the excess energy of the resulting excited compound nucleus is removed by "evaporation" (release) of neutrons. When using C, O, Ne ions and targets from Pu, Cm, Cf, a strongly excited compound nucleus is formed (excitation energy ~ 40-60 MeV). Each evaporated neutron is capable of carrying away from the nucleus an energy of the order of 10-12 MeV on average, therefore, up to 5 neutrons must be emitted to “cool down” the compound nucleus. The process of fission of an excited nucleus competes with the evaporation of neutrons. For elements with Z = 104-105 the probability of evaporation of one neutron is 500-100 times less than the probability of fission. This explains the low yield of new elements: the fraction of nuclei that "survive" as a result of the removal of excitation is only 10-8-10-10 of the total number of target nuclei that have merged with particles. This is the reason why only 5 new elements (Z = 102-106) have been synthesized over the past 20 years.

A new method for the synthesis of fuel cells based on nuclear fusion reactions has been developed at JINR, where densely packed stable nuclei of Pb isotopes are used as targets, and relatively heavy Ar, Ti, and Cr ions are used as bombarding particles. Excess ion energy is spent on "unpacking" the compound nucleus, and the excitation energy turns out to be low (only 10-15 MeV). To remove the excitation of such a nuclear system, the evaporation of 1-2 neutrons is sufficient. As a result, a very noticeable gain in the output of new fuel cells is obtained. This method was used to synthesize fuel cells with Z = 100, Z = 104, and Z = 106.

In 1965, Flerov proposed to use induced nuclear fission under the action of heavy ions for the synthesis of fuel cells. Fragments of nuclear fission under the action of heavy ions have a symmetrical mass and charge distribution with a large dispersion (consequently, elements with Z significantly greater than half the sum of Z of the target and Z of the bombarding ion can be found in fission products). It was experimentally established that the distribution of fission fragments becomes wider as ever heavier particles are used. The use of accelerated Xe or U ions would make it possible to obtain new fuel cells as heavy fission fragments by irradiating uranium targets. In 1971, Xe ions were accelerated at JINR using two cyclotrons, which irradiated a uranium target. The results showed that the new method is suitable for the synthesis of heavy fuel cells.

For the synthesis of fuel cells, attempts are being made to use the reaction (fusion) of titanium-50 and californium-249 nuclei. According to calculations, the probability of the formation of nuclei of the 120th element is somewhat higher there.

Steady states of nuclei

The very existence of short-lived and long-lived isotopes, stable nuclei and modern knowledge of their structure speak of certain dependencies and combinations of the number of nucleons in the nucleus, which give them the ability to exist in the above periods.

This is also confirmed by the absence of other chemical elements.

Logic suggests the existence of laws that determine a certain nucleon composition of the nucleus (like its electron shells).

Or in other words, the formation of the nucleus occurs according to certain quantized dependencies, which are similar to electron shells. There simply cannot be other stable (long-lived) nuclei (atoms) of chemical elements.

At the same time, this does not negate the possibility of the existence of other combinations of nucleons and their number in the nucleus. But the lifetime of such a nucleus is essentially limited.

As for unstable (short-lived) nuclei (atoms), there may, under certain conditions, exist nuclei with other combinations of nucleons and their number in the nucleus, compared with stable nuclei and in many combinations of them.

Observations show that with an increase in the number of nucleons (protons or neutrons) in the nucleus, there are certain numbers at which the binding energy of the next nucleon in the nucleus is much less than the last one. Atomic nuclei containing magic numbers are especially stable. 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82, 114, 126 , 164 for protons and 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82 , 126 , 184, 196, 228, 272, 318 for neutrons. (The doubly magic numbers are highlighted in bold, that is, magic numbers for both protons and neutrons)

Magic cores are the most stable. This is explained within the framework of the shell model: the fact is that the proton and neutron shells in such nuclei are filled - just like the electron shells of noble gas atoms.

According to this model, each nucleon is in the nucleus in a certain individual quantum state, characterized by energy, angular momentum (its absolute value j, as well as the projection m onto one of the coordinate axes) and orbital angular momentum l.

The shell model of the nucleus is in fact a semi-empirical scheme that makes it possible to understand some patterns in the structure of nuclei, but is not able to consistently quantitatively describe the properties of the nucleus. In particular, in view of these difficulties, it is not easy to theoretically determine the order in which the shells are filled, and, consequently, the "magic numbers" that would serve as analogues of the periods of the periodic table for atoms. The order in which the shells are filled depends, firstly, on the nature of the force field, which determines the individual states of the quasiparticles, and, secondly, on the mixing of configurations. The latter is usually taken into account only for unfilled shells. Experimentally observed magic numbers common to neutrons and protons (2, 8, 20, 28, 40, 50, 82, 126) correspond to the quantum states of quasiparticles moving in a rectangular or oscillatory potential well with spin-orbit interaction (it is due to it that numbers 28, 40, 82, 126)

Physics of the microworld and nanoseconds

The laws of physics are the same everywhere and do not depend on the size of the systems where they operate. And you can not talk about anomalous phenomena. Any anomaly speaks of our misunderstanding of the ongoing processes and the essence of phenomena. Only in each case they can manifest themselves in different ways, since each situation imposes its own boundary conditions.

For example:

• On the scale of space, there is a chaotic movement of matter.
• On a galactic scale, we have an ordered movement of matter.
• When the volumes under consideration decrease to the size of the planets, the motion of matter is also ordered, but its character changes.
• When considering the volumes of gases and liquids containing groups of atoms or molecules, the motion of matter becomes chaotic (Brownian motion).
• In volumes commensurate with the size of an atom or less, the substance again acquires an organized movement.

Therefore, given the boundary conditions, one can stumble upon phenomena and processes that are completely unusual for our perception.

As one of the old philosophers said: "Infinitely small can be infinitely large." To paraphrase, one can also say about matter, “Infinitely large are hidden in the infinitely small ...” Instead of ellipsis, put: pressure, temperature, electric or magnetic field strength.

And this is confirmed by the available data on the magnitude of the energy of molecular bonds, Coulomb, intranuclear forces (the binding energy of nucleons in the nucleus).

Therefore, ultra-high pressures, super-high electric and magnetic field strengths, and super-high temperatures are possible in the microcosm. What is good about using the possibilities of micro volumes (of the world) is that in order to obtain these super values, most often, huge energy costs are not needed.

Some examples showing signs of nuclear fusion:

1. 1. In 1922, Wendt and Airion studied the electric explosion of a thin tungsten wire in a vacuum. The main result of this experiment is the appearance of a macroscopic amount of helium - the experimenters received about one cubic centimeter of gas (under normal conditions) per shot, which gave them reason to assume that the tungsten nucleus fission reaction was taking place.

1. In the Arata experiment of 2008, as in the Fleischner-Pons experiment in 1989, the crystal lattice of palladium is saturated with deuterium. The result is an anomalous release of heat, which Arata continued for 50 hours after the deuterium supply was stopped. The fact that this is a nuclear reaction confirms the presence of helium in the reaction products, which was not there before.
2. Reactor M.I. Solina (Yekaterinburg) is a conventional vacuum melting furnace, where zirconium was melted by an electron beam with an accelerating voltage of 30 kV [Solin 2001]. At a certain mass of liquid metal, reactions began, which were accompanied by anomalous electromagnetic effects, the release of energy exceeding the input, and after analyzing samples of the newly solidified metal, "alien" chemical elements and strange structural formations were found there.
3. In the late 90s, L.I. Urutskoev (RECOM company, a subsidiary of the Kurchatov Institute) obtained unusual results of the electric explosion of titanium foil in water. Here the discovery was made according to the classical scheme - implausible results of ordinary experiments were obtained (the energy output of the electric explosion was too large), and the team of researchers decided to figure out what was the matter. What they found surprised them greatly.
4. N.G. Ivoilov (Kazan University), together with L.I.Urutskoev, studied the Mössbauer spectra of iron foil exposed to "strange radiation".
5. In Kyiv, in the private physical laboratory "Proton-21" (http://proton-21.com.ua/) under the direction of S.V. Adamenko, experimental evidence was obtained for the nuclear degeneration of metal under the influence of coherent electron beams. Since 2000, thousands of experiments ("shots") have been carried out on cylindrical targets of small (on the order of a millimeter) diameter, in each of which an explosion occurs. the inside of the target, and the explosion products contain almost the entire stable part of the periodic table, and in macroscopic quantities, as well as superheavy stable elements observed in the history of science for the first time.
6. cold nuclear fusion, Koldamasov A.I., 2005, When evaluating the emission properties of some dielectric materials on a hydrodynamic installation for cavitation tests (see a / sv 2 334405), it was found that when a pulsating dielectric liquid flows out with a pulsation frequency of about 1 kHz, through a round hole, a electric charge high density with a potential relative to earth of more than 1 million volts. If a mixture of light and heavy water without impurities with a specific resistance of at least 10 31 Ohm * m is used as a working fluid, a nuclear reaction can be observed in the field of this charge, the parameters of which are easily controlled. At a weight ratio of light and heavy water of 100:1, the following was observed: a neutron flux from 40 to 50 neutrons per second through a cross section of 1 cm 2, a power of 3 MEV, X-ray radiation from 0.9 to 1 μR / s at a radiation energy of 0.3-0 , 4 MEV, helium was formed, heat release. Based on the totality of the observed phenomena, it can be concluded that nuclear reactions are taking place. In this particular case, the diameter of the hole in the throttle device was 1.2 mm, the channel length was 25 mm, the difference in the throttle device was 40-50 MPa, and the fluid flow through throttle device 180-200 g/sec. For a unit of consumed power, 20 useful units were allocated / in the form of radiation and heat release. In my opinion, the reaction of nuclear fusion occurs like this: The flow of liquid moves through the channel. When deuterium atoms approach a charge, under its influence they lose electrons from their orbits. Positively charged deuterium nuclei, under the influence of the field of this charge, are repelled to the center of the hole and held by the field of the ring positive charge. The concentration of nuclei becomes sufficient for their collisions to occur, and the energy momentum received from the positive charge is so large that the Coulomb barrier is overcome. The nuclei approach each other, interact, and nuclear reactions take place.
7. In the laboratory "Energy and Technology of Structural Transitions" Ph.D. A. V. Vachaev under the guidance of Doctor of Technical Sciences. Since 1994, N.I. Ivanova has been researching the possibility of disinfecting industrial wastewater by exposing them to intense plasma formation. He worked with matter in different states of aggregation. Complete disinfection of effluents was revealed and side effects were found. The most successful power plant gave a stable plasma torch - a plasmoid, when distilled water was passed through it in large quantities, a suspension of metal powders was formed, the origin of which could not be explained otherwise than by the process of cold nuclear transmutation. For a number of years, the new phenomenon was stably reproduced with various modifications of the installation, in different solutions, the process was demonstrated to authoritative commissions from Chelyabinsk and Moscow, and samples of the resulting precipitation were distributed.
8. Young physicist I.S. Filimonenko created a hydrolysis power plant designed to obtain energy from "warm" nuclear fusion reactions taking place at a temperature of only 1150 ° C. The fuel for the reactor was heavy water. The reactor was a metal tube 41 mm in diameter and 700 mm long, made of an alloy containing several grams of palladium.

   This setup was born in research result held in the 50s in the USSR as part of the state program of scientific and technological progress. In 1989, it was decided to recreate 3 thermionic hydrolysis power plants with a capacity of 12.5 kW each in the NPO Luch near Moscow. This decision was instantly implemented under the leadership of I.S. Filimonenko. All three installations were prepared for commissioning in 1990. At the same time, for every kilowatt generated by thermal fusion power plants, there was only 0.7 grams of palladium, on which, as it turned out later, the world did not converge like a wedge.

9. The effect of an anomalous increase in the neutron yield has been repeatedly observed in experiments on splitting deuterium ice. In 1986 Academician B.V. Deryagin and his collaborators published an article in which the results of a series of experiments on the destruction of targets made of heavy ice with a metal striker. In this work, it was reported that when shooting at a target made of heavy ice D 2 O at an initial striker velocity of 100, 200 - m/s, 0.4, 0.08 - neutron counts were recorded, respectively. When shooting at a target made of ordinary H 2 O ice, only 0.15 0.06 neutron counts were recorded. These values ​​were given taking into account the corrections associated with the presence of a background neutron flux.
10. An agitated explosion of interest in the problem under discussion arose only after M. Fleishman and S. Pons reported at a press conference on March 23, 1989 that they had discovered a new phenomenon in science, now known as cold nuclear fusion (or fusion at room temperature). They electrolytically saturated palladium with deuterium (simply, they reproduced the results of a series of works by I.S. Filimonenko, to which S. Pons had access) - they carried out electrolysis in heavy water with a palladium cathode. In this case, the release of excess heat, the birth of neutrons, and the formation of tritium were observed. In the same year, there was a report on similar results obtained in the work of S. Jones, E. Palmer, J. Cirr and others.
11. Experiments by I.B. Savvatimova
12. Experiments by Yoshiaki Arata. Before the eyes of the astonished audience, the release of energy and the formation of helium were demonstrated, which were not provided for by the known laws of physics. In the Arata-Zhang experiment, a powder ground to a size of 50 angstroms was placed in a special cell, consisting of palladium nanoclusters dispersed inside a ZrO 2 matrix. The starting material was obtained by annealing an amorphous palladium-zirconium alloy Zr 65 Pd 35 . After that, in the cell under high pressure gaseous deuterium was injected.

Conclusion

In conclusion, we can say:

The larger the volume of the region where nuclear fusion takes place (with the same density of the initial substance), the greater the energy consumption for its initiation and, accordingly, the greater the energy yield. Not to mention financial costs, which are also proportional to the size of the workspace.

This is typical for "Hot" fusion. The developers plan to use it to generate hundreds of megawatts of power.

At the same time, there is a low-cost (in all the directions listed above) path. His name is LERN.

He uses the possibilities of achieving the conditions necessary for nuclear fusion in microvolumes and obtaining small, but sufficient to meet many needs, capacities (up to a megawatt). In some cases, direct conversion of energy into electrical energy is possible. True, recently, such capacities are often simply not of interest to power engineers, whose cooling towers send much larger capacities into the atmosphere.

So far unresolved problem"hot" and some variants of "cold" nuclear fusion, the problem of removing decay products from the working area remains. Which is necessary because they reduce the concentration of the starting materials involved in nuclear fusion. This leads to violation of Lawson's criterion in "hot" nuclear fusion and "extinguishment" of the fusion reaction. In "cold" nuclear fusion, in the case of circulation of the initial substance, this does not occur.

Literature:

No. pp	Article Data	Link
1	tokamak,	http://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tokamak
2	I-07.pdf *
6	EXPERIMENTAL DETECTION OF "STRANGE" RADIATION AND TRANSFORMATION OF CHEMICAL ELEMENTS, L.I. Urutskoev*, V.I. Liksonov*, V.G. Tsinoev** "RECOM" RRC "Kurchatov Institute", March 28, 2000	http://jre.cplire.ru/jre/mar00/4/text.html
7	Transmutation of matter according to Vachaev - Grinev	http://rulev-igor.narod.ru/theme_171.html
8	ABOUT MANIFESTATIONS OF THE REACTION OF COLD NUCLEAR FUSION IN VARIOUS ENVIRONMENTS. Mikhail Karpov	http://www.sciteclibrary.ru/rus/catalog/pages/8767.html
9	Nuclear Physics Online, Magic Numbers, Chapter from "Exotic Nuclei" B.S. Ishkhanov, E.I. Cabin	http://nuclphys.sinp.msu.ru/exotic/e08.html
10	Demonstration method for the synthesis of elements from water in the plasma of an electric discharge, Pankov V.A., Ph.D.; Kuzmin B.P., Ph.D. Institute of Metallurgy, Ural Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences	http://model.susu.ru/transmutation/20090203.htm
11	Method A.V. Vachaeva - N.I. Ivanova	http://model.susu.ru/transmutation/0004.htm
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