"The woman is created for a man, not a man for a woman" - such a postulate ...
Insects are very prolific. The offspring of one peripating female of the room flies can reach 5 trillion to the end of summer. Khmel TLL gives 13 generations during the summer, on a hundred tool in each: the amount of threes of the 13th generation is expressed by the number of 100 12. True, these calculations are made on paper. In life, most of the offspring dies from a wide variety of reasons, and the grandchildren of one female are very rarely calculated by tens of thousands. And yet insects at favorable conditions multiply with amazing speed.
Insects are very voracious. The larva of the beetle of the leaf is the first day of life eats food in two and a half times more than weighs itself. The predatory beetles of the meadows at once eaten the amount of food, equal to 3/4 weight of their body. A large null beetle of the scarab forests from the manure of the ball and takes it in one reception, and this ball is several times more than the beetle itself.
By virtue of its numerous, voraciousness and emergency diversity, insects play a huge role in the life of nature: they form the main mass of the animal population of any corner of sushi, little suitable for life.
Many insects live and develops at the expense of fell, litter, dead plants, all sorts of decaying remnants of animal and plant origin. At first glance, the activities of all these "Sanitars" are not very noticeable, but enough to look closely to what is happening in the forest or in the meadow, and then it is not difficult to understand how the importance of all these "navigators", "Padalaniki" and consumers of increments.
A variety of insects populate the soil, peeling and breaking it with their moves. In the soil-forming processes, the value of ants (in warm countries and termites) is especially great. The number of anthills on 1 km 2.often reaches 20 or more than thousands. Huge amounts of soil are "processed" ants and other land, and not only mechanically (breaking, stirring of layers): the soil is enriched with organic substances.
There is not a single type of land plants, due to which certain types of vegetative insects would live: any part of the living and dead plant serves as food. Insects play a huge role in pollination of flowering plants. Approximately 80% of plant species are pollinated at one or another promotion of insects. A variety of mutually executables led to the fact that many plants can be polled only with insects, and a number of insects can only live in the presence of certain types of plants, to power on the flowers of which they adapted.
At the Soviet Union there are about aven a half thousand species of insects that can damage cultural plants, stocks, goods. Of these, 700 species dangerous pests.
Any harmful vegetative insect has its own history, the beginning of which is always equally. Any pest lived once on wild plants, and with them crossed cultural plants.
In the steppe strip of the USSR, bread beetles are widespread (Kuzka, Krasul, Crusader, etc.), hazardous pests of grain crops. Before the steak of steppes, these beetles were fed on drinking and other wild cereals. When the steppe unpacks, the beetles began to eat with grains of wheat and other breads. The abundance of the feed affected: the beetles began to multiply hard. In the second half of the XIX century. Bread beetles were made by the most dangerous enemy of South Russian agriculture.
Sunflower is a stranger. Total about a hundred years ago, he became an important technical culture. He did not have the first enemies: our insects have not yet become familiar with the "foreigner". But soon the baskets and seeds began to inflict serious damage to the caterpillar of a small butterfly, and the stalks began to suffer from the larvae of the beetle of Usachi and the beetle of the hiponoscience. So there were dangerous enemies of sunflower - sunflower mole, sunflower Usach, sunflower pose living in nature due to wild-colored.
Insects, going to cultivated plants, live mostly at their expense. Others feed on both cultural, and wild, and often wild plants come into the circle of life such insects as a mandatory component. So, the cabbage wave lives and multiplies in the spring predominantly on wild cruciferous, and later passes with them to the gardens. In the second half of the summer, the winter scoop lays eggs to various weeds, and only later her caterpillars are overlooked to winter bread. Beetle Beetchlock Spring from spring breeding on the swan and Marie, and then often moved to the beet. Each pest of cultivated plants there is some soul plant among wild.
Independents become not only local insects, but also foreign, and often they are more dangerous. Steamers, railways, airplanes are transport not only to a person, they are also transported from country to country and insects: with grain, products, goods. From America to Europe, such dangerous pests are delivered to Europe, like grape phylloxer, blood floss, potato colorad beetle, bevel grain. In turn, fruzenis penetrated from Europe to America, a zlatuge, an unpacking cocoon flocker, Hessian Mushkushka, corn moths and another 70 other pests. Like all over the world, along with the grain, the little blind-free bunch of barn slightlers and a number of other pests of grain, products, products were removed. The pest pests are especially dangerous because they have no natural enemies in a new place that prevent them from rapid reproduction and resettlement.
Losses applied by harmful insects are huge. It is impossible to accurately calculate them, but even approximate calculations are quite convincing. For example, in 1910, when in Russia, the struggle against pests was well organized, insects destroyed about 2 million. t.beetings, about 300 thousand were lost. t.sahara. Bread beetles for the time from 1870 to 1880 caused losses in southern Russia about 100 million angry. rub., And in 1912 - by 60 million rubles. In 1907, walking, in 1907, in 15 provinces destroyed winter wits at least 75 million. rub. It is believed that in pre-revolutionary Russia, field breeding, gardening and gardening suffered from harmful insects loss of approximately 1 billion angry. rub. (Almost half of the state budget), the losses from insect pests in all sectors of the economy reached 172 billion. rub. In the interval between 1910 and 1917. Russia has lost annually from rodents, insects and plant diseases by 4 million. t.crop crops.
Fighting pests.With insects, damaging fields, gardens and gardens, grabbing warehouses and barns, with distributors and transmitters of diseases, a fierce struggle is underway with the forest pests. Achieve the highest yields is not only good to treat the soil, sow the best seeds, remove the harvest without loss, but also keep it from pests. It is believed that in the Tsarist Russia, robbery lost from pests at least 10% of the harvest, a garden of 20%, and horticulture is 40%.
In the Soviet country to combat pests, great attention is paid. Every year, the crop protection is becoming more successful and more successful. If in 1910-1917 Pests destroyed 2 million. t.the beets, then in 1930 it was lost only about 1 million g; In 1933, this figure decreased to 500 thousand. t,and now she is even less.
Directives of the XIX Congress of the Party on the fifth five-year plan of development of the USSR in 1951-1955 and the resolution of the Plenum of the CPSU Central Committee "On Measures of Further Development of Agriculture in the USSR", adopted on September 7, 1953, demand, along with other events, and the protection of the crop from pests .
To destroy pests, various ways of struggle are used: mechanical, chemical, biological, etc. There are no less warning measures, they are in the near future and should be the main measures to protect our fields, gardens, gardens, forests, warehouses, animal husbandry and Man himself from animal pests.
Agrotechnical measures of struggle.The pests multiply in a set only in the presence of favorable conditions. It is important to deprive them of these conditions. To create and always maintain such an environment at which the possibility of mass reproduction itself is excluded, it means that the population is reduced to such a small size that its activities will lose economic importance.
The structure and composition of the soil, its humidity, temperature and other conditions necessary for the development of the cultural plant are closely associated with agrotechnology. The use of proper agricultural engineering allows to strengthen the growth of the plant, change the timing of its maturation, increase resistance to diseases. Proper soil processing, clean couples, applying fertilizers, cleaning and sorting seeds - all these measures are necessary for growing strong and healthy plants, less suffering from pests and giving a greater harvest. The abundance of weak plants creates especially favorable conditions for mass reproduction of many insects. This is especially noticeable on the example of the pests of the forest.
The correct crop rotation not only preserves and improves the quality of the soil, promotes the growth and development of plants. It prevents the reproduction of pests living at the expense of one or few close related plant species. When the field from year to year falls on the same culture, then for pests there is a constant abundance of food. Crop changes deprives them of the feed plant, and they turn out to be in adverse conditions.
Each type of insect has their own deadlines, its time of laying eggs. More adult plants carry damage easier than young. Using early sowing, it is possible to have a depth of pest to have already strengthened plants: they will suffer less. In other cases, to get rid of the pest allows Later Sitting: By the time of his light, the plants still do not go.
Many pests are closely connected from all kinds of residues from harvesting: they are in them or they winter. Attachment and deep chilly plowing not only improve the quality of the soil, but also destroy many weeds and pests wintering in the soil, in Stern.
Any pest of cultivated plants lives and at the expense of wild plants. Often he holds a part of his life on weeds that may even be one of the mandatory conditions for its existence. The fact that the field or the garden is clogged, the more they suffer from pests. The destruction of weeds is not only on the field or garden, but in the neighborhood with them deprives pests of natural forage plants, it makes it difficult to reproduce. The winter scoop is most often multiplied by clogged steam fields. Clean couples or oatmeal-busy couples create unfavorable conditions for the reproduction of this harmful butterfly: it does not populate thick herbs, and there are no feed plants on her young caterpillars.
Selection and elimination of such varieties that are less suffering or damaged is the best reception in pest protection. Sunflower strongly suffered from sunflower moths. The removal of so-called armored varieties sharply reduced the harmfulness of this butterfly: the seed of such a sunflower is protected from moth-caterpillars damage.
Mechanical methods of struggle. The most simple measures to exterminate pests are mechanical measures of struggle. These include, for example, the crushing of cabbage eggs, the destruction of the masonry of the eggs of ringed and unpaired cocoon rugs, the destruction of winter bears and the grooms (p. 47, fig. 20; p. 50, fig. 22), shaking from the trees of apple trees and May beetles , catching insects on bait, catching with light and all sorts of other traps. Cold rings on trees is also one of the methods of mechanical struggle (p. 55, Fig. 25). With the help of the catches, the grooves are caught a beet weevil crawling on the ground of the caterpillars of some butterflies. Such grooves are in charge of either those areas from which the pest is spread, or those that want to protect from it. Once in the groove of the caterpillar or the flashing beetle, it cannot get out of it, and here they are destroyed. In the fight against the dangerous enemy of beets - beet weevil - grooves serve as one of the main means of struggle. So, in 1938 it was collected in the grooves of more than 6000 t.zhukov. With the help of portable shields, they are sent and driven by the coolers of the saurance (larvae). Burning stump, burning post-harvest residues, destroy pests hiding in them.
Many of the methods of mechanical struggle are very laborious. The use of them on large areas is not always possible, and it costs expensive. Therefore, they are often resorted to small areas. In the household garden, on the household garden, many of the mechanical struggle measures are fully applicable.
Chemical methods of struggle.Chemical struggle measures are to destroy pests with various poisonous substances. Depending on the type of insect, a particular substance is used. Intestinal poisons (arsenic drugs, fluorine compounds, etc.) are used against rodent insects. Against insects of sucking (Tli, Chervers and Shields, bugs) use poisons of external action (soap, various mineral oils, nicotine, etc.) "Since the intestinal poison applied to the surface of the plant is little dangerous for the insect, only puncturing the peel of the plant. Poons of outdoor use can be used against rodent insects.
Insects of both categories kill such drugs such as DDT and hexahlorcyclohexane (GHCG, Hexakhloraran). These drugs act on the central nervous system. There is enough insect to spit on the sheet, grantned by DDT or GHCG powder, as paralysis will soon come: legs take away. After some time, the insect dies. Both pois are used or in the form of a dryer (in a mixture with talc powder, some clay), or in the form of emulsions containing one or another percentage of poison. And DDT and GHCG began to apply recently. Every year they are wider and widerly entered into the practice of combating the most diverse insects, ranging from agricultural and forest pests and ending with malarious mosquitoes and clouds.
For spraying plants to poisonous solutions or to pollinating their poisonous powders, special devices are used - sprayers and freings. They are both small, manual, and large, to the motor inclusive.
AviImimical method of struggle.It was in the USSR that the first experiments were carried out on the use of aircraft in the fight against pests. Every year, the air gauge method of struggle is used wider and wider. The airplanes allow - by pollinating or spraying from the air - to fight pests on the squares, lowered or completely inaccessible for other ways of struggle, for example, in smoothies in forest arrays. With the help of aircraft, you can process huge areas in a short time.
The Aviihimical Method is the main way to deal with locust: when it is destroyed by pests, it is destroyed in places of continuous reproduction - in smoothies. Airplanes are used to combat the malaria mosquitoes on large swampy areas, use for extermination of garden and field pests, they are widely used to protect forests (guard fire service, pest exploration) and to combat some forest pests. The consolidation of collective farms opens up broad prospects for the versatile use of aircraft in the struggle for the harvest.
Biological method of struggle.The use of their natural enemies in the fight against pests is the so-called biological method of struggle. Birds, toads, frogs, lizards, moles, hedgehogs, earthling, bats exterminate many insects. All these animals are our allies in the fight against harmful insects. It is necessary to protect them, and if possible, and attract to the fields, in the gardens, to the gardens.
Many natural enemies in insects and among the insects themselves.
The predatory and voracious beetles of ladybugs and their larvae destroy many tool. Some of the cows are already used to combat the troubles and their births - custodians and shields. On the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus, the Rodolia cow is used to fight the dangerous enemy of citrus - Chervetz Iceria; One of the local species of cows in the same place began to apply to combat the pest of a tea bush - a pillow.
At the expense of eggs, larvae and dolls of insects develop numerous types of riders, eggs, tleedov, fly tahine. Modifying in the laboratories of some of the eggs, they are used to combat pests. So, the trichogram (p. 60, fig. 28) in places half and even more reduces the worms of apples, destroying the eggs of apple-tree frozing; This insect is used to combat other harmful butterflies. In 1939-1941 Teleenomus eggs multiplied millions to combat bug a harmful turtle. With the help of Tleed Aflims, we destroyed the enemy of apple trees in many places in many places - blood stream.
Many small caterpillars and other insects destroy the ants, small insects catch a dragonfly on the fly. Large beautiful bugger beauties destroy the caterpillars of the unpaired silkworm. All predatory insects are somehow useful, and some of them are used to combat pests.
The chicken for the day eats up to 1500 bugs of the turtles, over a thousand and more beetral weevils. The use of poultry to destroy pests is also one of the ways of biological struggle.
Participation of the school in the fight against pests. School can have a great help of collective farms and state farms in such a stately important business as crop protection. The destruction of eggs of collided and unpaired cocoons, collecting winter grooms and golden groceries, the destruction of eggs and caterpillars - all these works are quite accessible to students. In many schools, campaigns are arranged to combat the pests of the garden, during which tens of thousands of masonry of eggs of butterflies and winter nests are destroyed. Especially greater assistance to the school can be in the struggle against pests on household gardens and gardens: here it is often a struggle is not well stubbornly, and such gardens and vegetable gardens are seedlings of pests for large collective farm and state-owned gardens and vegetable plantations. A prominent role may have to play the school and in the protection of pests of the struggle forests. Waters of pests are weeds. In the fight against them, the School may provide great help, especially in the preservation areas. At the same time, it is impossible to forget that weed is dangerous not only on the garden bed: it is dangerous everywhere. This is not always remembered and, diligently smelting the beds, leave weeds immediately, at the fence, keeping their natural shelters for pests.
The use of natural pest enemies includes and guarding them. The school should help in every possible way to protect such useful insects as ants, like pollinators of plants - bumblebees. Protection of bird nests, the attraction of birds has long come to the life of the school. It is necessary to take care of and guarding beneficial birds, bats, gowns, frogs and other insect fighters.
With various insects, every person met in their lives. Possessing a huge species diversity, these representatives of the animal world have mastered all habitats and natural shells. From our article you will learn what the role of insects in nature. Everyone must know this, since some of them are harmful, and others are tangible.
Briefly about the role of insects in nature
These residents of our planet belong to the grade of arthropods. For this period, scientists described more than 1, 5 million of their species (according to other data over 2 million). This means that every resident of our planet accounts for 250 million individuals. Insect systematics are quite complex. It can be said that classes in morphological features are divided into squads, in each of which there are dozens and hundreds of species. Almost every detachment has useful and harmful insects. Moreover, the same kind can be harmful and benefit. Consider this in more detail.
What role in nature is played by insect beetles
The most numerous in nature is a detachment tough. Their second name beetles. They are characterized by the mouth of the rodent type. Therefore, Zhumaks "on the teeth" even the hardest food.
What role do insects play in the nature of this detachment? Some, for example, ladybugs, destroy TRU - malicious pests of agricultural plants. Beetles - Krasotela feed on caterpillars who eat the leaves of fruit shrubs and trees.
These insects take part in the soil formation processes. How is it possible? The beauties bury into the manure corpses of small animals and put eggs on them. The larvae, which come out of them, very quickly turn organic remains in humus.
But among the harsh, there is a large number of pests. Gardening is well known to the Colorado Beetle, mercilessly destroying potato shoots. Coroes do moves in wood and make it unsuitable for use. Beetles - grains spoil the seeds of leguminous plants, Kuzka - grain, weevil - root of sugar beet. The leather can spoil the fur products. And the May beetles with their larvae do not gent the crown of trees, nor their roots.
Bee.
The role of insects in nature and human life can be clearly considered on the example of public insects. They relate to the detachment of refamped. Honey bees occupy a special place among them. Under the action of special substances that are produced by specialized glands, they change the chemical composition of nectar. So it turns out honey. The healing properties of this product are known to everyone. Honey These insects are in store for winter in cells from wax.
The social character of their lives is a clear division of responsibilities among the members of the bee family. It consists of a single queen, several dozen drone and tens of thousands of workers. In nature, the role of insects in this family is clearly indicated. So, the queen, or the uterus produces offspring, drums are necessary for fertilization, and the workers are produced by sweet nectar.
Bumblebee
They are distant relatives of honey bees. Insects are played by their important role in the nature and human life of a person, as pollinators. They do it with a quality mark. It is noted that after pollination by bumblebees compared to bees, productivity increases twice. People learned how to use them in their economic activities. Bumblebee families pollinate many types of vegetable and decorative cultures in the greenhouses.
Most of the types of bumblebees are characterized by a specialization. It manifests itself in the fact that insects feed on the nectar only certain types of plants. The most popular are clover, Ivan - tea, Lupine. Such a feature and explains the improvement of the quality of the polling process, since the bumblebees produce their own techniques for collecting nectar, depending on the characteristics of the flower structure. Perhaps bees and bumblebees are the only insects that do not bring harm to man. Other representatives of the detachment of the repfilled, for example, wasps or hornets, only partly participate in pollination. Their main food is fruits, vegetables, other insects. So, the Horshi is pleased to eat bees, biting them off their heads. If you do not take on time, they can destroy a small apiary.
Ants
Each of us remembers the painful sensations that remain at the site of the bite of these insects. What role do ants play in nature? Most often positive. They even earned their activities to the honorary title of Forest Sanitary.
Ants are dangerous predators. Often they seek food in dead wood. At the same time, ants decompose it and free the forest from Tuchi. These insects eat the mass of pests. And they make it 20 times more efficient than birds. These insects are constantly working. Collecting various building material for its home, they spread seeds.
You never wondered why plants whose roots are formed under an anthill, grow very quickly. The fact is that for movement under the ground, these insects do moves. Thus, natural loosening and aeration of the soil is carried out, it is enriched with organic and mineral substances. If you find on your piece of black ants, you can be sure of its quality.
Singing birds especially love ants. They use these insects and as food, and as a means for cleansing feathers. In zoology, there is even such a concept - "ant souls".
The glands of these insects are distinguished by a healing substance. It is called formic acid. Ointments and tinctures based on it are recommended for the prevention of rheumatism, arthritis and neurosis. Formic acid is also in drugs with antibacterial and antifungal action.
However, there are more harm on the preservation areas of the ants than benefits. They are transferred to plant plants, as they feed on with sweet discharge. And the failure, in turn, feeds the juices of plants, as a result of which they die. If a person does not take action, these insects can destroy the entire harvest. In winter, ants hide aphids in their dwellings, and with the onset of heat they carry out to spread. When one dries out, they drag the feeder of the feeder to the next. These actions are similar to how people fasten the cows.
Another harm from the ants on the site is that they love to be touched not only by insects, but also fruit, (for example, apricots, peaches), break them down, climb in the middle and thus spoil the harvest.
Sarancha
What role in nature is the insects of this species? Everyone knows that most of them are a pest of agriculture. The locust is extremely voracious. These vegetable insects live on meadows and in the steppes. Another feature of the locust is the ability to mass reproduction. As a result, numerous flocks are formed. They fly to distant distances, sometimes overcoming up to several thousand kilometers. At the same time, they destroy all the vegetation that occurs on the way. Especially often it happens in arid periods.
Medveda
This insect, like a locust, is a rejuvenial squad. The benefit of nature from them is also there - the locust serves as a feed for birds, lizards, spiders.
Medveda is another insect that has been doing numerous moves in the soil and cohes the soil with oxygen. This determines the role of them in nature. With the stretch, we can say that thanks to the bear, the root plant of the plant develops more intense. However, harm to the person from them is much more significant, since these insects destroy everything in their path (roots, tubers, young sprouts).
Wrench
The role of this type of insects in nature is epidemiological. This is some of the few class representatives that are only harmful. Setting on the hairproof head, loss causes a strong itching. Combing skin covers, man damels them. This can lead to bacterial infection, the appearance of purulent formations. There are cases when Vershi was a carrier of return and rapid typhus.
Flea
Representatives of this detachment can be found in the body concrete and well-developed jumped limbs. These insect role in nature is determined by the characteristics of the structure of the oral apparatus. He is a piercing - sucking type. The fleas feed on the blood of mammals. Man is also no exception. Bloch larvae can be detected in the flooring or nonorah of various rodents. Here they feed on organic residues.
Of particular danger is the rat flea. This is the famous carrier of the pathogen of the plague. Basically, this insect is powered by the blood of rats, but can attack a person.
Pincers
The bite of the tick may result in infection by encephalitis, borreliosis, returnful typhoid, tularemia, spotted fever. All these diseases cause severe complications. Especially active ticks in the spring. Therefore, after walking in nature during this period, it is necessary to inspect the skin. When a tick is detected, it must be deleted. But it is necessary to do it with great care. If you just tear it off, the head will remain under the skin and the inflammatory process will begin. Doctors recommend to anoint the place of penetration of oil to limit oxygen access to insect. In this case, the tick himself will leave the bite. Such an insect must be left to the laboratory for necessary analyzes.
But for the nature of the ticks are a very useful look. They regulate the number of many insects, which are pests of forest and agriculture. Decorating organic residues, they are involved in the process of soil formation.
Butterfly
If there were beauty contest among insects, these representatives would not have competitors in it. We are talking about butterflies. What role in nature are insects of this detachment play? They belong to the detachment of scraper. Many butterflies are pollinators of plants, as they feed on nectar. The exception is moths, in the diet of which plant food is not included. The caterpillars of certain types of butterflies are fed only by weeds. The man learned to use it in his economic activity. For example, in Australia, the cactus mole is used to combat weed, which is called the empathy.
Butterflies decorate nature, make our world brighter. But at the stage of its metamorphosis, they are some time in the image of the caterpillars. Most of them are malicious pests. Wheat, linen, winter scoops, woods, cabbagers, hawars, a multicolor - all of them are not famous for each gardener.
Silkworm
The role in the nature of the insect, which is the most valuable butterfly, the person has already appreciated for a long time. The taled silkworm has long been a domesticated view. The first mentions of him are known in ancient China 5 thousand years ago. At this time, for the disclosure of the secrecy of natural silk manufacturing technology even threatened the death penalty.
Now the tute silkworm will not meet in the wild, and all the processes of its livelihoods occur under the closer control of the person. The caterpillars of this butterfly feed on a silky, but adult individuals do not need food at all. One larva is capable of forming a silk thread up to 2 km long.
Twit-made
These insects are known to everyone thanks to their buzz. The fact is that the mosquitoes and flies, the rear pair of wings turned into special mace-shaped formations. They are called the buzz.
Mosquitoes are known to each thanks to their bite, causing a heavy itch. Only females feed on blood, which such food is necessary for the formation of eggs. And there is a straight pattern. The more blood will drink a mosquito, the more eggs will postpone. It is worth remembering that mosquitoes can carry dangerous diseases: malaria, yellow fever. The benefits of mosquitoes are that their larvae serve as feed for fish and other animals.
The value of insects in nature and in human life.
1. Insects are pollinators of flowering plants. A particularly large role in this belongs to the refamming.
2. They play a major role in the process of soil formation. Ants, larvae of many insects loose soil, creating favorable conditions for ventilation and moisturizing, enrich it with humus, organic residues.
3. They play an important role in the biogenic cyphans of substances.
Many of the insects are part of the food chains of fish, amphibians, birds, mammals.
4. Products produced by insects are used in food (honey), or as technical raw materials (wax, silk, shellac).
Along with these, some negative consequences for the nature and person of insect activities should be noted.
1. Insects, feeding in vegetative organs of plants, can influence significant damage to natural biocenosis, agricultural land with intensive reproduction.
2. Insects can damage various structures. Some types of beetles, termites can destroy wooden buildings.
Insecomes and in the economic activity of a person have important importance: as pollinators, increase the yield of cultivated plants; It is important to use them for the purpose of biological methods of combating harmful insects, domesticated insects give valuable food and raw materials for industry.
Under the influence of human activity, the number of several types of insects has declined so much that they became rare, some were on the verge of extinction. Therefore, all these insects need protection. 202 types of insects have already been listed in the Red Book. The inclusion of a particular type in this book is a signal about the danger threatening, about the need to apply urgent measures to protect it. The study of insects is engaged in science entomology
CLASS CLAFE (CYCLOSTOMATA), features of the organization, systematics.
Kingdom of animals
Multicolot fabrication
Eumetazoo advanced
Subsection Secondary-drift
Group of reserves
Type chords
Skull subtype
Abandlantability
Class of circulation
Subclass I. Mingring (Petromyzones).
Subclass II. Mixins (Myxini).
Headproof Friendly Representative - Rank Midhoga (Lampetra Fluviatilis)
General characteristics. Primitive group of vertebrate animals, including fundamental Mint and MixNP. The body of the circular adepened, cylindrical. Leather naked, mucous. Paired limbs are absent. Mouth without jaws, it is located in the depths of the oral suction cup. Nostril unpaired. The chord is fully preserved throughout the life of the animal. On the sides of the spinal cord of meta and the pairs of small cartilaners are located in pairs of the upper vertebral arcs. The skull is composed of several cartilage.
Mikupy and most of the funds inhabitants of the seas, but part
medija come to the river for ikrometania, and some of them constantly live in fresh waters.
Structure.The body of the round-knob is elongated, cylindrical in the front and middle parts and flattened from the sides, in the rear without sharp boundaries divided into the head, the body is a tail. Paired fins are missing - they were not in the ancestors of the heads. The tail is cut off with a narrow tailflower. The Minoga Pa back has an unpacking spinal fin, separated by the withdrawal of the front and rear.
Circumphones are thin, with a large number of spine glands.
The skeleton is represented by well developed chord. On the sides of the spinal cord in the thickness of the connective tissue of the shell surrounding it and chord, there are two rows of small cartilagers, which are revealing vertebral arcs. The skull consists of several separate cartilage connected by a thin membrane. The base of the skull is the cartilaginous plate, on the sides of which there are auditory capsules, and in front - an olfactory capsule. The skeleton of the pharyngeal region has a kind of cartilage lattice. There are no gill arches and jaws.
Musculature is clearly divided by miosepts into a number of MIO. measure. Longitudinal Moisepta Pet.
The nervous system is very primitive. The brain is small. In the roof of the front brain, Pet of nervous cells. The cerebellum has a type of roller on the front wall of the oblong brain.
The senses are developed weakly. The eyes are small, and the mixin is strongly reduced. The olfactory cavity is unpaired, it opens out with one nostrils (but the olfactory nerves pair). The olfactory bag continues in the so-called pituitarian increase. Ear internal; The equilibrium body has only two semicircular channels. There are skin receptors for various purposes.
The digestive system begins by the nearby sucker seated with horny teeth. In the depths of it is located mouth, which leads to an extensive throat. The throat is divided by a horizontal partition on the respiratory tube and the esophagus lying over it, which goes into the intestine, cumming up an anal hole. The stomach is weakly expressed. There is a big liver, no gallbladder.
Breath authorities are gills. Their structure is different from the structure of the gills of fish. In the side walls of the respiratory tube of the pharynx there are paired gill holes, leading to gill bags, the walls of which are numerous thin petals. They have a network of blood vessels. Money has every gill bag opens a separate gill hole. Mixin has outdoor gill holes lead into a longitudinal canal, opening one pair on the sides of the body. The gills of the head of the chapter of the endoderma are developing, and not from Etoderma, like fish.
The circulatory circulation system is close to such a lancing. There is one circle circulation. The heart consists of atrium and ventricle. The spleen is absent.
The excretion authorities in adult funds are torso kidneys, and some mixes have headed kidneys all their lives.
Reproductive organs. Separate glands. Sex products are removed through the gap of the gonad walls into the body cavity, and from there - through the urinary sinus outward.
The development of the mixture is direct, and at the Medica - with the stadium of the larva.
Krug-knot class includes two detachments: Maineogi (Petromy-Zones), Mikeni (Myxinoidea).
Fish class (pisces), morphology, distribution, systematics.
Kingdom of animals
Multicolot fabrication
Eumetazoo advanced
Section bilatelinometric
Subsection Secondary-drift
Group of reserves
Type chords
Skull subtype
Outclass of jews
Class Chickening Fish, Bone Fish
1) The most ancient primary vertebrates. Live in almost all water reservoirs: in the oceans, seas, lakes, rivers. They can be found in the water bodies of the caves and in high mountain springs. Most fish are actively swimming in the water column and adapted to the aquatic environment. Purses of fish (sturgeon, keta and some types of herring) in different periods of life live in the seas, then in rivers. Fish of different habitats differ in shape, color and other signs.
2) The body is disseminated on the head, torso and tail. At the borders of these departments are gill wings and anal hole. Flexing torso and tail, fish moves forward.
3) Progressive fish movement is carried out by wave-like bends of the body or blows of a powerful fin. Paired fins (thoracic and abdominal) support the body of the fish in a natural position, serve as the rotation steering, and in some (skates) - organs of movement. Unpaired fins (one or more dorsal and milk or anal) give the body stability when driving.
4) In most body shape, the streamlined - this reduces friction when driving.
5) Usually the body is covered with scales. The front end of the body is immersed in the skin, and the rear items to the next scales (like a roof tile). Outside, scales are covered with mucus, which is released by the skin glands, which also helps to reduce friction. The skin develops protectivecies - scales of different build and form. The mucus protects the body from pathogens of bacterial and fungal diseases.
6) Wellness organs are well developed. With the help of the 1st pair of complex facetful eyes, fish are seen at close range (not more than 10-15 m). The bone retina contains and wands, and columns, so they have colored eyesight. With the help of the sense of smell (in nostrils), fish developed a large sensitivity to the surrounding. With the help of hearing (located in the skull) they are able to distinguish sounds. Sound alarm is of great importance in fish life. There are tactile and flavoring cells on the body, and some fish on the lips have a mustache - these are organs of touch. A sensitive side line stretches from the head to the tail fin. Thanks to her, fish perceive fluctuations in water, directed production of prey or predator and never come out for items.
7) The skeleton of fish is composed of a skull, spine, the skeleton of fins and their belts. The skeleton of the spine is divided into the torso and tail departments. The ribs are connected to the vertebrae of the body. Cross-striped muscles retains well-pronounced segmentation.
8) Respiratory organs - Zhabra - located on 4 gill arcs in the form of a number of bright red gill petals. Gas exchange takes place in the form of a number of bright red gill petals. Gas exchange takes place in numerous gill capillaries. Fish are capable of absorbing from 46 to 82% dissolved oxygen in water. Opposite the gill petals are whitish gill stamens. They are of great importance for nutrition of fish: some form a commodular apparatus, others contribute to holding mining in the oral cavity.
9) The digestive system begins the mouth, which leads to the oral cavity. On the jaws, the sky and other bones are numerous teeth. There is no language. The mouth of the cavity moves into the throat permeated with gills and leading in a short esophagus, followed by a large stomach. Due to the absence of salivary glands in the oral cavity, the digestion of food begins only in the stomach under the influence of the gastric juice (the enzyme of pepsin and hydrochloric acid). Partially digested food enters the small intestine, where the liver and pancreatic ducts fall. The complex of digestive enzymes of the pancreas, intestines along with bile effectively digest proteins, fats, carbohydrates in an alkaline medium. Updated food is absorbed by the intestinal walls, and unbearable residues are thrown through the anus outward. The intestinal length depends on the nature of the food: in the predatory species, it is shorter than that of plant.
10) Most fish have a swimming bubble - a thin-walled intestinal grow, filled with a mixture of gases and performing a hydrostatic function. The change in the volume of gases in the bubble leads to a change in the density of the fish, which facilitates its finding in a certain layer of water thickness. In some it is involved in gas exchange (as an additional respiratory body), performs the functions of an acoustic resonator when reproducing various sounds, etc.
11) The circulatory system is represented by a two-chamber heart and vessels. Between the atrium and the ventricle there is a valve that misses the blood in one direction. The vessels in which the blood moves to the heart is called veins, and from the heart - arteries. Blood, coming from organs to heart - venous - saturated CO2. Blood, coming from the spinal aorta - arterial - is saturated O2. In the heart of the blood venous. In fish it is reduced relatively rarely, providing weak blood flow. There is one circle circulation. (Blood vessels of the body - atrium - ventricles - Zhabra).
12) Fish isolation bodies are represented by 2-tanned trunk kidneys located on the sides of the spine. Their tube almost lost communication with the body cavity and decay products are filtered out directly from the blood. In freshwater fish, the main product of the protein exchange is ammonia, which is very poisonous. In the urine of sea fish, the urea content is increased - less toxic substance than ammonia. The urine formed in the kidneys on ureters is collected in the bladder or is displayed directly out.
13) The central nervous system of fish is represented by the head and spinal cord, peripheral - exhaust nerves. The brain consists of 5 departments: front brain with olfactory nerves derived from it; intermediate - from which the visual nerves go to the eyes; medium brain; cerebellum and an oblong brain, which gradually passes into the spinal cord. The middle brain analyzes visual perceptions, and the cerebellum regulates the coordination of movements and preservation of equilibrium.
14) Fish - cold-blooded animals, the temperature of their body is inconvenient and depends on the ambient temperature.
15) Most fish are separate animals and have paired sex glands. In females - paired ovaries in which eggs are developing - Ikrins, and in males - paired sementers that produce spermatozoa. Outdoor fertilization, sometimes domestic (sharks, skates - there is a godbirth), as well as aquarium fish (guppies, swords) are called the lively young. The development of caviar lasts from several hours, up to several months.
Many fish in front of spawning make migration, moving from the place where the conditions necessary for reproduction. The passing fish migrate from the seas in the river (salmon, sturgeon) or from rivers in the sea (river eel), multiply once in life. At the same time, the fish going to spawn cease to eat and after its completion dies. Snebering migrations facilitate the meeting of half-green individuals and create the most favorable conditions for the development of caviar and larvae. Spare fish is held at different times of the year: in the fall and in winter - in salmon; In the spring - at Sudak, pike, perch, sazana, bream; In the summer - in sturgeon and some carp. Most freshwater fish laying the caviar among aquatic plants in shallow water, sturgeon spawn on the rocky ground, salmon corner caviar to the soil (under pebbles or gravel). Fish fertility on average is much higher than the fecundity of ground vertebrates, it is due to the greater death of caviar and fry.
Amphibia class (Amphibia), characteristic, systematics.
Kingdom of animals
Multicolot fabrication
Eumetazoo advanced
Section bilatelinometric
Subsection Secondary-drift
Group of reserves
Type chords
Skull subtype
Outclass of jews
Amphibian class
A squad of a naked (apoda, or gymnophiona). Detachment Tailed (Urodela, or Caudata). The detachment is steady (anura, or ecaudata).
Amphibian representative - herbal frog, or pond (Rana Temporaria, or Rana Esculenta)
Amphibians - ancient terrestrial cold-blooded animals. The dependence of amphibians on the temperature and humidity of the environment determines their absence in deserted and indoor areas. The body shape in different classes has features. In adults, it is shortened, wide, compressed in the spin-abdominal direction, the tail is reduced. The tales of the amphibian body is elongated, compressed from the sides, the tail is well developed. The skin consists of a multilayer epithelium and the skin itself. Along with the coating and receptor functions, it performs the function of an additional respiratory organ. In this regard, it has a developed network of blood capillaries and is moisturized by the discharge of numerous skin glands. Skeletal structures skin does not contain.
The axial skeleton consists of the vertebrae and is divided into cervical, torso, sacral and tail departments. The number of verteons in adverse amphibians 9, in the tales from 37 to 100. The skull is divided into brain and visceral departments and consists of bone and cartilage elements, the number of which is less than fish. It is movably through the only cervical vertebra connect with the axial skeleton. Chest is absent. The limbs are typical of ground vertebrates. The front limb consists of a shoulder, forearm and brushes, the back - from the hips, the leg and feet. The belt of the front limbs consists of pair blades, trunny bones, clavicle and unpaired sternum. There is no tapering clavicle. The belt of the hind limbs is formed by the consolidated pair of iliac, sedable and pubic bones. The iliac bones are connected to the sacral vertebra.
The muscular system consists of groups of specialized muscles of limbs, oral cavity, language. Along with this, some muscles of the abdomen wall, backs retain a segmental structure.
Food amphibians in small animals. Prey is grabbed by jaws or catch with a sticky language. Wide mouth leads to the Rothoglotka. In the cavity it opens the ducts of the salivary glands, the secret of which food is wetted. Next, food through the esophagus enters the stomach where partially digested. A small intestine departs from the stomach, where under the action of the pancreatic enzymes, the final digestion and food absorption occurs. Unpained food residues enter the colon and through a clock are outwardly.
Allocation bodies - paired primary kidneys. Watering on ureters enters Cloaca, from where after accumulation in the bladder is removed outside. Leather takes part in the selection.
Respiratory organs in adults are amphibians - light, leather, mucosa, and larvae - external and inner gills, leather.
Blood system is closed. In connection with the light breathing, two circle of blood circulation is developing - small and large. The heart is triple, consists of two atrial and one ventricle. The small circle of blood circulation begins in the ventricle, from where the venous blood in the light of the arteries is sent to the lungs, and arterial blood after gas exchange in the lungs, on the lightweight veins in the left atrium.
A large circle begins from the ventricle, from where the mixed blood goes to the aorta and further to the tissues of the organs of derived from her arteries. The brain is supplied through carotid arteries with arterial blood. Venous blood is going to the right atrium, where a large circle circulation ends.
The nervous system of amphibians is characterized by the progressive development of the front brain: separation into a hemisphere and the appearance of clusters of nerve cells forming an ancient boron in its arch. 10 pairs of cunning nerves are departed from the brain.
The senses are diverse and their progressive development is associated with adaptation to a terrestrial lifestyle.
Eyes are protected by moving eyelids and a blinking meat. The lens is a biconimous lens, the cornea is convex. The hearing body is represented by the inner and middle ear, which develops as an adaptation to the perception of oscillations is less dense than water, the air. In the middle ear, one hearing bone is swirling.
Selication bodies - olfactory bags. Their cavity is reported through external nostrils with an outer medium, and through boaans (internal nostrils) with a rotoglot. The appearance of internal nostrils allows you to create air flow through olfactory bags and recognize different odors. Tangible receptors are scattered in skin cover.
Amphibian - separation animals. The females have paired ovaries, males - seeds. The sex cells of females and males are removed through a cloacu in most types of water, where fertilization occurs. The development process takes place with metamorphosis. A fishery larva is developing from eggs - a holomastic, which is inherent in such signs of fish, like a gill breath, the presence of a side line, movement with tail. In the process of metamorphosis, the zhabras and tail are rewarded with the headstuffs, light and three-chamber heart develop, limbs are formed, i.e. Devices providing life on land.
Frog is a typical class representative. Frogs live along the shores of freshwater reservoirs, in water, in swamps, in the meadows, wet forests. Food insects, fry fish. Prey climbs sitting motionless in secluded places. Noticing a moving insect, throws a wide sticky tongue and swallows prey sticking to it. Active lifestyle leads only in the warm season. Winter on the bottom of the reservoirs, in the Norah rodents, under the stones.
Reproduction and development
Amphibians begin to multiply on the third year of life. Outdoor fertilization, occurs in water. In the spring, the eggs on tubular eggs are lowered into a clock and are thrown into the water, where they are immediately seeded with sperm. After fertilization, the surrounding egg mucous membrane swells that it protects inside the egg from mechanical damage. In addition, shells, such as lenses, focus on egg thermal rays.
Depending on the temperature of the water, the development of the larvae - the headstuffs, goes within 7-15 days. It has signs of typical aquatic animals: a streamlined body, side line, gills, two-chamber hearts, one circle circulation circle, tail fin.
As the zealous development improves, the rear first is beginning to be formed, and then the forefills, two circles of blood circulation, there is a reduction of gills and the transition to a light breathing, the tail is gradually disappeared. From the moment of fertilization to the end of metamorphosis takes 2-3 months.
Class of reptiles (), features of the organization, systematics.
Kingdom of animals
Multicolot fabrication
Eumetazoo advanced
Section bilatelinometric
Subsection Secondary-drift
Group of reserves
Type chords
Skull subtype
Outclass of jews
Class Presbysey
Detachment of beakhead (RhynchoCephalia).
Squamata detachment.
Crocodile detachment (Crocodilia).
Turtle detachment (Chelonia).
Representative of reptiles - Hooking lizard (Lacerta Agilis)
Fraudes of scaly (lizards, snakes); Turtles; crocodiles; Kurehead (Gatteria).
The general characteristic of the class. Climbing - the first real class of ground vertebrates, to which about 6 thousand species belong. They live mainly in the regions with a warm and hot climate. During the conquest of sushi, reptiles acquired a number of adaptation:
1. The body is divided into head, neck, torso, tail and five-plated limbs.
2. The skin is dry, devoid of glands and covered with a corneum cover that protects the body from drying. Animal growth is accompanied by periodic linky.
3. Skeleton durable, ossified. The spine consists of five departments: cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacrilate and tail. The shoulder and pelvic belts of the limbs are strengthened and associated with axial skeleton. Developed ribs and chest.
4. Musculature is more differentiated than that of amphibians. The cervical and intercostal muscles are developed, the subcutaneous muscles. The body departments are more diverse and fast.
5. The digestive tract is longer than that of amphibians, and more clearly differentiated to the departments. Foods excitedness having numerous sharpness. The walls of the oral cavity and esophagus are equipped with a powerful muscles, which pushes large portions of food in the stomach. On the border of the thin and colon there is a blind intestine, especially well developed in herbivorous ground turtles.
6. Respiratory organs - easy - have a large respiratory surface due to a cellular structure. The air conduction paths are developed - trachea, bronchi, in which the air is moistened and does not drain the lungs. Ventilation of the lungs occurs by changing the volume of the chest.
7. The heart is three-chamber, but in the ventricle there is an incomplete longitudinal partition that prevents full mixing of arterial and venous blood. Most of the bodies of reptiles are supplied with mixed blood with a predominance of arterial, therefore the intensity of the exchange is higher than that of amphibians. However, the reptiles, as well as fish and amphibians, are causticomermic (cold-blooded) animals, the body temperature of which depends on the temperature of the habitat.
8. Options of the outcome -tasy kidneys. Urums urine overflowing in Cloaca, and from it - in the bladder. In it, the water is additionally sueded into the blood capillaries and returns to the body, after which the urine is displayed out. The final product of a nitrogen exchange, derived from the urine, is urinary acid.
9. The brain has a greater relative size than that of amphibians. Better largest front brain hemispheres are developed with shortcuts of the crust and cerebellum. The forms of behavior of reptiles are more complex. Feeling organs are better adapted to a terrestrial lifestyle.
10. Fertilization only internal. Eggs protected from drying with leather or shell shell, reptiles are postponed on land. The embryo in the egg develops in aquatic shell. Development direct.
Bird class (AVES), general characteristics, systematics, value.
Kingdom of animals
Multicolot fabrication
Eumetazoo advanced
Section bilatelinometric
Subsection Secondary-drift
Group of reserves
Type chords
Skull subtype
Outclass of jews
Bird class
Subclass of fanochvosti
Overcake I. Blueless (Ratitae), or running (Gradientes).
Squad African Ostrich (Struthions).
Detachment American ostrices (rheae).
Detachment Australian Ostrichs (Casuarii).
Detachment Kiwi, or Bloomless (Apteribes).
Supply 2. Penguins (impennes), or floating (Natantes).
Penguin detachment (sphenisci).
Overcarriage 3. Cile (Carinatae), or flying (Volantes).
Detachment hidden (Tinami).
Chicken detachment (Galli).
TURNICES detachment.
Golumbae detachment.
Petrocletes detachment.
Summary Coot (Ralli).
Detachment of NappyTogs (Heliornithes).
Sunshine of sunny Herons (Eurypygae).
Rhinocheti detachment.
CARIAMA detachment (Cariamae).
Crane detachment (Grues).
DROF DROP (OTIDES).
Detachment of Zobate Runners (Thinocori).
Limicolae detachment.
Seagull detachment (Lari).
Clear detachment (Alcae).
Paddy's detachment (COLYMBI).
Gagara detachment (Gaviae).
Tubinares detachment.
Detachment plastiflower (anseres).
The detachment of weary (steganopodes).
Detachable detachment (GRESSORES).
Doma day predators (Accipitres).
Sovie detachment (Striges).
Cuckuli detachment (Cuculi).
Parrot detachment (psittaci).
Caprimulgi detachment.
Rakshi detachment (Coracides).
Doda detachment (Upupae).
Troogone detachment.
Detachment of the Bird Mouse (Colii).
Detachment Long (Macrochires).
Dentyl detachment (Picariae)
Birds -Evo-organized warm-blooded animals adapted to flight. Due to the large number and widespread on
Earth they play an extremely important and diverse role in nature and human economic activities. More than 9 thousand modern species of birds are known.
The common features of the organization of birds in connection with their fitness to flight are the following:
1. Torch of the streamlined form. The front limbs are transformed into a flight authority - wings, the hind limbs serve as a support of the body and for movement.
2. Skin thin, dry, devoid of glands. The only cleaner iron is located in the tail section. The skin has horny formations in the form of feathers, creating aircraft and protecting the body from heat loss.
3. The bones of the skeleton are thin, durable, in the tubular bones there are air cavities facilitating their mass. The skull is formed completely designed, without seams, bones. All spine departments (except cervical) are fixed. The twirl in flying birds with a protrusion in front is a keel, to which powerful aircraft muscles are attached. In the skeleton of the hind limbs, a long set is developed, increasing the length of the poultry step.
4. The muscular system is very differentiated. The largest muscles are breast, lowering wing. Well-developed connected, intercostal, cervical, subcutaneous and leg muscles. Bird movements are fast and varied: walking, running, jumping, climbing, swimming. Types of flight -master and soaring. Birds of many species are able to perform long flights.
5. The features of the structure of the digestive system are associated with the need to quickly split large volumes of food and facilitating the mass of the digestive tract. This is achieved due to the absence of teeth, the participation of beak and food in mining, softening it in the extended part of the esophagus - combs, mixing food with digestive jackets of the glandy stomach and eradication, as in the millstone, in the muscular gastric dioxide, and shortening the rear ending Cloaca. The structure of beak and tongue in birds is diverse and reflects their food specialization.
6. Respiratory organs are easy. At the flying bird, the breath is double: gas exchange in the lungs is carried out both when inhaling and when exhaling, when the air bags from air bags enters the lungs. Thanks to dual breath, the bird does not suffocate during the flight.
7. The heart is four-chamber, all organs and fabric are supplied with pure arterial blood. As a result of the intensive process of life, a lot of heat is produced, which is held with feather cover. Therefore, all birds are warm-blooded with a constant body temperature.
8. Allocation and types of nitrogen exchange products and finite products are the same as reptiles. There is only a bladder due to the need to facilitate the body weight of the bird.
9. Like all vertebrates, the bird brain has five departments. The most developed large hemispheres of the front brain, coated with smooth bark, and the cerebellum, thanks to which birds have good coordination of movements and complex forms of behavior. The orientation of birds in space is carried out using acute visual and hearing.
10. Birds of separatogues, most species are characterized by sexual dimorphism. The females are developed only to the left ovary. Self-conformity internal, development is direct. Birds of most species lay eggs into the nests, heate them with the warmth of their body (based), hatched chicks feed. Depending on the degree of development of chicks hatched from eggs, the nesting and brood birds are distinguished.
Value of birds in nature for a person:
1. Limit plants growth.
2. Birds are one of the important components of wildlife.
3. Their role in the cycle of substances is large.
4. Promotes pollination of flowering plants.
5. Promotes the spread of fruits and seeds, and consequently, the resettlement of plants.
6. The planets are sanitary panels - they exterminate patients and weakened animals.
7. Limit the number of other animals (invertebrates, rodents)
8. serve as feeds for other animals (birds, reptiles, mammals).
1. Limit the number of insect-peled and misery-like rodents (insectivore and predatory birds).
2. Attracting birds to the realization of the biological method of protecting cultivated plants.
3. Commercial and homemade birds - meat suppliers, fluff, eggs.
4. Bird litter - valuable organic fertilizer.
5. Aesthetic and scientific importance
Mammal class (Mammalia), general characteristics, systematics value.
Kingdom of animals
Multicolot fabrication
Eumetazoo advanced
Section bilatelsmetric
Subsection Secondary-drift
Group of reserves
Type chords
Skull subtype
Outclass of jews
Mammals class
Subclass clock, or previa
The detachment is single-pass.
Subclass of the lower beasts, or the sample.
Detachment charts.
Subclass of higher beasts, or placental.
Squad Insectivores, Soft, manochable, or bats, incomplete, lizards, rodents, Town-shaped, predatory, laston-related, Catto-shaped, man-fated, non-parqual, damas, proboscis, sirens, tubes, semoressens, or lemurs, monkeys
The overall characteristic of the class. Malelectrics -to-organized class of chord animals, numbering about 4.5 thousand species. Its representatives settled all the lives of life, including the surface of the sushi, soil, sea and fresh reservoirs, the surface layers of the atmosphere.
Leading their origin from the beasts-like reptile top carbones, mammals have reached a heyday to the Cenozoic Era.
The characteristic features of their organization are as follows:
1. The body is divided into head, neck, torso, steam front and rear limbs, tail. The limbs are located under the torso, due to which it is raised above the ground, which allows animals to move at high speed.
2. The skin is relatively thick, durable and elastic, covered with hairpins, well holding heat generated by the body. Sweet, sweat, moss and odorous glands are located in the skin.
3. The brain department of the skull is larger than that of reptiles. The spine consists of five departments. In the cervical department always seven vertebrae.
4. Musculature is represented by a complex system of differentiated muscles. There is a breast-protective muscular partition -Diaphragma. Developed subcutaneous muscles ensures the change in the position of the hair cover, as well as the various facial expressions. Types of movement are diverse: walking, running, climbing, jumping, swimming, flying.
5. The digestive system is very differentiated. Salus contains digestive enzymes. The teeth in the jaw bones are sitting in the wells and in structure and destination are divided into cutters, fangs and indigenous. The roasted guts are significantly developed in herbivorous animals. Most cloaca is absent.
6. The heart is four-chamber, like in birds. There is an left aorta arc. All organs and body tissues are supplied with pure arterial blood. The sponge substance of bones is strongly developed, the red bone marrow of which is a blood-made body.
7. Respiratory organs - easy - have a large respiratory surface due to the alveolar structure. In respiratory movements, in addition to intercostal muscles, a diaphragm participates. The intensity of life processes is high, a lot of heat is produced, therefore mammals-process (homoothermal) animals (like birds).
8. Options of the outcome -tasy kidneys. Urine is derived from the urethra to the outside.
9. The brain, as in all vertebrate animals, consists of five departments. The size of the large hemispheres of the front brain coated with the bark (in many types of winding), the implant is especially large. The bark becomes the highest department of the central nervous system, coordinating the work of other brain departments and the whole organism. Forms of behavior are complex.
10. Selication, hearing, taste, touches have a greater allowing ability, which allows animals to easily navigate in the habitat.
11. Mammals - separating animals with internal fertilization. The embryo is developing in the majority (most). Power and gas exchange occurs through the placenta. After the birth of a young breastplate milk.
To the most essential features of animals that distinguish them from the rest of the vertebrates belong to the following:
their body is covered with hair (with the exception of some groups, such as cetacean, elephants and other, secondly devoid in adult state of hair);
the thoracic cavity is separated from the abdominal special breast-eyed barrier, or a diaphragm;
there is only aortic left arc;
the skull is equipped with two occipient mysteries, articulated with the first vertebra;
each half of the lower jaw consists of only one tooth bone;
mammals give birth to live young (except for single-pass, laying eggs.
Metamorphosis on the example of amphibians
It is evidence that the first amphibians, or amphibians appeared on Earth about 400 million years ago. They originated from the ancient cyzer fish, who had muscular fins with a skeletal axis, resembling the limbs of the first amphibians. Cystic fish lived on warm oxygen-rich shallow water, breathed the skin surface and primitive lungs. Fish, fleeing water predators and looking for food, went to the land, could transfer on fins from one reservoir to another and for some time being outside the water. Gradually, part of the cyzer fish left previous habitats and set up a new living space, the number of animals increased more and more.
About 300 million years ago, a period of amphibian heyday occurred. Therefore, the fossil remains, which resemble the tasty of modern amphibians are dating. Despite the fact that there are many types of terrestrial animals in the future, the amphibian class remains numerous. Today, more than 4,000 types of amphibians live on Earth, which are divided into three rows: taped, tailed and legless.
Most modern amphibians live on land, but the larvae develop in water. The body of amphibians is covered with smooth skin without scales, through which gases and water penetrate.
Amphibians are multiplied by several different ways. Most frogs and salamander living in the northern hemisphere are laying off eggs into the water, their larvae develops there. Females lay eggs with small portions - in the form of tubes or bubble mass, freely float in water or attached to the aquatic plants. At the same time, when the female lays eggs, the male produces cum into the water and their fertilization occurs.
Each egg is surrounded by a dense shell, an yolk is inside it, which nuts the germ is still developing. The shell protects the egg from drying out. The embryo is growing rapidly and turns into a larva, which after leaving the egg lives in water. The muscles of the body of the larvae of amphibians have the same structure as in fish, so they float, pushing back forward by the movements of the tail, are carried out on one side to the side. The larvae is powered by algae and breathe dissolved in water oxygen. They have gills. The gills of predatory larvae that swallow their prey is entirely located in a safe place on the head or on the back of the head. In addition, amphibically larvae breathe leather and mucous membrane of the oral cavity. Many amphibians postpone thousands of eggs, most of which becomes food for their natural enemies. The thyroid gland larvae reaches certain sizes, begins to produce thyroxin - hormone, which stimulates from amphibian metamorphosis and converting animals on adult individuals.
The first noticeable change in the appearance of the headastrics becomes the appearance of the rear, and then the forelimbs. At the last stage of the transformation, the tail disappears. The tadpole loses the horny beak, it increases his mouth, and advanced eyelids appear in front of the eyes - these transformations are necessary for the release of a young individual on land.
Internal organs of larvae also undergo significant changes: the gills are reduced, and the lungs develop, the intestine is shortened. The duration of metamorphosis depends on the type and external conditions, for example, water temperature and feed. Transformation The tasty grass frog on an adult person lasts almost 12 weeks.
Promotion of the simplest unicellular (Protozoa), general characteristic. Modern classification of the simplest.
Kingdom of animals
Single milking fabric
Type of sarcomavigodors
Subtype of flagella
Class of vegetable flagellations, animal flagellations.
Subtype of opalines
Class of opalines
Sarcodic subtype
Class of root, radiation, suntech.
Type of apicomplexes
Class of disputes, perchenxes.
Type of micositiona
Type of microsporidia
Type of infusoria
Class Classified Infusories Suspending Infusoria
Type of Labyrinatuy
Type of ascetosporova
The simplest performing cell functions, and a separate organism simultaneously. There are about 70 thousand species of this fabrication in the world, most of them are organisms of microscopic size.
2-4 microns are the size of small protozoa, and the usual reaches 20-50 microns; For this reason, it is impossible to see them with a naked eye. But there are, for example, 3 mm long infusories.
It is possible to meet representatives of the simplicity of the simplest in the liquid medium: in the seas and water bodies, in swamps and wet soils.
Features of the structure
A feature of the structure of unicellites is the presence of structures that are characteristic of exceptionally simple. For example, cell mouth, contractile vacuole, poroshiret and cell pharynx.
For the simplest, the separation of the cytoplasm is characterized by two layers: internal and external, which is called ectoplasm. The structure of the inner layer is included in the organelles and the endoplasm (kernel).
To protect there is a pellicula - a layer of cytoplasm, characterized by a seal, and mobility and some nutritional functions provide organelles. Between endoplasm and ectoplasma there are vacuoles that regulate the water-salt balance in the unicellular one.
Single-cell food
The simplest possible two types of food are possible: heterotrophic and mixed. There are three ways to absorb food.
Phagocytosis is called the process of capturing solid food particles using cytoplasm growths, which have the simplest, as well as other specialized cells in multicellular. And pinocytosis is represented by the process of grabbing the fluid itself itself.
Allocation in the simplest is carried out using diffusion or via contractile vacuoles.
Reproduction of simplest
There are two methods of reproduction: sexual and cull. Plexus is represented by mitosis, during which the core is divided, and then cytoplasm.
And sexual reproduction occurs with the help of isogami, oogami and anisogamy. For the simplest characteristic alternation of sexual reproduction and one-time or multiple cullless.
Unicellites are permanent participants of the cycle of energy and substances in various ecosystems.
Types of intestinal transfers. Organization. Classification of the species.
Classification:
Kingdom: Animals
Facilities: multicellular
Puncture: Eomenetazoo
Section: Radial Suiteric
Type: Intestinal
Class: Hydroid, Chiffoid, Coral Polyps
Intestinal sea, freshwater, freedoms float, sedentary, attached to the bottom. This type includes about 9,000 species.
The structure of the intestinal-haired is characterized by radial, or radiant, symmetry. In the body, they can be distinguished by one main longitudinal axis around which various organs are located in the radial (radiant) order. The order of radial symmetry depends on the number of repetitive organs. Internally-grades differ sharply from bilateral symmetric, or bilatoberial, animals, in which there is always one plane of symmetry dividing the body into two mirror-like halves: the right and left.
The free oral pole of the animal in relation to the surrounding subjects (in the sense of the possibility of seizing food, touch, etc.) is supplied from all sides to exactly the same conditions, as a result of which many bodies receive the same development on the incision of the mouth to the opposite pole; The result is the production of radiant symmetry.
Intestinal - two-layer animals: in ontogenesis, only two germinal leaf are formed - ecto- and edoderma, distinctly pronounced and in an adult animal. Ektoderma and Entoderma are separated by a layer of mesoglye.
In the simplest case, the body of intestinal happiness has the appearance of the bag open at one end. In the cavity of the bag lined with entoderm, the food is digested, and the hole serves as a mouth. The latter is usually surrounded by a few or one whisk, a fascinating food. Imaginary food residues are removed from the body through the oral hole. On the structure, the most simply organized from intestinal carrier can be reduced to a typical gastrol.
Type flat worms (Plathelminthes). Features of the organization of flat worms, classification.
Kingdom of animals
Multicolot fabrication
Eumetazoo advanced
Subsection is passionless
Type flat worms
Class Classy Worms, Soskers, Trematodas, Monogena
The type of flat worms is represented by double-sided - symmetric (bilateral) animals, through the body of which you can spend only one plane of symmetry. Bilateral symmetry appears in this group of invertebrates.
Flat worms three-layer. In the process of ontogenesis, three germinal leaf is formed. Between the ectoderm, forming the cover, and the Entoderma, from which the intestine is built, they also have an intermediate germistic leaf - Mesoderma. Their body in most cases is stretched long and flattened in the spinal abdominal direction (takes the type of sheet, plates, ribbons).
An important feature of the structure of flat worms is the presence of a skin-muscular bag. So called the totality of the epithelium and located directly under it a complex muscle fiber system. These fibers, often displeasant to several layers (ring, longitudinal), dress under the epithelium, the whole body of the animal in the form of a solid bag, and not divide into separate muscular bundles of more special purposes, like the highest bilateral animals (arthropods, mollusks). The reduction in muscle elements of the skin-muscular bag is determined by the characteristic "worm-shaped" movements.
The body of flat worms does not have cavity, it is useless, or parenchymal, animals: the space between the internal organs is filled with a connective tissue of mesodermal origin containing numerous cells. Parenchima takes all intervals between the organs, and its role is diverse. It has a reference value, serves as a place for the accumulation of pressure nutrients, plays an important role in the exchange processes, etc.
The nervous system consists of a pair of cerebry ganglium and coming from him the stop of the nervous trunks connected by ring jumpers. Special development reaches two longitudinal trunks (side or abdominal). Flat worms are formed by the central regulatory apparatus of the nervous system.
Blood and respiratory system are absent.
For the first time, special allocations bodies constructed by the type of so-called protonphridium appear. They are represented by a system of branched tubules, ending in a parenchym with a special star-cage with a bunch of cilia. With the external protonphride medium, they are communicated using special excretory (excretory) holes.
Sex system of flat worms of hermaphroditin; As a rule, a complex system of ducts that serve to remove sex products are formed, and organs that provide the possibility of internal fertilization.
Mollusca type (Mollusca). Features of the structure, classification.
Kingdom of animals
Multicolot fabrication
Eumetazoo advanced
The section of bilotleriosometrics
Subsection Secondary-drift
- "" - primary
Type of mollusks
Class of panzer, feptathers, monoplast phones, bricker, Lopathoogiye, bivalve, ceponogne
The type of mollusks includes about 130,000 species and is divided into two subtypes: sneakers and shells (on the doogle).
Mollusks, or mild, form a clearly limited type of animal, leading the beginning of the ringed worms. Molluscs include water, less frequently ground animals.
Molluscis-bilateral-symmetric animals, however, in part of the mollusks due to a peculiar bias the body becomes asymmetric.
The body of the mollusks is non-changing, only some of the lower representatives detect some signs of metamery.
Mollusks and secondary animals with non-metamatic residual whole, presented in most forms of the window-shaped bag (pericardium) and gonad cavity. All intervals between the organs are filled with a connective tissue.
The body of mollusks, as a rule, consists of three departments - head, torso and legs. Very often, the torso grow up on the spinal side as an internal bag. Nog-muscular unpaired abdominal pair of body wall, serves to move.
The base of the torso is surrounded by a large skin folding, mantle. There is a mantle cavity between the mantle and the body, in which the gills lie, some of the senses open the rear openings, kidneys and sexual apparatus. All these education along with the kidneys and heart (located in the close neighborhood with the mantle cavity) are called a mantle complex of organs.
For most clams, the presence in the throat of a special apparatus for grinding the dying (Radules) is characterized.
The blood system is characterized by the presence of a heart consisting of ventricle and atrial; It is not closed, i.e. Part of its path the blood passes through the system not decorated into the vessels of Lakun and sinus. Breathing organs are usually represented by primary habies - KTENIDI. The latter, however, in a number of forms disappear or replaced by the respiratory authorities of other origin.
For the selection, the kidney - modified colodelts communicating with internal ends with the window-shaped bag are served.
The nervous system in primitive forms consists of an octopic ring and four longitudinal trunks; At the highest forms on the trunks, several pairs of ganglia are formed as a result of the concentration of nerve cells. The nervous system of this type is called scattered node.
The development of the majority of mollusks crushing a spiral type, deterministic. The lower representatives from the egg comes out of the Trohofor, in most of the remaining-modified three-forming larva -parsnik (Verger).
Arthropoda type type. Features of the organization. Classification.
Kingdom of animals
Multicolot fabrication
Bilateral almetrical first
Subsection Secondary-drift
Group of primary
Type of clayistonogy
Telobotoid subtype
Class Trelobits
Subtype of zhabrodychy
Cruise class
Subtype Hilestser
Class of spider-shaped, swordty, cancer.
The type of arthropods contains over 1500,000 species. Water and land forms with segmental limbs and segmented body.
Articulated segmentation heteronomility. Instead of homologous, equal segments of most of the ringed worms, segments of arthropods have a different structure in different parts of the body.
Groups of similar segments are highlighted in special bodies, or tagma. Most often distinguished three tags: head, chest and abdomen. Segments within the tagm, as well as the tagma, can merge with each other.
The limbs, arthropods, philogenetically evolved polyappias, movably connect with the body with joints and consist of several segments. The limbs are a multicolored lever capable of complex movements, in contrast to the parapodies of the rings, performing monotonous crackles in the same plane.
The limbs are located on different tagmanes, often specialize to perform unrestricted functions - capture and grinding of food, movement, breathing, and the like. The limbs of the abdominal segments in many arthropods disappear.
The body of arthropods is covered with a chitinular cuticle forming an outer skeleton, which distinguishes solid plates and soft articular membranes. Each body segment is usually covered with 4 sclerites: the spinal plate is dorzal, the teregitis, ventral - abdominal plate, or sternlet, and on the sides between them - side plates.
The chemical composition of the cuticle is complicated. It includes lipoids, proteins and chitin, a nitrogenous organic elastic substance, resistant chemically. Hardening the cuticle is due to the fact that chitin is impregnated with carbon dioxide (crustaceans in multi-non-axes) or incossed by stubble proteins (spine-shaped, insects).
In the body of arthropods, there is no fixed epithelium - a feature determined by partly by strong cuticularization of arthropods, who have not only covers, but also a part of the intestines, sex ducts and other organs of the cuticle, excluding the possibility of the development of cilia.
Musculature is represented by individual muscle bundles - muscles that do not form a solid skin-muscular bag. Muscles have a transverse structure.
The body cavity of arthropod has dual origin. During embryonic development, in most cases, the segmented whole is laid. Subsequently, the walls of the nominal bags are destroyed, and the nominal cavities are merged both with each other and with the remains of the primary body cavity. Thus, a mixed body cavity is formed, or a mixture in which internal organs are located.
The digestive system consists of three departments - the front, middle and rear intestine. The front and rear intestinal departments, being ectodermal, carry the cuticular dilution. The glands secreting digestive enzymes are associated with different departments of the intestinal tract.
The circulatory system is characterized by the appearance of the central pulsating organ - heart. At the same time, the bloodstream becomes unclipped: only the main blood vessels - aorta and artery, of which hemolymphs are poured into the body cavity and wash the internal organs. Then she enters the vessels and the heart.
HEMOLIMFA - Liquid of dual nature, it partially corresponds to the present blood filling the blood system of most of the ringed worms, and partly cellular fluid. The functions of hemolymphs mainly correspond to blood functions.
Respiratory organs are diverse. In some cases, the limbs are entirely or only of their parts are converted into water breathing organs - the gills. Air respiration organs of ground forms are lungs - also represent modified limbs. And finally, the highest fraud for breathing is a special trachea system.
The nervous system is built by the type of such collide worms and is composed of a paired brain, obscalogling connotions and the abdominal nervous chain. The brain mostly consists of three departments - Protocerebrauma, DateBrum and TitoToBrum. The concentration of abdominal nervous chain ganglia is often observed and education due to their fusion of large nerve nodes.
The excretory system is represented by modified colodelts - cocal glands or by special organs that have arisen within the type of arthropods, namely Malpigiyevoy vessels.
Arthropods have only a genital breeding method, and they, as a rule, separators. Often there is an obvious outer sexual dimorphism.
Type of ring worms (Annelida). Total type characteristic, classification.
Kingdom of animals
Multicolot fabrication
Eumetazoo advanced
Section bilatelinometric
Subsection Secondary-drift
Type of ringed worms
Class of boys, multi-brain, minority, primary, echiuarites, cipunculides.
Type of ring worms of about 9000 types of higher worms.
The body is composed of a head blade (narrow), segmented torso and rear anal blades (Pihydia). On the head blades mostly arranged organs of feelings.
It has a well-developed skin - muscular bag.
Animals possess the secondary cavity of the body, or the whole; Moreover, each segment has its own couple of nominal bags. Head and anal blades are deprived of the alert.
The river hole lies on the abdominal side of the first torso segment. The digestive system, as a rule, is composed of oral cavity, pharynx, middle intestine and rear, which opens the anal hole at the end of the anal blade.
Most collines have a well-developed closed circulatory system.
The release function is performed by segmental organs - nephonds. Usually in each segment there is one pair of nephonds.
The nervous system consists of a paired brain, a pair of occasional nerve trunks, enveling a throat from the sides and connecting the brain with the abdominal part of the nervous system. The latter consists of a pair of more or less closest, and sometimes fused together with longitudinal nerve lights, on which pair ganglia is located in each segment (with the exception of the most primitive forms). Many ringed worms have sense organs - eyes, olfactory pits and various kinds of tentacious appendages.
The most primitive collected worms of separatogues; Particularly appeared hermaphroditism.
The crushing of the egg goes along the spiral type and has a determined character.
At the lower levels such as development proceeds with metamorphosis, a typical larvae - threehood.
Type chord (Annelinda). General characteristic type, classification.
Kingdom of animals
Multicolot fabrication
Eumetazoo advanced
Section bilatelinometric
Subsection Secondary-drift
Group of reserves
Type chords
Subtype of shells
Subtype nepheless
Class of crooks
Skull subtype
Abandlantability
Class of circulation
Outclass of jews
Classic fish, bone fish, amphibian, mammals, reptiles, birds.
There are about 40 thousand.
Horde originated at the turn of the Proterezhoye and Paleozoic from the draft chord-shaped semi-ferrous, with the following aromorphoses:
The appearance of an internal axial skeleton - chords;
The appearance of the nervous tube of ectodermal origin with the resulting front department, from which the brain was subsequently formed;
The appearance of gill slots in the cavity of the pharynx. The throat carries two functions - respiratory and cooking. As a result, oxygen consumption increased, metabolic processes were activated;
The appearance of a heart located on the abdominal side of the body, which ensured the acceleration of blood flow.
Chordovy - these are bilateral symmetric animals having a secondary cavity of the body and a secondary mouth. These signs bring them closer with some invertebrate animals - iglozzy, ringed worms. However, most of the invertebrate animals have a nervous trunk located under the intestine, at the intestines for the intestines, the majority of invertebrates on the spinal vessel, the blood flows ahead, the chords back.
The Chordov has a general plan for the structure and location of the internal organs:
The nervous tube is located above the axial skeleton;
Under it lies chord;
Under the chord is the digestive tract;
The heart is located under the digestive tract.
Type round worms (nemathelminthes). Features of the organization. Type classification.
Kingdom of animals
Multicolot fabrication
Eumetazoo advanced
Section bilatelinometric
Subsection primary-trap
Type round worms
Class Actually Round Worms, Kratovrats, Hair, Apulides, Scraps, Cinechins, Brojores.
The body is indirecturic (non-gential).
There is a primary body cavity, which is a gap between the internal organs, directly bordering the surrounding tissues.
In contrast to the flat worms, most round worms of diocepacles, and the sexual apparatus arranged more simply.
Blood and respiratory system is absent.
The excretory system or is not available, or represented by modified skin glands, or protonphridial type.
The nervous system is built according to the type of orthogon and closely related to the circumstances, the senses are poorly developed.
In the digestive system there are realers and anal hole.
Echinodermata type. General characteristics. Type classification.
Kingdom of animals
Multicolot fabrication
Eumetazoo advanced
Section bilateral shelter
Subsection Secondary-pass
Group of reserves
Type of Icharkin
Sea Star, Omners, Sea Hedgehogs, Sea Kubychiki, Sea Lilies
Icharkin - an extensive, about 5,000 species, a group of marine bottom animals, mostly freely familiar, less often attached to the bottom through a special stem.
Icharkeeper have radial and more than five-mounted symmetry, but their ancestors were bilaterally symmetric animals.
In the subcutaneous connecting layer, the skeleton is developing from lime plates with spikes, needles, and the like on the surface of the body.
Internal organs lie in an extensive body cavity (whole). One of the most original features of the Ichalkinski structure should be considered a complex differentiation of a part of the organizer into a number of systems, including education by an element of an ambulact (aqueous) system of the system of movement.
There is a circulatory system; Respiratory organs are poorly developed or absent; There are no special bodies.
The nervous system is primitive and part lies directly in the thicker of the skin epithelium or in the epithelium sections of the body wall, pierced inside.
Sharkinskoye sedapolates. Eggs are experiencing a complete radial crushing. In the development of Ichalkin, there is a characteristic dipole tax, experiencing complex metamorphosis.
Sponge type (Porifera, or Spongia). Features of the organization. Type classification.
Kingdom of animals
Multicolot fabrication
Parasoo advanced
Sponge Type
Class Knobnikovy Sponges, Glass Sponges, Ordinary Sponges.
Sponges - aqueous seating of multicellular animals. There are no real tissues and organs. The nervous system is missing. The body in the form of a bag or a glass consists of a variety of cells performing various functions, and an intercellular substance.
The walls of the sponge body permeated with numerous pores and channels from them communicating with the inner cavity. Cavities and channels are lined with flame collar cells. For few exceptions, sponges have a complex mineral or organic skeleton. Fossil residues of sponges are already known from Proterozoic breeds.
About 5 thousand types of sponges are described, most of them live in the seas (Fig. 16). Type is divided into four classes: lime sponges (Calcarea), silkinogovogovaya, or ordinary, sponges (Demospon-Gia), glass, or six, sponges (Hexactinellida, or Hyalospongia) and coral lips (SCLEROSPONGIA). The last class includes a small number of species that live in grumps and tunnels among coral reefs and have a skeleton consisting of a massive lime base from calcium carbonate and flint uniaxial needles.
As an example, consider the structure of the limestone sponge. The body of it is bagped, the base is attached to the substrate, and the hole, or the mouth, is addressed. Paragastric area of \u200b\u200bthe body communicates with the outer medium by numerous channels beginning with outdoor pores.
In the body of an adult sponge there are two layers of cells - ecto- and edoderma, between which the interlayer of the structure of the structure of the structure - mesoglya - with the cells scattered in it. Mesoglya occupies most of the body, contains a skeleton and except for others - sex cells. The outer layer is formed by flat ectodermal cells, internal - collar cells - ho-anocytes, from the free end of which a long flagery sticks out. Cells freely scattered in mesogle are divided into fixed star, performing support function (collests), skeletal movable (scleroblasts) engaged in digestion of food (amebecites), reserve amoeboid, which can turn into any of the named types, and sex. The ability of cell elements to move into each other speaks of the absence of differentiated tissues.
According to the structure of the body of the body and the channel system, as well as the location of the sections of the flagella of the flagella of the burning layer, three types of sponges are distinguished, the simplest of which Ascon and more complex - Bike and Lacon.
The skeleton of sponges is formed in the Mesogle. Mineral (limestone or flown) skeleton consists of individual or soldered with a needle (spikula), which are formed inside sclero-blast cells. Organic (spongin) skeleton is composed of fibers, close to chemical composition for silk and formed intercellular.
Sponges belong to organisms filtrates. Through their body there is a continuous current of water, caused by the action of collar cells, whose flagellas are beaten in one direction - to a paragastral cavity. The collar cells capture the water particles (bacteria, single-cellular, etc.) from passing by them by them. Part of the food is digested in place, part is transmitted by the amecomitams. Filtered water is thrown out of the paragastral cavity through the mouth.
Sponges are multiplied both with a mobility (assembly) and in gender. Most of the sponges are hermaphrodites. Sex cells are locked in Mesogle. The spermatozoa goes into the channels, output through the mouth, penetrate other individuals of the sponges and fertilize their eggs. The zygote is crushed, as a result of what blastuly appears. The second embryonic layer (phagocitoblast) is formed by immigrating or invagination. In the unknown and some limestone sponges, Blastulev consists of more or less identical flagella (calibrated).
In the future, part of the cells, losing flagella, plunges inside, filling the cavity of Blastuly, and in the end there is a larva-parenchymol.
Among the blastulous sponges there are so-called amphiblastulas, in which the animal hemisphere consists of small flagella cells, and vegetative - from large cells without flavors, but filled with yolk. Amphiblastules do gastration in the body of the maternal sponge: the cells of the vegetative hemisphere are poured inside the blast selection. However, at the exit of the larvae into water, entodermal cells are again turned outward (degasive), returning to the state of amphiblastulas. After that, the amphiblastula is settled by the aboral pole on the bottom, its ectodermal flagery cells are pulled out inside, and the entodermal remains outside. This phenomenon is called the perversion of embryonic leaves. It comes in another case, when the parenchymal larvae sets on the substrate. Then its ectodermal cells are covered inward, where the collar-and-flame chambers form. Entoderma lies over ectoderma. The mouth is formed on the vegetative pole, which is turned up.
More often, the sponges live with colonies resulting from the unaffected to the end of the renovation. Only a few sponges are single, there are also second-innovative organisms (Fig. 15). Their value in the life of water bodies is very large. Filming through your body a huge amount of water, they contribute to the purification of pollution with solid particles.
Theory of origin of multicellular.
In the 70s of the 19th century, German Zolog E.Gekkel developed the theory of "Gastrei" the first of them originates in the works of E. Geckel, who in the development of his theory of Gastrei was based on the bigeneic law formulated by him, according to which the ontogenesis of this type of organisms is compressed and abbreviated repetition (recapitulation) of the movement of the phylogenesis of its ancestors (for details, see in Part IV). In accordance with this, E. Hekkel believed that the phylogenesis of the oldest metazoa was repeated to a certain extent in the ontogenesis of modern lower multicellular animals. According to Hekkely, Metazoa ancestors were the colonial simplest, who had spherical colonies with a single-layer wall, similar to Blastuly - one of the early stages of the embryonic development of modern multicellular animals. Geckel called this hypothetical ancestral form "Blastey". With aimed swimming, the spherical colony - Blashei - was guided by one pole forward, as is also observed in modern colonial simplest, for example, VOLVOX. According to hekkel, in the front pole of the colony there was a pitch of its wall inside, just as it occurs when the invagination gastralization in the ontogenesis of some modern Metazoa. As a result, a multicellular organism was formed - "Gastreya", the wall of the body of which consists of two layers, ecto- and entoderms. Entoderma surrounds the inner cavity - the primary intestine, open outwardly the only hole - the primary mouth. The Gastrea Organization complies with the principal plan for the structure of intestinal (type Coelenterata), which hekkel considered as the most primitive multicellular animals.
I.I.Technikov drew attention to the fact that primitive intestinal gastrasters occurs by invagination (pensions of one pole of a single-layer embryo - blastuly), which is typical for higher-organized groups, and by migrating some cells from a single-layer body wall inside (Fig. 29 ). There they form loose clusters, later organized in the form of walls of a garbage cavity, which breaks through the oral hole. This method of gastruption is much simpler than invagination, since it does not require a complex directional and coordinated displacement of the whole reservoir of cells, and probably primitive invagination. In this regard, the swords modified the heekkel hypothesis as follows. In the spheroidal colony of the simplest - burning recorder, the cells of its single-layer wall, the exciting (phagocyantized) foods migrated to digest the inside, into the colony cavity (like the migration of the cells of the future entoderma in the process of gastroibar). These cells formed loose internal accumulation - phagocitoblast, whose function was the provision of the entire body of food, including its digestion and distribution, while the surface layer of cells - the Kinoblast - performed the function of protection and motion of the body. To capture new food particles by the cells of the Foogi-Toblast, on the thought of Mechnikov, there was no need to return to the surface layer: located directly under the kinoblast, the cells of the phagocitoblast captured the nutritional particles with pseudopods, extended outside between the cells of the phagocitoblast. This hypothetical stage of the Evolution of Metazoa was named Messenchy Phagotitelle (or Parenchimella); Its structure corresponds to such a parenchymal, the larvae of some terrestrial and sponges. In the future, as an adaptation to an increase in nutrition activity in the descendants of Phagotitellas occurred epithelization of the phagocitoblast with the formation of the primary intestine and the occurrence of the oral hole in the place where the preferential migration of cells inside. According to some scientists, this place probably corresponded to the rear in the direction of movement of the body of the body, where the waters of the water flow arise when swimming, and therefore conditions are most favorable to capture food particles. The Hypothesis of Mechnikov, as well as the Heckel hypothesis, considers as the most primitive multicellular animals of intestinal and sponges.
The role and importance of insects in nature is huge. The number of insect species is much superior to the number of views of any other group of animals, according to approximate estimates, on our planet at the same time lives at least 108 billion insects.
Positive insect activities in nature are expressed in pollination by plants, for example, about 30% of European flowering plants are pollinated by insects. Some plants are not able to multiply without special pollinators. Clover, who gave a great harvest in New Zealand, did not produce seeds until there were no bumblebers there - clover pollinators. The main role among pollinators is played by refamming and especially bees and bumblebees; The second most important are dug, and third - butterflies.
The value of insects in the soil-forming processes, especially termites and ants. These insects, like the larvae of many insects living in the ground, break the soil with turns, contribute to ventilation and moisturizing and enriched by humus. Without insect activities, for example, the decomposition of coniferous plants is impossible, and where it does not occur, peat-like non-fermentation layers accumulate. The destruction of insects of corpses and excrement of animals has a great sanitation.
The role of insects in the cycle of substances in nature is huge. In almost every class of vertebrate animals (especially in birds and mammals) there are entomophages - forms that eat exclusively insects.
No less significant and negative consequences of insect activities. So, many of them feed on the alive tissues of plants, causing it significant harm. Damage caused by insects are diverse and affect various organs of plants: root system, stems, trunks, leaves, flowers, fruits, etc. In some cases, it may be the destruction of vegetable fabric - humps, patching moves (strokes sprayed in leaves, called mines). In other cases, the presence of insects leads to the formation of galls, which are the growth of the parts of the plant. Both leads to the weakening of the plant organism, to reduce its resistance to fungal and other diseases, reducing the products of fruits and seeds, and often to death.
Failure to comply with precautions leads to insects - pests in such areas of the globe, where they were previously absent. Not finding in the new conditions of natural enemies, pests begin to multiply quickly. The absence of plants in which the pest has been inserted, developed for a long time of protective reactions leads to the fact that the damage is significantly increasing.
Malicious properties of insects can sometimes be used by a person in their favor. Successful experience in the use of insects to limit the spread of some plants (in Australia, for example, specially acclimatized beetles - leafy destroyed by St. John's wort, a rapidly growing in agricultural land) allows you to hope for the development of biological methods of struggle and weeds.
Sometimes the transfer is performed by simple contact with insects - transmitters, for example, with food pollution, etc. This method distributes various home flies (Musca Domestica), exciting bacteria, helminth eggs, and a person transmitting them. Flys are transferred about 70 species of various organisms, many of which are causative agents of hazardous diseases (cholera, diphtheria, etc.).
What is the role of insects in nature practical and aesthetic meaning, you will learn from this article.
The value of insects in human life and nature
Thus, insects are greatly important as animal consumers and plant residues.
Insects are farmelors of plantsTherefore, they play a role in reproduction. They also take part in the soil formation. These organisms not only loosen the soil, but also enrich it with humus. Insects simultaneously perform the role of Sanitars and are participants in the cycle of substances in nature.
Besides they considered an essential element of food pyramids: Many animals feed them (amphibians, fish, reptiles, mammals, invertebrates and birds).
Insect value in man's life
Man domesticated insects for his benefit. The honey bee produces wax, honey, propolis, royal milk and apilac. Based on these "gifts", people developed beekeeping. The domestic taled silkworm supplies us with silk thread. Also, the valuable products are given - lacquer workers (their wax-like substance is used in electrical and radio engineering), the caterpillars of oak cocoon peephrum (from its silk yarns, the Blassic fabric is manufactured), carmine worms (produce red paint - carmine), beetles feeders (isolated Cantaridine, from Which is made blasting plaster).
Harm insects in human life
Negative insect values \u200b\u200bare that they are carriers of dangerous causative agents of different diseases. On their paws insects transfer fungal bacteria, microbes and other harmful microorganisms that contribute to the rotting of vegetables, fruits. They also debug the larvae in food and even in the wounds of the person himself.
We hope that from this article you have learned, the value of insects in the nature and life of a person.
