Indicate the events that occurred during the period of perestroika. Perestroika in the ussr - the main stages

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Reforms in the USSR in 1985-1991 and the political course pursued by M.S. Gorbachev and his supporters in the leadership of the CPSU.

P. p. was caused by a social crisis that was brewing in the USSR. The word "perestroika" was originally used in the mid-1980s not as an independent term, but as part of broader, cautious formulations, for example, "restructuring of the economic mechanism." Only in 1986 did the word "perestroika" become synonymous with reforms and political course. This policy was preceded by a course of "acceleration" proclaimed by Gorbachev at the April 23rd, 1985, plenum of the CPSU Central Committee. The main acceleration measures continued until 1988 and, in general, continued the policy of authoritarian modernization. The foundations of deeper transformations were outlined by Gorbachev in February 1986 at the 27th Congress of the CPSU. P. p. included the introduction of "self-financing", self-government, "glasnost", "democratization", foreign policy known as "new thinking".

On January 27, 1987, Gorbachev made a speech at the plenum of the Central Committee, where he proclaimed the beginning of more decisive reforms. The secretary general sharply criticized the departmental bureaucracy. The power of departments over enterprises was significantly limited. The main reforms of the initial stage of Perestroika were the 1987 law on the state enterprise and the creation of cooperatives. Initially, market reforms revived economic life. The level of profitability, which in 1980-1985 fell from 12.2% to 11.9%, by 1988 rose to 13.5% (when evaluating this data, you need to take into account the additions). More expensive but also better quality goods appeared on the shelves. However, at the end of 1988, the shortage of goods sharply worsened. Costs per ruble of marketable output in 1988-1989 increased for the first time. Production in a number of industries began to decline. The various forms of ownership that appeared in the USSR were not clearly separated, which allowed the leaders of enterprises and cooperatives to begin transferring the resources of state enterprises under the control of the emerging bourgeoisie. State-owned enterprises were bled financially. The economic crisis was growing. An attempt to carry out reforms only from above, without relying on the population, led to abuses by the ruling bureaucracy.

In the context of the crisis of economic reforms, Gorbachev came to the conclusion about the need for political reforms, which were proclaimed on June 28 - July 1, 1988 at. On December 1, 1988, a constitutional reform was carried out, which introduced a new authority -. By this time, the CPSU was acting under pressure from informals, and then from opposition parties (see the multiparty system in the USSR). National movements of the Perestroika period developed, and interethnic relations intensified. At the congresses of people's deputies, a struggle unfolded between conservatives, supporters of Gorbachev and, which united supporters of deepening reforms. The reform crisis led to the rise of mass civil movements in 1988-1991.

In 1988-1989, Gorbachev and his supporters actually lost their leadership in political life, which led to a deep crisis in the political sphere. Gorbachev's influence was weakening both in the party, where supporters of an early end to reforms grew, and in society, where the democratic opposition put forward demands for the most radical and profound reforms. To secure his power against a surprise attack from conservatives in the party or democrats in parliament, Gorbachev pushed for new constitutional changes. On March 14, 1990, the III Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR proclaimed him President of the USSR. This led to a new decline in the party's prestige, because Gorbachev was now the leader of the state not as the head of the party, but as the president. Art. 6 of the 1977 Constitution, the CPSU's monopoly on power was officially abolished.

At the elections to the Congress of People's Deputies of the RSFSR in February 1990, most of the opposition organizations united in a bloc (later - the movement) "Democratic Russia". He received about a third of the votes, and with the support of independent deputies, Boris Yeltsin was elected Chairman of the Supreme Soviet of the RSFSR on May 29, 1990. The Russian leadership pursued an independent course, and two centers of power were formed in the USSR. In many councils, including in Moscow and Leningrad, democrats won the majority of seats. During the XXVIII Congress of the CPSU, which was held on July 2-13, 1990, the chairman of the Supreme Soviet of the RSFSR, chairmen of the councils of Moscow G. Popov and Leningrad left the CPSU. The communist regime, based on the monopoly of the power of the CPSU, ceased to exist. As a result of the 1990 elections, a representative government independent of the CPSU was formed, after which the CPSU itself turned into one of the two largest parties (in Russia, the movement "Democratic Russia" became the second, in the republics - national movements).

In the fall of 1990, the leaders of Russia and the USSR tried to come to an agreement on the basis of the "500 days" program, but failed. In February 1991, the confrontation between the Russian and Union leaders resumed. A campaign of civil disobedience unfolded in the country, accompanied by demonstrations and strikes. Only on April 29, 1991, Gorbachev and Yeltsin managed to agree on a compromise. Novo-Ogarev negotiations began on the conclusion of a union treaty. On March 17, 1991, the majority of the country's inhabitants voted for the preservation of the renewed USSR in a referendum. The post of president was introduced in Russia, and on June 12, Boris Yeltsin was elected.

The management of the economy passed to the heads of enterprises, technocrats, who gradually turned into capitalists. Economic restructuring caused painful economic consequences (primarily an increase in the shortage of products), which contributed to the radicalization of public sentiment, the growth of popularity of the ideas of Westernization and the transition to capitalism. Part of the nomenklatura, which has realized the possibility of using Westernizing and anti-communist slogans in order to redistribute property and restore its control over society on a new basis, goes into opposition to the CPSU. Another part of the nomenklatura tried to resist the deepening of reforms and the transformation of the USSR on the basis of a union agreement. But she was defeated as a result of an attempt to establish power on August 19-21, 1991.

The liquidation of the communist regime amid the rise of national movements and the intensification of the struggle for power in the political elite led to the collapse of the USSR and the collapse of the political elite. Despite the general failure of the PP, it laid the foundations of civil society, democracy and a market economy in Russia.

By the mid-1980s, the USSR found itself in a deep economic, political and social crisis.

Labor productivity in the USSR in 1986 was one third of that of the American, in agriculture - less than 15% of the level of the United States. In terms of the volume of goods and services consumed by the population, the USSR occupied 50-60 place in the world.

According to official data, in 1989, 41 million people in the USSR had an income below the subsistence level - 78 rubles. In the United States, where the poverty threshold is an annual income of $ 11.612 for a family of 4 people, in 1987 there were 32.5 million people (There was a joke at that time that there was nothing in the USSR, but everything is cheap, everything is there in the West, but very expensive). In terms of infant mortality, the USSR was in 50th place in the world, after Mauritius and Barbados, in average life expectancy - in 32nd place.

In March 1985, after the death of K. Chernenko, the youngest member of the Politburo M.S. Gorbachev. In April 1985, under his leadership, the next Plenum of the Central Committee of the CPSU took place, from which the period of the largest political, economic, ideological and social upheavals began in big country the world. This period lasted 7 years and went down in history as "Perestroika". In the history of perestroika, four periods are clearly distinguishable.

Stage 1 - March 1985-January 1987... This stage took place under the slogans - "acceleration" and "more socialism".
Stage 2 - 1987-1988 The slogans “more democracy” and “glasnost” became the leitmotif of this stage.
Stage 3 - 1989-1990... The period of "confusion and vacillation". It is characterized by a split in the previously unified camp of perestroika, a transition to open political, national confrontation.
Stage 4 - 1990-1991 This stage was marked by the collapse of the world socialist system, the political bankruptcy of the CPSU and the collapse of the USSR. At the April 1985 Plenum of the CPSU Central Committee, a course was proclaimed to "accelerate the socio-economic development" of the USSR on the basis of the advanced development of mechanical engineering.

In 1986, an innovation appeared in economic life - state acceptance (state acceptance). It was assumed that the acceptance of the finished products of the enterprises would be carried out by a state commission independent of the enterprises. The results were very deplorable (at the end of 1987, 15-18% of industrial production did not pass state acceptance).

In the social sphere, several campaigns were launched: the total computerization of schools, the fight against drunkenness and alcoholism and unearned income.

Especially widespread resonance was caused by the Resolution of the Central Committee of the CPSU "On measures to overcome drunkenness and alcoholism", issued in 1985. The consequence of its implementation was a sharp increase in the price of vodka and a reduction in the time it takes to sell alcoholic beverages in stores. The results were not slow to affect, huge queues appeared in stores for alcohol, people switched to moonshine (in 1987, 1.4 million tons of sugar was spent to make moonshine, or the annual budget of its consumption in Ukraine with 50 million population). Drunkenness crime has left the streets and entered the family.

In the political field, the XXVII Congress of the CPSU held in 1986 limited itself to calls to improve socialist democracy. The failure of all undertakings was revealed already at the beginning of 1987.

In January 1987, the Plenum of the Central Committee of the CPSU took place, which marked the beginning of significant changes in the economic and political life of the USSR, which can rightfully be called reforms.
The development of economic reforms was determined by two trends: the expansion of the independence of state-owned enterprises and the expansion of the scope of the private sector of the economy. In 1986, the Law on Individual Labor Activity was adopted, which legalized private entrepreneurial activity in 30 types of production of goods and services, mainly in the field of handicrafts and consumer services. For the first time in many decades, officially permitted "private traders" appeared in the USSR.

In 1987, the Law on State Enterprise was adopted, according to which state-owned enterprises were transferred to cost accounting, self-sufficiency and self-financing, could independently conclude supply contracts with partners, some large enterprises were allowed to enter the foreign market.

In 1988 the Law “On Cooperation in the USSR” was adopted. Finally, in 1989, land leases were allowed for a period of 50 years.

All these concessions to "capitalism" were made according to the principle - one step forward, two steps back. Private traders and cooperators were heavily taxed (65%); by 1991, the cooperative sector employed no more than 5% of the working-age population; in the countryside, tenants held 2% of the land and 3% of livestock.
In the political field, at the same time, M. Gorbachev introduced a new concept into the political lexicon - glasnost, by which sweetness understood "healthy" criticism of existing shortcomings, greater awareness of the population and some weakening of censorship. The main permitted object of criticism was "Stalinism", the main ideal - "a return to the Leninist norms of party and state life." Within the framework of this campaign, the party leaders N. Bukharin, A. Rykov, G. Zinoviev, L. Kamenev were rehabilitated.

Previously banned works by Grossman, Platonov, Rybakov, Dudintsev, Pristavkin, Granin, Mandelstam, Galich, Brodsky, Solzhenitsin, Nekrasov, Oruel began to be published. Koestler. The programs “Twelfth Floor”, “Look”, “Fifth Wheel”, “Before and After Midnight” appeared on television.
In 1987, the first political changes began, at first timid and half-hearted. The January Plenum of the Central Committee of the CPSU sanctioned such innovations in the country's social and political life as alternative elections of enterprise managers and secret ballot in elections for party committee secretaries.

Actually, political reforms were laid early XIX All-Union Party Conference (summer 1988). At the conference, M. Gorbachev suggested extending alternative elections to the party apparatus, combining the post of first secretary of the party committee with the post of chairman of the Council of People's Deputies. And, most importantly, the conference approved, despite the resistance of a part of the party apparatus, the idea of creating a new, two-tier system of the highest representative power of the USSR and the creation of the post of President of the USSR. This reform led to the establishment new system representative power and executive power:

Representative power -> Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR Supreme Soviet of the USSR

Executive power -> President of the USSR

At the Third Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR, held in 1990, M. Gorbachev was elected the first and last President of the USSR.

In 1988-1989, with the adoption of a whole package of laws: on the press, on public organizations, on state security in the country, etc. the political climate in the country was significantly liberalized, which, in turn, sharply intensified political life in general and the activities of various kinds of "informal" organizations, in particular. Since 1989, the concepts of the market, political pluralism, the rule of law, civil society, new thinking in foreign policy have been firmly established in the political vocabulary.

The elections of deputies to the First Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR in 1989, the work of 1-3 congresses clearly showed that the country entered a period of open confrontation between various political forces, which took place against the backdrop of a deepening economic crisis. Social tensions were exacerbated by systematic shortages of certain goods: the summer of 1989 - sugar, detergents, autumn 1989 - tea crisis, summer 1990 - tobacco crisis.

In the spring of 1990, the government of N. Ryzhkov presented to the public a program of transition to the market, which provided for an increase in prices for a number of goods. The people reacted to it by sweeping away everything that remained on the store shelves.

In contrast to the Council of Ministers' program, in the summer of 1990, the "500 days" plan was published, developed under the leadership of S. Shatalin - G. Yavlinsky. The plan provided for the creation of conditions for the transition to a market economy during this period.

Finally, in the fall of 1990, M. Gorbachev proposed to the Supreme Soviet his own compromise Program for the transition to a market, which also did not work. The crisis was growing. Mikhail Gorbachev's authority in the country began to decline rapidly.

The years 1988-1991 were also marked by fundamental changes in the foreign policy of the USSR. As a result of three meetings of M. Gorbachev with US President R. Reagan, agreements were reached on the destruction of medium and short-range missiles, in 1988 the withdrawal began. Soviet troops from Afghanistan.

In September 1991, an agreement was reached to end the supply of Soviet and American weapons to Afghanistan. In the same year, the USSR sided with the United States in condemning the aggression of Iraq (its longtime ally) against Kuwait, established diplomatic relations with Israel and South Africa.

At the end of 1989, within almost one month, the communist parties in Eastern Europe lost power (mainly by peaceful means). An impressive proof of the USSR's abandonment of its previous foreign policy was the refusal of the Soviet leadership to suppress these revolutions by force. Thanks to the support of the USSR, the unification of Germany and the destruction of the Berlin Wall, which became a symbol of totalitarian socialism, became possible.

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Introduction 2
1. Stages of "restructuring" 4
1.1 First stage 4
1.2 Second stage 9
1.3 Third stage 12
2. Publicity Policy and Its Significance 17
Conclusion 20
References: 23

Introduction

The purpose of this work is: to consider the stages of the process of perestroika in the USSR, headed by M. S. Gorbachev.

In the first half of the 80s. the country has found itself in an apparent impasse. The aged Brezhnev, after his death in November 1982, was replaced by the sick Andropov. Andropov, after his death in February 1984, was replaced by the equally sick and completely colorless K.U. Chernenko. In March 1985, after the death of Chernenko, Mikhail Sergeevich Gorbachev, Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee and member of the Politburo, was elected General Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee. With his coming to power, attempts to reform the country were resumed.

Outwardly, the USSR looked like a powerful state with a fairly developed economy, enormous natural resources and strong defense. In fact, there were a huge number of problems in the country, "Gordian knots". The qualitative indicators of economic development deteriorated every year. The efficiency of capital investments, especially in agriculture, was constantly falling. In fact, the growth of labor productivity has stopped. The quality of a significant part of the production and household appliances, clothes, shoes and other products. Even official statistics showed negative trends. (2, p. 419)

Social and national contradictions in the country were in an undeveloped state, but they were already making themselves felt.

If the existing tendencies persisted, the USSR should have lost its status as a great power in the near future. Something had to be done to get out of the state of stagnation. By the mid-1980s. the need for change is clearly ripe. This was also clear to the progressive leaders of the CPSU. The new general secretary of the Central Committee of the party, M.S.Gorbachev, became the leader of the changes, and announced a course towards Perestroika. It was inevitable, the causes of it were stagnation in the economy, the growing scientific and technological lag behind the West, corruption, the dominance of the bureaucracy, the political crisis in the country's leadership, expressed, first of all, in the merging of the party-state nomenklatura with the shadow economy, etc.

The word "Perestroika", which gave the name to a whole period in our history (1985-1991), appeared 1.5-2 years after the beginning of Perestroika. At first it meant a process, then a historical period. (3, p. 9)

1. Stages of "restructuring"

Restructuring can be roughly divided into three stages.

1.1 First stage

The first stage (March 1985 - January 1987). This period was characterized by the recognition of some of the shortcomings of the existing political and economic system of the USSR and attempts to correct them with several large campaigns of an administrative nature (the so-called "Acceleration") - an anti-alcohol campaign, "the fight against unearned income", the introduction of government acceptance, a demonstration of the fight against corruption. No radical steps have yet been taken during this period; outwardly, almost everything remained as before. At the same time, the bulk of the old cadres of the Brezhnev draft were replaced with a new management team.

The beginning of the new course was laid at the April (1985) Plenum of the Central Committee of the CPSU. At the Plenum, the discussion was about the need for a qualitative transformation of society, the urgency of profound changes in all spheres of its life. The directions of development of the national economy and social sphere were outlined. Acceleration of the country's socio-economic development was to become the main lever of transformations. The success of acceleration was associated with the more active use of the achievements of science and technology, the decentralization of the management of the national economy, the expansion of the rights of enterprises, the introduction of cost accounting, the strengthening of order and discipline in production. (1, p. 454)

The main idea of the "concept of accelerating the country's socio-economic development" was reduced to a rapid economic recovery due to the redistribution of financial flows and a new structural policy. It was proposed to stop costly capital construction, and use the released funds to re-equip and modernize enterprises. It was proposed to switch from imports of consumer goods to purchases of machine-building equipment.

Mechanical engineering was identified as a new "priority", and its development had to be ahead of other industries. Along with these administrative and managerial decisions, the “human factor” was named the second, no less important component of the “acceleration”. This meant the continuation of Andropov's course of strengthening discipline everywhere, putting things in order in the expenditure of raw materials and resources, more rational use of equipment and a barrier to the production of low-quality products. At the same time, much more attention was paid to the other side of the "human factor" - it was proposed to really interest people in the results of labor, breathe life into the movement of rationalizers and inventors, and try to restore incentives to work. Thus, the concept of "acceleration" was not something radically new, but a new combination of techniques from the arsenal of the traditional Soviet experience. (6, p. 249)

To improve the quality of products, shortly after the April plenum, state acceptance of products was introduced at the largest enterprises. The introduction of "state acceptance" was a mechanical transfer of the experience of defense enterprises to civilian production. But the replacement of departmental control by another bureaucratic structure led only to the swelling of the administrative staff, to the disruption of the rhythmic work of enterprises. As a result, the output of products decreased, the deficit increased, and the quality remained at the same level, since it was completely unaffected by the already high consumer demand. (6, p. 251)

A large-scale anti-alcohol campaign began in May 1985. According to plans, the production of alcohol by 1990 was to be halved. They fought against drunkenness by administrative-compulsory methods. Penalties for drunkenness at work were toughened, and a press campaign was launched. (7, p. 63)

The measures taken had a certain positive effect: injuries decreased; decreased mortality, loss of working time, hooliganism, divorce due to drunkenness and alcoholism. But, as Gorbachev later wrote, “ Negative consequences the anti-alcohol campaign far surpassed its benefits. " Among the costs of the campaign include: a hasty closure of shops, wine and vodka factories; deforestation of vineyards; the curtailment of the production of dry wines; reduction in beer production; the massive development of home brewing, which led to the depletion of sugar resources in the country. This led to a sharp reduction in the range of confectionery products; Inexpensive colognes, used instead of vodka, began to disappear, and the use of its other "substitutes" led to an increase in diseases, anger of large masses of the population.

According to Gorbachev's data, as a result of the massive anti-alcohol campaign, the budget received less than 37 billion rubles. Contemporaries cited other figures: 67 (N. I. Ryzhkov) and 200 billion (V. S. Pavlov). Already in 1989, revenues from the alcohol trade went up again and reached 54 billion rubles, exceeding the 1984 level by 1 billion. The negative political effect of the anti-alcohol campaign was multiplied by the fact that it was one of the most “visible” and striking sources financial imbalance, the origin of which was of a deeper nature.

Alarming information about "excesses" through various channels reached the management, but the "above" did not consider it necessary to correct the course. “Our desire to overcome this terrible disaster was already very great,” Gorbachev later wrote. The desire to "quickly overcome troubles" determined the nature of many decisions made in the spheres of economic and social policy in 1985-1986 (4, p. 592)

By the fall of 1988, the government was forced to lift restrictions on the sale of alcoholic beverages.

On May 5, 1986, the Decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR "On strengthening the fight against the extraction of unearned income" was issued. The authorities attacked the "shabashniks" and "grabbers", they banned you from transporting products from one region to another. In the struggle of the local administration with "unearned income", the personal subsidiary plots of citizens suffered. As a result, food shortages have become even more acute.

The decree and especially the zeal of the authorities in its implementation contradicted the USSR Law "On individual labor activity of the USSR", which was adopted on November 19, 1986 and entered into force on May 1, 1987. But even the first attempts to remove the iron bridle from private entrepreneurial activity met with hostility from members of the Politburo. M.S. Solomentsev and V.M. Chebrikov feared that encouraging individual farming would undermine collective farms and "cast a shadow" on collectivization. To which Gorbachev replied: “Everywhere they say: there is nothing in the stores. We are all afraid that the personal economy will undermine socialism. And that empty shelves will blow it up, are we not afraid? " (7, p. 64)

His "personnel revolution" was gradually gaining momentum. A positive impression was made by getting rid of an elderly cohort of party and statesmen who came to the fore under Brezhnev. In 1985-1986. G.A.Aliyev, V.V. Grishin, D.A.Kunaev, G.V. Romanov, N.A.Tikhonov lost important posts. But among the first in the central party apparatus they were received by N.I. Ryzhkov, E.K. Ligachev, E. A, Shevardnadze, L.N. Zaikov, B.N. Yeltsin. The changes came from top to bottom. The actions of the new first secretary of the Moscow City Committee of the CPSU, BN Yeltsin, received a wide public response, who carried out a real purge of cadres in the city and district party committees.

Over time, the pace and magnitude of change will start to cause concern. They began to be called "personnel cleansing", comparable to the Stalinist "personnel revolution". (4, p. 591)

In three years, 85% of the composition of the Central Committee was renewed, which was much higher than the indicators of 1934-1939, when they amounted to about 77%. The apotheosis of the personnel reshuffle was the 19th party conference in 1988, when, upon its completion, representatives of the "Kremlin elders", including Gromyko, Solomentsev, Dolgikh, who remained in the leadership were removed from the Politburo and the Central Committee of the CPSU. (5, p. 167)

Simultaneously with the personnel reshuffle, the political renewal of society began, which was expressed, first of all, in the fight against corruption and the nomenclature. Boris Yeltsin, who replaced Grishin as the first secretary of the Moscow regional committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, became the conductor of Gorbachev's ideas in Moscow. Of the 33 regional committee secretaries in Moscow, 23 were dismissed, some of them several times. During Yeltsin's stay at the head of the Moscow organization of the CPSU, more than 800 trade workers were imprisoned for various crimes. The renewal of society was seen in the fight against corruption, while the methods of management and implementation of reforms remained prescriptive. In fact, it was about party reform from above through the system of party state bodies. (5, p. 168)

Under the influence of all these factors, by the end of 1986 the economic situation in the country began to deteriorate rapidly. The course towards "acceleration" in 1986 completely failed: a quarter of the enterprises did not fulfill their production plans, 13% of them were unprofitable. At the end of the year, there was an unprecedented budget deficit for the USSR, which amounted to 17 billion rubles. and continued to grow rapidly. Investments in the national economy began to be made at the expense of hidden price increases and increased emissions. In January 1987, a decline in production began, which could not be overcome, and which became the beginning of the deepest economic crisis. (6, p. 251)

1.2 Second stage

The second stage (January 1987 - June 1989). An attempt to reform socialism in the spirit of democratic socialism. It is characterized by the beginning of large-scale reforms in all spheres of Soviet society. In public life, a policy of glasnost is proclaimed - the softening of censorship in the media and the lifting of bans on what used to be considered taboo. In the economy, private entrepreneurship is legalized in the form of cooperatives, and joint ventures with foreign companies are being actively created. V international politics the main doctrine becomes "New Thinking" - a course to abandon the class approach in diplomacy and improve relations with the West. Part of the population is gripped by euphoria from long-awaited changes and unprecedented freedom by Soviet standards. At the same time, during this period, general instability begins to gradually increase in the country: the economic situation is deteriorating, separatist sentiments appear on the national outskirts, and the first interethnic clashes break out.

At the January Plenum of the Central Committee of the CPSU (January 27-28, 1987), the report of M. S. Gorbachev "On Perestroika and the Party's Personnel Policy" was considered and a course towards perestroika was taken. As can be seen from the title of the report, which was set in its meaning, Perestroika was initially understood as a process of renewal, first of all, of the party itself. The party called for perestroika to start with itself. The January plenum was a turning point in many respects. It proclaimed a new strategy of Perestroika - the development of "democratization and glasnost". (3, p. 13)

On the eve of M.S. Gorbachev put forward the slogan "new economic thinking", and at the Plenum he formulated a political order to economics "to raise the theoretical explanation of the current situation to the proper level." (7, p. 70) The essence of the “new thinking” consisted in the unambiguously declared priority of universal human values over class ones. This meant a radical change in the foundations of communist ideology, unshakable for many years, and initiated qualitatively new processes within the country, radically changing the content of the entire spiritual life of society. Only those changes were proclaimed "which strengthen socialism, make it politically richer and more dynamic." (6, p. 251)

In January 1987, the government granted 20 ministries and 70 large enterprises the right to independently carry out export-import operations. The decision, unprecedented in its courage, served as the impetus for the destruction of the state monopoly on foreign trade.

Also in January 1987, the emphasis was on the policy of "glasnost". The incredible happened: the jamming of Western radio stations broadcasting to the USSR was stopped; M.S. Gorbachev returned Academician A.D. Sakharov; Soviet citizenship was returned to deprived and exiled dissidents; the reorganization of various creative unions, press organs, television, theaters began.

Glasnost was one of the most important and indisputable gains of perestroika, and this is largely due to M. S. Gorbachev. However, from an instrument of criticism and "improvement" of the socialist system, glasnost began to turn into an instrument of its destruction.

In June 1987, at the Plenum of the Central Committee of the CPSU, it was decided to develop laws on the enterprise and on cooperation. The possibility of coexistence within the framework of socialism was recognized different forms property. The essence of the approach, new to the Soviet system, was to provide economic independence to economic entities. A step was taken to redistribute the powers of ownership and disposal of state property - on November 23, 1989, the "Fundamentals of the legislation of the USSR and the union republics on leasing" were adopted. (7, p. 71)

The peak of the reformatory activity of the authorities was in 1988. In January, the Law "On State Enterprise (Association)" came into force, designed to ensure the gradual transition of enterprises to production in accordance with demand, rather than a directive plan. (5, p. 79)

The law "On cooperation in the USSR" of May 26, 1988 allowed the creation of cooperatives and joint ventures with foreign partners, after a 60-year hiatus, it legalized private ownership of the means of production in the USSR. The revival of entrepreneurship as a legal type of activity began.

In the mid-80s, 15 union republics were part of the USSR: Armenian, Azerbaijan, Byelorussian, Georgian, Kazakh, Kirshz, Latvian, Lithuanian, Moldavian, RSFSR, Tajik, Turkmen, Uzbek, Ukrainian and Estonian. More than 270 million people lived on its territory - representatives of over a hundred nations and nationalities. In the opinion of the official leadership of the country, in the USSR the national question was resolved in principle and the republics were actually aligned in terms of the level of political, socio-economic and cultural development. Meanwhile, the inconsistency of the national policy gave rise to numerous contradictions in interethnic relations. Under the conditions of publicity, these contradictions grew into open conflicts. The economic crisis, which engulfed the entire national economic complex, exacerbated interethnic tensions.

The inability of the central authorities to cope with economic difficulties caused growing discontent in the republics. It intensified due to the aggravation of pollution problems environment, the deterioration of the environmental situation due to the accident at Chernobyl nuclear power plant... As before, local dissatisfaction was generated by insufficient attention of the union authorities to the needs of the republics, the diktat of the center in resolving issues of a local nature. The forces uniting the local opposition forces were the popular fronts, new political parties and movements (Rukh in Ukraine, Sayudis in Lithuania, etc.). They became the main spokesmen for the ideas of state separation of the union republics, their secession from the USSR. Leadership of the country by nal and interethnic conflicts and the growth of the separatist movement in the republics.

In 1988, hostilities began between Armenia and Azerbaijan over Nagorno-Karabakh - a territory populated mainly by Armenians, but which was part of the AzSSR. An armed conflict between Uzbeks and Meskhetian Turks broke out in Fergana. Novy Uzen (Kazakhstan) became the hotbed of interethnic clashes. The appearance of thousands of refugees - this was one of the results of the conflicts that took place. In April 1989, mass demonstrations took place in Tbilisi for several days.

The main demands of the demonstrators were the implementation of democratic reforms and the independence of Georgia. The Abkhaz population was in favor of revising the status of the Abkhaz ASSR and separating it from the Georgian SSR. (1, p. 464)

1988 was a turning point in the history of perestroika. M.S. Gorbachev wrote that then "we came to an understanding that we should not improve, but reform the system." It would seem that enterprises were given more economic independence, cooperative and individual activities were allowed, the administrative apparatus was reorganized, and negotiated prices were introduced. But the expected result did not come. Gorbachev and his supporters attributed this to the absence of political reforms and the dominance of the bureaucracy. (5, p. 89)

1.3 Third stage

The third stage (June 1989-1991). The final stage, during this period, there is a sharp destabilization of the political situation in the country: after the Congress, the confrontation between the communist regime and the new political forces that emerged as a result of the democratization of society begins. Difficulties in the economy develop into a full-blown crisis. A chronic commodity shortage reaches its climax: empty store shelves are becoming a symbol of the turn of the 1980s and 1990s. Perestroika euphoria in society is being replaced by disappointment, uncertainty about the future and massive anti-communist sentiments. Since 1990, the main idea is no longer the "improvement of socialism", but the building of democracy and a market economy of the capitalist type. "New thinking" in the international arena boils down to unilateral concessions to the West, as a result of which the USSR is losing many of its positions and in fact ceases to be a superpower that controlled half of the world a few years ago. In Russia and other republics of the Union, separatist-minded forces come to power - a "parade of sovereignties" begins. The natural result of this development of events was the elimination of the power of the CPSU and the collapse of the Soviet Union.

Meanwhile, by 1990-1991. the situation in the country has acquired a conflict, explosive nature. The basic structures of the Soviet system collapsed.

Already in 1989, several political parties of different orientations arose, opposing the omnipotence of the CPSU. In 1989, some of the deputies created an Interregional Group headed by Yeltsin, which came up with a program of radical reforms (market, democracy, the CPSU's rejection of the monopoly on power, etc.). In 1990. under strong public pressure, the plenum of the Central Committee of the CPSU proposed to remove from the Constitution of the USSR Article 6 on the leading and guiding role of the party. (4, s 593)

Within the CPSU, a split into conservative and reformist wings was outlined. At the cost of incredible efforts, a split was avoided, but a massive outflow from the ranks of the CPSU began.

Relations between the center and the union republics sharply deteriorated. 1990-1991 were marked by the so-called "parade of sovereignties", when all union republics declared themselves sovereign states.

Along with the national separatism of the union republics, the national movement of peoples that had the status of autonomies within the USSR was gaining strength. Deep historical roots lay at the heart of interethnic conflicts, which sharply exacerbated in the conditions of perestroika. One of the first turning points in the perestroika process in the spring of 1988 was the Karabakh crisis. It was caused by the decision of the newly elected leadership of the autonomous Nagorno-Karabakh region to secede from Azerbaijan and transfer the Karabakh Armenians under the jurisdiction of Armenia. The growing interethnic conflict soon turned into a long-term armed confrontation between Armenia and Azerbaijan. At the same time, a wave of ethnic violence spread to other regions of the Soviet Union: a number of republics Central Asia, Kazakhstan. There was another explosion of Abkhaz-Georgian contradictions, and then the bloody events in Tbilisi in April 1989 followed. In addition, the struggle for the return to the historical lands of the Crimean Tatars, the Meskhetian Turks, Kurds and Volga Germans, repressed in Stalin's times, intensified. Finally, in connection with the granting of the status state language in Moldavia, the Romanian (Moldavian) language and the transition to the Latin script broke out the Transnistrian conflict. Its peculiar difference was that the population of Transnistria acted as a small nation, two-thirds of which consisted of Russians and Ukrainians. (1, p. 471)

The tragic events in Vilnius and Riga in January 1991 pushed Mikhail Gorbachev and his associates from among the reformers in the Union leadership to organize an all-Union referendum on the preservation of the USSR (the referendum was held on March 17, 1991 in 9 republics out of 16). In 1991, presidential elections were held in Russia. It was Boris N. Yeltsin. A popular referendum held in March 1991 showed that the majority of citizens are in favor of preserving the USSR. In the summer of 1991, an agreement was drawn up on the reform of the federal state, expanding the powers of the republics. Its signing gave a chance to preserve unity.

During this period, serious changes took place in relations between the USSR and the states of Eastern Europe. M.S. Gorbachev announced his rejection of the policy of interference in the affairs of the allies in the Warsaw Pact Organization. As a result, the communist regimes in the countries of Eastern Europe collapsed. On November 9, 1989, the Berlin Wall was destroyed, a symbol of the confrontation between the two systems, the border of the GDR with West Berlin and Germany. In 1990, the unification of East and West Germany took place.

In 1991, the CMEA and the Warsaw Pact Organization ceased their activities. The USSR lost its positions in Eastern Europe, the status of a world power was lost.

Gorbachev's merits in pursuing a policy of peace and cooperation, the formation of new political thinking were highly appreciated by the West. However, the situation inside the country deteriorated sharply. The reforms led not to growth, but to a decrease in production. The "500 days" program, prepared by liberal economists and supported by the leadership of the RSFSR, was essentially rejected in the summer of 1990. Difficulties in supplying the population with food and basic necessities have become so aggravated that the government decided to introduce their rationed distribution by cards. The strike movement expanded. (3, p. 16)

Under these conditions, the conservative wing in the CPSU and the state apparatus made an attempt to remove Gorbachev, elected president of the USSR by the Congress of People's Deputies in 1990, from power and prevent the signing of a new union treaty. On August 19, the transfer of power to the State Committee for the State of Emergency was announced, Gorbachev was isolated in Crimea, armored vehicles were introduced to Moscow. The center of resistance to the GKChP regime was the president, government and parliament of the RSFSR. Tens of thousands of Muscovites gathered at the walls of the Government House. On August 21, the attempted coup d'état was suppressed. Gorbachev returned to Moscow, but the union treaty was never signed. (1, s 462)

On June 12, 1990, the First Congress of People's Deputies of the RSFSR adopted the Declaration on the State Sovereignty of Russia. It legally enshrined the priority of republican laws over union laws. Boris N. Yeltsin became the first president of the Russian Federation, and A. V. Rutskoy became the vice president.

The declarations of the Union republics on sovereignty placed the question of the continued existence of the Soviet Union at the center of political life. The IV Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR (December 1990) called for the preservation of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and its transformation into a democratic federal state. The congress adopted a resolution "On the general concept of a union treaty and the procedure for its conclusion." The document noted that the basis of the renewed Union will be the principles set forth in the republican declarations: equality of all citizens and peoples, the right to self-determination and democratic development, territorial integrity. In accordance with the resolution of the congress, an all-Union referendum was held to decide on the preservation of the renewed Union as a federation of sovereign republics. 76.4% of the total number of people who participated in the voting were in favor of preserving the USSR. (1, p. 465)

In December 1991, the leaders of Russia, Ukraine and Belarus signed in Belovezhskaya Pushcha a statement on the termination of the Union Treaty of 1922 and on the creation of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS). On December 25, Gorbachev announced his resignation from the presidency. The collapse of the USSR has become a fact. The restructuring is over. (6, c 261)

2. Publicity policy and its meaning

The impetus for the policy of glasnost was the events of April 26, 1986 at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant, which revealed the moral flaw in the previous party control over information. In May, the congresses of the Union of Cinematographers and the Union of Theater Workers took place, where a change of leadership was made, and the Unions were respectively headed by E. Klimov and M. Shatrov. Also, appointments were made to central magazines and newspapers: the editorial office of Novy Mir was headed by S. Zalygin, Znameni - G. Baklanov, Ogonyok - V. Korotich, Moskovsky Komsomolets - E. Yakovlev, Argumenty i Fakty - V. Starkov. Personnel changes in the leadership of creative unions and editorial offices of periodicals were aimed at neutralizing the emerging party opposition to Gorbachev's reforms. The tragic circumstances of the sinking of the Admiral Nakhimov motor ship in the summer of 1966 and the Komsomolets nuclear submarine in October of the same year convinced Gorbachev of the need for publicity. At the January 1987 plenum, the policy of glasnost was officially enshrined as the basis for ongoing political reforms. (7, p. 83)

The initiators of "perestroika" are beginning to view glasnost as the most important lever of democratization, increasing the social activity of the still quite inert population. A significant increase in awareness, an increase in the level of critically discussed problems, the demand for previously unused intellectual potential - all this was supposed to help overcome ideological dogmatism and break the previous stereotypes of political behavior, which, ultimately, should have accelerated the perestroika processes in all spheres. According to this logic, publicity and intellectual emancipation should have preceded and optimized transformations. (4, p. 600)

The development of glasnost, started from above, rather quickly began to absorb various social forces and turned into a powerful stream, which Gorbachev and his entourage could no longer keep within a certain framework. At first, glasnost seemed like another propaganda campaign, a kind of "trick" in which few believed. Gorbachev himself put into this concept approximately the same meaning that the former party ideologists put in "expanding criticism and self-criticism." It all boiled down to an open conversation about the shortcomings that hinder the development of the socialist system and "cast a shadow" on socialist values. However, the process of democratization of society was rapidly gaining momentum. Opinions that had previously been discussed exclusively in the circle of "friends" began to surface. Informal clubs and associations arose, where discussions were held on almost all issues of political and public life, various options for the country's economic development were discussed. Among such associations, the most famous are the Perestroika club and the Social Initiatives Fund in Moscow, Dialectic in Leningrad and a number of others. Most of their participants were guided by the ideas of "socialism with human face", the economic practice of wide cost accounting. The overwhelming majority of them supported" perestroika ", sought to expand the authority and influence of these ideas at the grassroots level. p. 54)

In 1987-1989. previously unpublished and forbidden works are published: "Requiem" by A. Akhmatova, "Sofya Petrovna" by L. Chukovskaya, "Doctor Zhivago" by B. Pasternak and other books. The books by A. Rybakov "Children of the Arbat", V. Dudintsev "White Clothes", D. Granin "Bison", V. Grossman "Life and Fate", A. Pristavkin "A golden cloud spent the night", etc. are published. in the country in 1987-1988 numerous political associations and societies are formed: popular fronts in Moldova, Latvia, Estonia, in large cities of Russia, the Lithuanian "Sayudis", the Ukrainian "Rukh", "Free Georgia" and other organizations. The established stereotypes regarding the historical past of the USSR are being revised, the rehabilitation process, interrupted in the Brezhnev period, is resumed. In February 1988, the Commission for additional study of materials related to the repressions that took place in the period of the 30-40s and the beginning of the 50s, comes to the conclusion that the cases against N.I.Bukharin, A.I. Rykov and other defendants at the third Moscow trial in 1938.

The glasnost policy, which at times took on a sharply negative character in relation to the entire historical past of the USSR, led to the consolidation of conservative-minded persons within the Politburo, who did not accept the direction of most of the perestroika materials in the periodicals. The formation of opposition to the reforms in the Politburo was also facilitated by the command-administrative methods of carrying out reforms in the initial period of perestroika, as well as the affected party-nomenclature interests. Also, opponents of Gorbachev were critical of the ongoing economic reforms, in which they saw capitulation to the capitalist system. (5, p. 169)

The consequences of the glasnost policy were controversial. Of course, people could now calmly speak the truth without fear of consequences. On the other hand, freedom quickly turned into irresponsibility and impunity.

Conclusion

perestroika glasnost gorbachev political

In the course of this work, all stages of restructuring were considered.

The restructuring, conceived and carried out by a part of the party and state leaders with the aim of democratic changes in all spheres of society, is over. Its main result was the collapse of the once mighty multinational state and the end of the Soviet period in the history of the Fatherland. In the former republics of the USSR, presidential republics were formed and operated. Among the leaders of sovereign states were many former party and Soviet workers. Each of the former union republics independently searched for ways out of the crisis. V Russian Federation these tasks were to be solved by President B. N. Yeltsin and the democratic forces supporting him. (1, p. 467)

The collapse of the socialist system based on the fear of reprisals was due to the start of M.S. Gorbachev's policy of glasnost and democratization. In the process of Gorbachev's perestroika, many Russians got a taste for freedom, they got the hope that they can live on our land no worse than in Europe. Was finished cold war... In place of the USSR, 15 independent states arose. The idea of building a communist society on the territory of the USSR and in the countries of Eastern Europe failed.

Perestroika brought both some positive results, especially in the first months of Mikhail Gorbachev's coming to power, and serious negative consequences. A thorough analysis of the state of our society, the reasons for the difficult situation in the field of economics, finance, and the social situation of people can be considered a positive result of it. Positive tendencies include the posing of issues of democratization of society, reform political system, glasnost, reduction of international tension, arms race.

However, one cannot judge the policy and activities of the leader of the state on the basis of his good intentions or individual episodes. Either there is an effective political course and its positive results, or they are not. V in this case six years in the history of the country have become a time of lost opportunities and parting with illusions and myths, the beginning of turmoil. Practically not a single measure in the economic sphere, not a single attempt to ensure the growth of production and the well-being of people has yielded a sustainable positive result. And this largely devalued the planned measures to democratize society.

Impulsiveness and inconsistency in the development of the restructuring policy, its depressing incompetent implementation into practice only complicated the situation, exacerbating the contradictions in the development of society.

Thus, the actions of M. S. Gorbachev led to the collapse of the unified state, a decrease in production, an increase in crime, a deterioration in the life of the people, and a decrease in the birth rate. This is the result that is so highly appreciated in the West and painfully experienced by fellow citizens of the former Soviet Union. The restructuring of Soviet society, carried out by Mikhail Gorbachev.

Today, Mikhail Gorbachev believes that the breakthrough to freedom and democracy, begun by perestroika, is still relevant. Moreover, new impulses and active actions by the authorities and the whole society are needed, aimed at democratization. Without this, ambitious plans for the modernization of the country are impracticable.

1985-1991 saw a radical change in relations between the West and the USSR, a transition from the image of an enemy, an "evil empire" to the image of a partner. In recognition of the enormous merits of Mikhail Gorbachev as an outstanding reformer, a world-class politician who made a unique contribution to changing the very nature of international development for the better, he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. In a statement on October 15, 1990, the Nobel Committee said: “The Norwegian Nobel Committee decided to award the 1990 Nobel Peace Prize to President of the Soviet Union Mikhail Sergeevich Gorbachev for his leading role in the peace process that today characterizes an important part of the life of the international community. V last years significant changes have taken place in relations between East and West. Confrontation gave way to negotiations ... ”. The increased openness he brought to Soviet society helped to build international confidence. According to the committee, “the peace process, to which Gorbachev made such a significant contribution, opens up new opportunities for the world community to solve its urgent problems, regardless of ideological, religious, historical and cultural differences. (eight)

Bibliography

1. History of Russia. Textbook. Edition 3, rev. and add. Ed. A. S. Orlov. - M., 2006.

2. V. V. Fortunatov. Story. Tutorial. Third generation standard. - SPb., 2012.

3. V. Yu. Zhukov. Contemporary history of Russia: perestroika and transition period. 1985-2005. Tutorial. - SPb., 2006.

4. History of Russia. 1917-2004. Tutorial. Ed. A. S. Barsenkova. - M., 2005.

5. History of Soviet Russia. Tutorial. Ed. I. S. Ratkovsky. - SPb., 2001.

6. Course of Soviet history, 1941-1999. Tutorial. Ed. A.K.Sokolova. - M., 1999.

7. Perestroika and the collapse of the USSR. 1985-1993. Tutorial. Ed. A. Bezborodova. - SPb., 2010.

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Stages

The main stages of Perestroika in the USSR in 1985-1991:

March 1985 - early 1987 The slogans of this stage were the phrases: "acceleration" and "more socialism."
1987-1988 At this stage, new slogans appeared: "glasnost" and "more democracy".
1989-1990 Stage of "confusion and vacillation". The formerly united camp of perestroika has split. Political and national confrontation began to gain momentum.
1990-1991 This period was marked by the collapse of socialism, the political bankruptcy of the CPSU and, as a consequence, the collapse of the Soviet Union.

Reasons for perestroika in the USSR

The beginning of major reforms in the Soviet Union, as a rule, is associated with the coming to power of Mikhail Gorbachev. At the same time, some experts consider one of his predecessors, Yu. A. Andropov, to be the “father of perestroika”. There is also an opinion that from 1983 to 1985 Perestroika was going through an "embryonic period" while the USSR was entering the stage of reform. One way or another, due to a lack of economic incentives to work, a devastating arms race, huge military spending in Afghanistan, and a growing lag behind the West in science and technology, at the dawn of the 1990s, the Soviet Union was in need of large-scale reform. The gap between the slogans of the government and the real situation was huge. Distrust of communist ideology grew in society. All these facts became the reasons for Perestroika in the USSR.

The beginning of change

In March 1985, Mikhail Gorbachev was elected to the post of General Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee. The next month, the new leadership of the USSR proclaimed a course for the accelerated development of the country in social and economic sphere... This was the beginning of the real Perestroika. As a result, "publicity" and "acceleration" will become its main symbols. In society, more and more often one could hear slogans like: "We are waiting for changes." Gorbachev also understood that the state needed changes badly. Since the time of Khrushchev, he was the first general secretary of the CPSU Central Committee, who did not disdain to communicate with ordinary people. Traveling around the country, he went out to people to ask about their problems.

Working on the implementation of the set course for the development and implementation of the Perestroika reforms in the USSR in 1985-1991, the country's leadership came to the conclusion that the sectors of the economy need to be transferred to new ways of managing. 1986 to 1989 laws were gradually issued on state enterprises, individual labor, cooperatives, as well as on labor conflicts... The latter law provided for the right of workers to strike. Within the framework of economic transformations, the following were introduced: state acceptance of products, cost accounting and self-financing, as well as the appointment of directors of enterprises based on the results of elections.

It is worth recognizing that all these measures not only did not lead to the main goal of Perestroika in the USSR in 1985-1991 - positive improvements in the country's economic situation, but also worsened the situation. The reasons for this were: the "dampness" of the reforms, significant spending of the budget, as well as an increase in the amount of money in the hands of the common population. Due to state supplies of products, the communications established between enterprises were disrupted. The consumer goods deficit has intensified.

"Publicity"

From an economic point of view, Perestroika began with "accelerating development." In spiritual and political life, the so-called "glasnost" became its main leitmotif. Gorbachev said that democracy is impossible without glasnost. By this he meant that the people should know about all state events of the past and the processes of the present. In journalism and the statements of party ideologists, the ideas of replacing "barracks socialism" with socialism with a "human appearance" began to appear. Culture in the years of Perestroika of the USSR (1985-1991) began to "revive". The authorities have changed their attitude towards dissidents. The camps for political prisoners gradually began to close.

The policy of "glasnost" gained special momentum in 1987. The legacy of the writers of the 30-50s and the works of Russian philosophers have returned to the Soviet reader. The repertoire of theater and cinematographers has expanded significantly. Glasnost processes have been manifested in magazine and newspaper publications, as well as on television. The weekly "Moscow News" and the magazine "Ogonyok" were very popular.

Political transformations

The policy of Perestroika in the USSR in 1985-1991 assumed the emancipation of society, as well as its deliverance from party tutelage. Consequently, the issue of the need for political transformation was put on the agenda. Major events in the internal political life of the USSR steel: approval of the reform state structure, the adoption of amendments to the constitution and the adoption of the law on the election of deputies. These decisions were a step towards organizing an alternative electoral system. The highest legislative body of power was the Congress of People's Deputies. He nominated his representatives to the Supreme Council.

In the spring of 1989, elections were held for the members of the Congress of People's Deputies. A legal opposition was included in the congress. It was headed by: the world-famous scientist and human rights activist Academician A. Sakharov, the former secretary of the Moscow City Party Committee B. Yeltsin and the economist G. Popov. The spread of "glasnost" and pluralism of opinions led to the creation of numerous associations, some of which were national.

Foreign policy

During the years of Perestroika, the course of the foreign policy of the Soviet Union radically changed. The government abandoned confrontation in relations with the West, stopped interfering in local conflicts and revised its relationship with the countries of the socialist camp. The new vector of foreign policy development was based not on the "class approach", but on universal human values. According to Gorbachev, relations between states should have been based on maintaining a balance of national interests, freedom to choose development paths in each individual state and the collective responsibility of countries for solving global issues.

Gorbachev initiated the creation of a common European home. He met regularly with the rulers of America: Reagan (until 1988) and Bush (since 1989). At these meetings, politicians discussed disarmament issues. Soviet-American relations were “unfrozen”. In 1987, treaties were signed on the destruction of missiles and missile defense. In 1990, politicians signed an agreement on the reduction of the number of strategic weapons.

During the years of Perestroika, Gorbachev was able to establish trusting relations with the heads of the leading states of Europe: Germany (G. Kohl), Great Britain (M. Thatcher) and France (F. Mitterrand). In 1990, the participants in the Conference on the Security of Europe signed an agreement on the reduction of the number of conventional weapons in Europe. The USSR began to withdraw its soldiers from Afghanistan and Mongolia. During 1990-1991, both the political and military structures of the Warsaw Pact were disbanded. The military bloc, in fact, ceased to exist. The policy of "new thinking" brought fundamental changes to international relations. This was the end of the Cold War.

National movements and political struggles

In the Soviet Union, as in a multinational state, national contradictions have always existed. They gained special momentum in the context of crises (political or economic) and radical changes. Being engaged in the construction of socialism, the authorities paid little attention to historical features peoples. Having announced the formation of the Soviet community, the government actually began to destroy the traditional economy and life of many peoples of the state. The authorities exerted especially strong pressure on Buddhism, Islam and shamanism. Among the peoples of Western Ukraine, Moldova and the Baltic states, which joined the USSR on the eve of the Second World War, anti-socialist and anti-Soviet sentiments were very common.

The peoples deported during the war years were greatly offended by the Soviet power: Chechens, Crimean Tatars, Ingush, Karachais, Kalmyks, Balkars, Meskhetian Turks and others. During Perestroika in the USSR in 1985-1991, there were historical conflicts in the country between Georgia and Abkhazia, Armenia and Azerbaijan, Georgia and Armenia, and others.

The policy of "glasnost" gave the green light for the creation of nationalist and national social movements. The most significant of them were: the "Popular Fronts" of the Baltic countries, the Armenian committee "Karabakh", the Ukrainian "Rukh" and the Russian community "Memory". The opposition movement attracted broad masses.

Strengthening of national movements, as well as opposition to the Union Center and the power of the Communist Party, became a determining factor in the crisis of the "upper circles". Back in 1988 in Nagorno-Karabakh tragic events unfolded. For the first time since the civil war, demonstrations took place under nationalist slogans. Following them, pogroms took place in Azerbaijani Sumgait and Uzbek Fergana. Armed clashes in Karabakh became the apogee of national discontent.

In November 1988, the Supreme Soviet of Estonia proclaimed the supremacy of the republican law over the all-Union law. The following year, the Verkhovna Rada of Azerbaijan proclaimed the sovereignty of its republic, and the Armenian social movement began to advocate for the independence of Armenia and its separation from the Soviet Union. At the end of 1989, the Lithuanian Communist Party declared its independence.

1990 elections

During the 1990 election campaign, there was a pronounced confrontation between the party apparatus and opposition forces. The opposition received an electoral bloc "Democratic Russia", which became for it nothing but an organizational center, and later turned into a social movement. In February 1990, many rallies took place, the participants of which sought to eliminate the Communist Party's monopoly on power.

The parliamentary elections in Ukraine, Belarus and the RSFSR were the first truly democratic elections. About 30% of positions in the highest legislative bodies were received by deputies with a democratic orientation. These elections were an excellent illustration of the power crisis of the party elite. Society demanded the abolition of the 6th article of the Constitution of the Soviet Union, which proclaims the supremacy of the CPSU. This is how a multi-party system began to form in the USSR. The main reformers, B. Yeltsin and G. Popov, were promoted to high posts. Yeltsin became the chairman of the Supreme Soviet, and Popov became the mayor of Moscow.

The beginning of the collapse of the USSR

Mikhail Gorbachev and Perestroika in the USSR in 1985-1991 are associated with the collapse of the Soviet Union. It all started in 1990, when national movements began to gain momentum. In January, as a result of the Armenian pogroms, troops were brought into Baku. Military operation accompanied by large quantity casualties, only temporarily distracted the public from the issue of Azerbaijan's independence. Around the same time, Lithuanian parliamentarians voted for the independence of the republic, as a result of which Soviet troops entered Vilnius. Following Lithuania, a similar decision was adopted by the parliaments of Latvia and Estonia. In the summer of 1990, the Supreme Soviet of Russia and the Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine adopted declarations of sovereignty. In the spring of next year, independence referendums were held in Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia and Georgia.

Autumn 1990. Mikhail Gorbachev, who was elected President of the USSR at the Congress of People's Deputies, was forced to reorganize the authorities. Since then, the executive bodies have been directly subordinate to the president. The Federation Council was established - a new advisory body, which included the heads of the union republics. Then began the development and discussion of a new Union Treaty regulating relations between the republics of the USSR.

In March 1991, the first referendum in the history of the USSR was held, in which the citizens of the countries had to speak out about the preservation of the Soviet Union as a federation of sovereign republics. Six union republics (Armenia, Moldova, Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia and Georgia) out of 15 refused to take part in the referendum. 76% of those polled voted for the preservation of the USSR. In parallel, an All-Russian referendum was organized, as a result of which the post of President of the Republic was introduced.

Russian presidential elections

On June 12, 1991, popular elections were held for the first president in the history of Russia. According to the voting results, this honorary post went to Boris N. Yeltsin, who was supported by 57% of voters. So Moscow became the capital of two presidents: the Russian and the all-Union. It was problematic to reconcile the positions of the two leaders, especially given the fact that their relationship was far from “smooth”.

August putsch

By the end of the summer of 1991, the political situation in the country had deteriorated greatly. On August 20, after heated discussions, the leaders of the nine republics agreed to sign an updated Union Treaty, which, in fact, meant the transition to a real federal state. A number of state structures of the USSR were eliminated or replaced with new ones.

The party-state leadership, believing that only decisive measures would lead to the preservation of the political positions of the Communist Party and stop the collapse of the USSR, resorted to forceful methods of government. On the night of August 18-19, when the President of the USSR was on vacation in Crimea, they formed the State Emergency Committee ( State Committee for a state of emergency). The newly minted committee has declared a state of emergency in some parts of the country; announced the dissolution of power structures that were in violation of the 1977 Constitution; obstructed the activities of opposition structures; banned meetings, demonstrations and rallies; took tight control of the media; and, finally, sent troops to Moscow. A.I. Lukyanov - Chairman of the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union, supported the State Emergency Committee, although he himself did not become a member of it.

B. Yeltsin, together with the leadership of Russia, led the resistance of the KGChP. In an appeal to the people, they urged him not to obey the illegal decisions of the committee, interpreting his actions as nothing more than an anti-constitutional coup. Yeltsin was supported by more than 70% of Muscovites, as well as residents of a number of other regions. Tens of thousands of peaceful Russians, expressing support for Yeltsin, were ready to take up arms in the Kremlin's defense. Frightened by the outbreak of a civil war, the State Emergency Committee, after three days of confrontation, began to withdraw troops from the capital. On August 21, the committee members were arrested.

The Russian leadership used the August putsch to defeat the CPSU. Yeltsin issued a decree according to which the party must suspend its activities in Russia. The property of the Communist Party was nationalized and the funds were arrested. The liberals, who came to power in the central part of the country, took away from the leadership of the CPSU the levers of control over the power structures and the media. Gorbachev's presidency was only formal. The bulk of the republics refused to conclude a Union Treaty after the August events. Nobody thought about "glasnost" and "acceleration" of Perestroika. On the agenda was the question of the future fate of the USSR.

Final decay

In the last months of 1991, the Soviet Union finally collapsed. The Congress of People's Deputies was dissolved, the Supreme Soviet was radically reformed, most of the Union ministries were liquidated, and an inter-republican economic committee was created instead of the cabinet of ministers. The State Council of the USSR, which included the President of the Soviet Union and the heads of the Union republics, became the supreme body for managing domestic and foreign policy. The first decision of the State Council was the recognition of the independence of the Baltic countries.

On December 1, 1991, a referendum was held in Ukraine. More than 80% of the respondents spoke in favor of the independence of the state. As a result, Ukraine also decided not to sign the Union Treaty.

On December 7-8, 1991, Boris N. Yeltsin, L. M. Kravchuk and S. S. Shushkevich met in Belovezhskaya Pushcha. As a result of the negotiations, politicians announced the termination of the existence of the Soviet Union and the formation of the CIS (Union of Independent States). At first, only Russia, Ukraine and Belarus entered the CIS, but later all the states that were previously part of the Soviet Union, except for the Baltic, joined it.

Results of Perestroika in the USSR 1985-1991

Despite the fact that Perestroika ended disastrously, it nevertheless brought a number of important changes to the life of the USSR, and then of its individual republics.

Positive results of perestroika:

The victims of Stalinism were completely rehabilitated.
There was such a thing as freedom of speech and opinion, and censorship became less harsh.
The one-party system was eliminated.
Now there is a possibility of unhindered entry / exit to / from the country.
Military service for students in training has been canceled.
Women were no longer imprisoned for adultery.
Rock was allowed.
The Cold War has formally ended.

Of course, Perestroika in the USSR in 1985-1991 also had negative consequences.

Here are just the main ones:

The country's gold and foreign exchange reserves fell 10 times, which caused hyperinflation.
The country's international debt has grown at least threefold.
Pace economic growth countries fell almost to zero - the state simply froze.

Well, and the main negative result of Perestroika in the USSR in 1985-1991. - the collapse of the USSR.

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Goals:

Find out the historical background and the inevitability of a radical reform of the Soviet political and economic system and consider alternative ways of its development.
Continue the formation of the skills to conduct a dialogue, cooperate in groups, and simulate situations.

Lesson type: a lesson in studying a new topic (the topic is studied in a 2-hour lesson)

During the classes

Organizing time.

Learning a new topic.

Prerequisites for perestroika in the USSR, its tasks.
Reform of the political system. Changes in culture and public consciousness.
Socio-economic reforms. Acceleration strategy.
Foreign policy of the USSR during the years of perestroika.

Topic vocabulary:

Publicity - the availability of information for public information and discussion.

1. Prerequisites for perestroika in the USSR, its tasks.

At the March (1985) Plenum of the Central Committee of the CPSU, Mikhail Gorbachev was elected General Secretary. He proposed a course for the modernization of the Soviet system, which was called "perestroika".

Perestroika is a complex of reforms carried out in all spheres of life by the Communist Party and the Soviet government since 1985 with the aim of eliminating stagnation.

Assignment: listening to the story, name causes reforms in all spheres of society.

By the mid-80s. in the socio-economic system of the USSR, "stagnation" gradually turned into a crisis situation. The Soviet economy has lost its dynamism. There was a drop in industrial growth. Crisis phenomena were observed in the sphere consumer market and finance (including in connection with the fall in world oil prices).

In 1965-1985. completed the folding of the basic institutions of the Soviet bureaucratic system. There was a degradation of the ruling elite - the nomenklatura, which was mired in corruption and protectionism. Society was confronted with the phenomenon of gerontocracy, when aging, sick leaders were in power.

A crisis has also emerged in the social sphere. In the beginning. In the 1980s, real per capita incomes fell, and life expectancy declined. The remaining equalizing and deficit distribution system in the lower part of the social pyramid came into conflict with the protected system of privileges of the nomenklatura.

Problems have been outlined in interethnic relations. The union republics demanded real rights and the ability to independently solve economic and social problems, blaming the Russian population for a crisis situation,

The continuing "cold war", the prevailing bipolar system led by the USA and the USSR resulted in an exhausting arms race. The Afghan war, which had come to a standstill, contributed to the aggravation of the international situation. All this happened against the background of the growing economic and technological lag of the USSR from the developed countries.

So, reasons for restructuring:

A sharp drop in the rate of economic development of the USSR.
The crisis of the planned economy.
Increase in the bureaucratic apparatus of management.
Social inequality.
The crisis of interethnic relations.
Loss of the international prestige of the USSR.

Assignment: based on the reasons, formulate the tasks of restructuring.

Restructuring tasks:

In the economic field - to change the economic model, create a market economy, eliminate the lag behind the advanced countries.
In the social sphere - to achieve a high standard of living for the entire population.
In the field of domestic politics - to change political regime, create a democratic, civil society, rule of law, change the concept of relations between the republics within the Union.
In the field of foreign policy - to create a new doctrine of state security, to develop new approaches to international relations.

Conclusion: in the early 80s. the crisis of the system ripened in the country, all strata of society were interested in transformations.

2. Reform of the political system
.

Directions of the implementation of the restructuring

Glasnost is the availability of information for public acquaintance and discussion (the term first appeared in February 1986 at the XXVII Congress of the CPSU).

Stages of restructuring:

April 1985 - January 1987
Early 1987 - Spring 1989
Spring 1989 - August 1991

The first stage of restructuring - the personnel revolution (1985-86), when the composition of the party and state leaders was rejuvenated, they supported perestroika.

Appeared on the political arena: Yeltsin, Ryzhkov, Ligachev, Shevardnadze. In connection with the emergence of a multiparty system - Zyuganov (leader of the Communist Party of the Russian Federation), Zhirinovsky (leader of the Liberal Democratic Party), Novodvorskaya (leader of the Democratic Union), Gaidar (leader of Democratic Russia).

Second phase - reform of the political system. Decisions were made for:

Democratizing the process of elections to representative bodies of power.

The course towards the creation of a socialist rule of law.

Separation of powers. Establishment of a two-tier system of legislative power - the Congress of People's Deputies and the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, elected from among the deputies of the Congress.

Electoral System Change Act (1988) Direct representation of public organizations in the highest legislative bodies. Of the 2,250 deputies, 750 were elected from the CPSU, the Komsomol, trade unions, etc.

The beginning of the formation of a multi-party system.

Elimination of the CPSU's monopoly on power by abolishing Article 6 of the Constitution.

Introduction of the post of President of the USSR (March 1990, III Congress of People's Deputies).

In May-June 1989, the First Congress of People's Deputies was held, at which Gorbachev was elected Chairman of the Supreme Soviet, Boris Yeltsin became Chairman of the Supreme Soviet of the RSFSR.

The third Congress of People's Deputies in March 1990 elected Mikhail Gorbachev President of the USSR.

By the beginning of 1991, Gorbachev's centrist policies were increasingly aligned with those of the Conservatives.

Achievements of the policy of publicity

Costs of publicity

Recognition of the crisis of the system;

Striving for full awareness of the people;

Easing censorship

Publication of works by emigrants of the "third wave" (Brodsky, Galich, Solzhenitsyn, Voinovich)

Rehabilitation of the repressed 20-50s

Adoption of the Declaration on the illegality of the Stalinist policy of forced migration of peoples (November 1989)

Filling in the blank spots of history.

Semi-freedom of speech, i.e. permission to say only what the management required;

Defense of Stalinism (a letter from N. Andreeva “I can’t compromise my principles” was printed, 1988 in defense of Stalin).

Glasnost contributed to the clash of ideological, social, national and other currents, which led to an exacerbation of interethnic contradictions and the collapse of the USSR.

The flourishing of the yellow press.

3. Economic reforms. Acceleration strategy.

The USSR lagged behind the leading world powers in terms of economic development, the economy plunged into a crisis. All over the world, there was a structural restructuring of the economy, i.e. the transition to the information society was carried out, the economy in our country was stagnating.

Assignment: Students' independent group work with the text of the textbook, highlighting 3 stages of economic reform. Make entries in the form of a diagram.

Stage 1 of reforms

Bottom line: acceleration has come to a standstill.

April (1985) Plenum of the Central Committee of the CPSU

The course to accelerate the social economy. country development

Levers:

Scientific and technical progress

Technical re-equipment of mechanical engineering

Activation of the "human factor"

The introduction of state acceptance, which led to the growth of the management apparatus, an increase in material costs;

Intensive operation of old equipment led to an increase in accidents (the largest disaster was the accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant in April 1986)

Stage 2 of reforms

1987 - 1989

Goal: transition from administrative to economic methods while maintaining

centralized management (i.e. the introduction of elements of a market economy)

June (1987) Plenum of the Central Committee of the CPSU

The main directions of restructuring of economic management were approved

Provision of a law on the independence of enterprises and their transfer to self-financing
Decrease in planned indicators

Enterprise Act (1987)

The beginning of the development of the laws of the sphere of private initiative

creation of cooperatives of activity "

1988 laws

"About cooperation"
“On the individual labor

legalization of the shadow economy;
reduction in production;
rationed distribution of products and essential goods;
massive strikes

Transition options to a market economy

3 stage of reforms

Outcome:

Discussion of programs in the Supreme Soviet - autumn 1990
We synthesized both programs and issued a declaration of intent.
It provided for the transition to a market in the USSR by 1997.
Refusal of the Union republics to accept it for execution.

Conversation on questions:

What does acceleration mean? What are the acceleration levers? Results?
What elements of a market economy have been introduced?
What program for overcoming the crisis was proposed by Yavlinsky, Shatalin, Ryzhkov?
How did the collapse of economic reforms affect the fate of the Soviet state?

4. Foreign policy of the USSR during the years of perestroika.

Teacher's word. The change in foreign policy strategy was prepared by the arrival in the Foreign Ministry in 1985 of a new leadership headed by E.A. Shevardnadze.

Gorbachev M.S. put forward a new philosophical and political concept, called "New political thinking". Its main provisions included:

Rejection of the idea of splitting the world into two opposing systems, i.e. rejection of the Cold War policy;

Refusal to use force as a means of resolving international problems;

Recognition of the world as whole and indivisible;

Priority of universal human values, recognition of generally accepted moral norms.

New political thinking is a set of ideas and approaches that express the interests of people, regardless of their nationality and statehood, and ensure the survival of mankind in the nuclear-space age.

The main priorities in the foreign policy of the USSR after 1985

Easing tensions between East and West through negotiations with the United States on disarmament;
Settlement of regional conflicts;
Recognition of the existing world order and expansion of economic ties with all countries.

Directions of the foreign policy of the USSR

Normalization of East-West relations

Unblocking regional conflicts

Establishing econ. and political contacts

- meetings of the leaders of the USA-USSR:

1985 - Geneva

1986 - Reykjavik

1987 - Washington

1988 - Moscow;

The Treaty on the Destruction of Medium and Short Range Missiles;

Treaty on the Limitation of Strategic Offensive Arms (START-1) -1991

- withdrawal of Soviet troops from Afghanistan (February

Normalization of relations with China, Israel;

Refusal of the USSR to intervene in regional conflicts in Ethiopia, Angola, Nicaragua;

Withdrawal of the SA from Mongolia, Vietnam, Kampuchea.

- “Velvet revolutions” in the socialist countries, non-interference of the USSR;

Dissolution of CMEA, OVD

RESULTS

The end of the cold war (1988)
The collapse of the bipolar system of international relations
USA is the only superpower
Escalation of international military conflicts

Conclusions:

During the period of perestroika, the Soviet political system was finally destroyed.
In the wake of democratization, political pluralism and a multi-party system were formed.
The socio-economic system could not exist outside the administrative-command form, so the half-hearted reforms in the field of economics failed.
The Cold War ended, but the USSR's international positions weakened.
Perestroika ended with the collapse of the USSR and the collapse of the communist system.

Reflection:

Give a definition to the concepts:

Restructuring
"Personnel revolution"
Acceleration strategy
Publicity policy
Regional conflicts
Velvet revolutions

List of used literature

Artemov V.V., Lyubchenkov Yu.N. History for professions and specialties of technical, natural science, socio-economic profiles: a textbook for the beginning. and Wednesday. prof. Education: at 2 Ch., M., 2011, - Ch 2, paragraph 97.
Araslanova O.V., Pozdeev A.V. Lesson development on the history of Russia (XX - early XXI centuries): grade 9. - M., 2007, - 320 p.