"The woman is created for a man, not a man for a woman" - such a postulate ...
Lesson 7.15Directed associative experiment
A directional associative experiment from various free options is distinguished by the fact that the test in response to stimuli words is responsible (or writes) not by any words that came to his head, but in accordance with the instruction of the experimenter. Thus, the associative reactions of the subjects are guided by a certain bed. This imposes restrictions on the processes of mental search subjects when choosing suitable words from their disposal. Instructions can be different both in directivity and by the degree of complexity. For example, the selection of antonyms or synonyms reactions is an easier task than the selection on the principle of rotative or power relations. The number of incentives, as in the previous embodiment of a free associative experiment, 30-40 words, but in accordance with the instructions, they are selected more intelligently, for example, according to the dictionary of synonyms or antonyms.
Instructions for subjects: "In response to the presented word-incentive, write down the word of the opposite value (anthony).
List of words-incentives
1. Anger 16. Top
2. Mr. 17. Dull
3. Non-historicalness 18. Love
4. Shame 19. Susha
5. Rival 20. Culture
6. Black 21. Woman
7. Jump 22. Child
8. Beautiful 23. Find
9. Coleno 24. Hope
10. Humanity 25. Frost
11. Laughter 26. Work
12. Attack 27. Smooth
13. Storm 28. Take
14. Boredom 29. Praise
15. Bed 30. Adagio
To estimate the experimental results, a table should be prepared (Table 7.15.1) with an indication of adequate reactions, inadequate and approximately correct, so-called semantic paraphazies (a pair - about, phase-sense).
Table 7.15.1
Results of a directional associative experiment
With a good or satisfactory knowledge of the language and the active use of its internal structural connections, the subjects will show high results on the second column - adequate reactions, up to 100%. Indicators on the third column will be quite good for diagnostics, but it is still preferably more accurately execute the instructions of the experimenter. For example, if the subject in the word-stimulus "shame" suggests the word "pride", then such an answer will fall into the second column, since according to the dictionary of the antonyms of the Russian language, it was necessary to write the words "Honor", "Glory" or "Honor". The third column includes those answers of the subjects that do not correspond to the instructions in general. For example, in response to the word "shame", the subject writes writes the words "shame", "condemnation" and other, not corresponding to the idea of \u200b\u200bopposite. The directional associative test, thus checks not only knowledge of the language, but also the ability to logically think, relate different types of connections, differentiate individual features.
Right answers - Antonyms: 1 - kindness, 2 - servant, slave, 3 - agility, agility, acne, 4 - honor, glory, honor, 5 - partner, colleague, like-minded man, 6 - white, 7 - stand, 8 - ugly, ugly, ugly, 9 - Pashnya, arable land, Processed land, 10 - Misanthropy, 11 - Plach, 12 - Defense, Protection, 13 - Tish, Pochka, 14 - Fun, 15 - Joy, 16 - Base, Sole, 17 - Bright, 18 - hate, 19 - sea, water, 20 - ignorance, 21 - man, 22 - old man, 23 - Loss, 24 - despair, 25 - Knowing, heat, 26 - Recreation, idleness, 27 - Shersha, 28 - pay, 29 - Brand, Rugan, Critica, 30 - Allegro, Presto, Scherzo.
Earn 7.16Chain Associative Test
Under the chain association, unmanaged, spontaneous flow of the process of reproducing the content of the consciousness and subconscious of the subject, the so-called "subconscious flow" is understood. This method willingly use psychoanalysis specialists. In an individual conversation with his patients, they offer them in a relaxed state with the lack of or low-level self-controlling to say everything that they think, that is, they offer them to "speak." Later, this speech material is analyzed to identify unconscious alarms, phobias, deposits and translations of them to the level of awareness, verbalization. For greater convenience and reliability of the results, the subjects are invited to pronounce any individual words for a certain period of time. As a result, a chain of associative reactions, composed of individual words, is obtained. These words, regardless of the desire of the subjects, are combined into certain semantic groups, or semantic nests. The size and number of semantic nests can be different, which determines individual features. In one nest, it can be from one word to several and even to all words of the chain: for example, in a chain "Song, cheerful, voice, beautiful, metal, gold, silver, glitter, spring, flowers, flavor" There are three semantic sockets on 3 -4 words in each. These nests in accordance with their content are summarized under a more general category - the name. In this example, it may be the name "Beautiful Song", "Brilliant Metal", "Flowering Spring". Judging by the names and small sizes of semantic nests, this subject does not experience special alarms and any concerns, so psychoanalyst is limited to a regular conversation. If the size of the sockets become large - 10-15 words, and the names reflect unpleasant emotional events, such as fear of robbery or painful state, the task of psychoanalyst becomes the development of constructive measures to derive the patient from the painful state.
The procedure for holding a chain associative experiment. The subjects occupy a convenient position and, at the direction of the experimenter, proceed to perform the task.
Instruction: "For one minute, write down any words that come to mind. HE List the items in the field of your vision, and do not remember the previously learned rows of words. Started! " It is advisable to repeat the experiment several times to compare the results obtained.
Data processing
1. Determine the length of the associative series, to calculate the number of words recorded in 1 min (Table 7.16.1).
Table 7.16.1
Results of the study of a chain associative experiment
2. Determine the structure of the associative series, for which it is first to calculate the number of semantic nests with the help of logical correlation of nearby words among themselves.
3. Determine the average size of semantic nests, dividing the number of words in the entire chain on the number of nests.
4. Give names to the largest semantic nests.
5. Determine the average size of the associative chain with several experiments, the average number of semantic sockets, their average size and most frequent names.
For analysis of experimental data It is necessary to pay attention to the following. Numerous experiments have shown that for a healthy active person who knows this language well, the average length of the associative chain for 1 min is 19-21 of the word. With understated indicators, for example, 10 words per minute, you can assume the inhibition of the hard processes caused by different reasons: fatigue, poor knowledge of the language, the rigidity of thinking. Increased indicators (35-40 words per minute) indicate excessive mobility of the hard processes, the cause of which may be painful excitation, feverish state, emotional excitation. Assessing the structure of the associative series, it should be paid to the fact that the norm is considered to be the formation of 3-4 nests for 1 min with an average of 5-6 words in the nest. Increasing the number of nests and a decrease in the number of words in the nest, as well as the return process, reflect the dynamic features of the evenly associated with the excitation or braking and the focus of subconscious and conscious processes.
Topic 6. Theoretical and experimental approaches to personality research
Lecture (2 hours)
The general concept of personality in psychology. Genotypic and phenotypic, biological and social in individual development of man. The role of the individual properties of a person in the development of personality. Major psychological theories and studies of the individual. Properties, structures and typology of personality - A.N. Leontyev, S.L. Rubinstein, B.G. Ananyev, A.V. Petrovsky, kk. Platonov, A.G. Asmolov. Personality as a system of relationships (Meatsishev V.N.). Individuality of the personality and its life path of personality development in the process of personality socialization. The main factors and mechanisms for the development of the individual.
The concept of identity or its psychological manifestations. Motivational sphere of a person: motive and motivation; Motivation theories. The main laws of the development of the motivational sphere. Needs. Classification of needs. Theory A. Maslow.
Maklakov A. G. General psychology. - SPb.: Peter, 2001. - 592 C.: IL. - (Series "New Century Textbook")
Chapter 20. Personality
20.1. The general concept of personality
In psychological science, the category "personality" refers to the number of basic concepts. But the concept of "personality" is not purely psychological and is studied by all social sciences, including philosophy, sociology, pedagogy, etc. What is the specificity of the study of the individual within the framework of psychological science and what is a person from a psychological point of view?
First of all, we will try to answer the second part of the question. This is not so simple, because the question is what is personality, all psychologists are responsible in different ways. The diversity of their answers and discrepancies in opinions testifies to the complexity of the phenomenon itself. On this occasion, I. S. Kon writes: "On the one hand, it denotes a specific individual (person) as a subject of activity, in the unity of its individual properties (single) and its social roles (general). On the other hand, the personality is understood as the social property of the individual, as a set of integrated socially significant traits in the process of direct and indirect interaction of this person with other people and make it, in turn, the subject of labor, knowledge and communication "*.
Each of the identities of the individual existing in the scientific literature is supported by experimental research and theoretical substantiations and therefore deserves it to take into account when considering the concept of "personality". Most often under the personality understands a person in the aggregate of its social and vital qualities acquired by him in the process of social development. Consequently, the personality characteristics are not taken to relate the features of a person who are associated with the genotypic or physiological organization of a person. Personal qualities also not accepted
* Kon I. S. Personal sociology. - M.: Politicize, 1967.
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wearing human quality, characterizing the features of the development of his cognitive mental processes or an individual style of activity, for the exception of those that manifest themselves in relations to people and society as a whole. Most often, the content of the concept of "personality" includes the sustainable properties of a person who determine the acts meaningful in relation to other people.
In this way, personality is a specific person taken in the system of its sustainable socially determined psychological characteristics, which manifest themselves in public relations and relationships, determine its moral actions and are essential for himself and others.
It should be noted that in the scientific literature in the content of the concept of "personality" sometimes include all levels of the hierarchical organization of a person, including genetic and physiological. We, when considering issues related to personality, will proceed from the above definition. What is our opinion based on?
As you remember, the study of the course of general psychology, we started not from the definition of psychological science, but with the fact that the question of the systemic study of the person himself was considered. We focused on the fact that psychology has developed its idea of \u200b\u200bthe problem of human research. This submission was substantiated by B. G. Ananev, who allocated four levels of the human organization, which are of the greatest interest to scientific research. The individual, the subject of activity, personality, personality was attributed to their number.
Each person as a representative of the biological species has certain innate features, i.e. the structure of his body causes the possibility of straightening, the structure of the brain ensures the development of intelligence, the structure of the hand involves the possibility of using tools of labor, etc., all these features a man's baby differs from a young animal. The belonging of a particular person to human race is fixed in the concept individual.Thus, the concept of "individual" characterizes a person as a carrier of certain biological properties.
Appearing on the light as an individual, a person is included in the system of public relations and processes, resulting in special social quality - it becomes personality. This is because a person, including a system of public relations, acts as subject - The carrier of consciousness that is formed and develops in the process of activity.
In turn, the features of the development of all these three levels characterize the uniqueness and originality of a particular person, determine it individuality. Thus, the concept of "personality" characterizes one of the most significant levels of human organization, namely the peculiarities of its development as a social being. It should be noted that in domestic psychological literature you can find some discrepancy in the views on the hierarchy of the human organization. In particular, such a contradiction can be found among representatives of Moscow and St. Petersburg psychological schools. For example, representatives of the Moscow school, as a rule, do not allocate the level of the subject, combining the biological and mental properties of a person in the concept of "individual". However, despite certain discrepancies, the concept of "personality" in domestic psychology relates to the social organization of a person.
472 Part IV. Psychic properties of the person
When considering the personality structure, it usually includes abilities, temperament, character, motivation and social installations. All these qualities will be discussed in detail in subsequent chapters while we We are limited only by their general definitions.
Abilities - These are individually sustainable human properties that define its successes in various activities. Temperament - This is the dynamic characteristics of human mental processes. Character Contains qualities that determine the attitude of a person to other people. Motivation - This is a combination of motivation to activities, and social settings - This is the beliefs of people.
In addition, some authors include such concepts as will and emotions in the personality structure. We considered these concepts in the "mental processes" section. The fact is that in the structure of mental phenomena it is customary to allocate mental processes, mental states and mental properties. In turn, mental processes are divided into cognitive, volitional and emotional. Thus, the will and emotions have all the grounds in order to be considered in the framework of mental processes as independent phenomena.
However, the authors considering these phenomena within the framework of the personality structure, there are also for this basis. For example, feelings are one of the types of emotions - most often have a social orientation, and volitional qualities are present in the regulation of human behavior as a member of society. All this, on the one hand, once again talks about the complexity of the problem under consideration, and on the other - on certain disagreements regarding some aspects of the problem of personality. Moreover, the greatest disagreements cause the problems of the hierarchy of the structure of the human organization, as well as the ratio of biological and social in person. With the last problem, we will get acquainted in more detail.
20.2. The relationship of social and biological personality
The concepts of "personality" and "individuality", from the point of view of domestic psychology, do not coincide. Moreover, in domestic psychological science there is quite a lot of disagreements about the ratio of these concepts. Scientific disputes occur periodically on the issue of which of the concepts is wider. From one point of view (which is most often represented in the works of representatives of the St. Petersburg Psychological School), individuality unites those biological and social features of a person who make it unlike other people, i.e. the concept of "individuality" with this position seems Wide than the concept of "personality". From another point of view (which can most often meet from representatives of the Moscow Psychological School), the concept of "individuality" is considered as the most narrow in the structure of the human organization, which combines only a relatively small group of qualities. General in these approaches is that the concept of "personal
Chapter 20. Personality 473
it includes primarily the quality of the person who is manifested at the social level during the formation of social relations and human relations.
At the same time, there are a number of psychological concepts in which the personality is not considered as a subject of a system of social relations, but seems to be a holistic integrative education, including all the features of a person, including biological, mental and social. Therefore, it is believed that with the help of special personal questionnaires you can describe a person as a whole. Such a discrepancy is caused by the difference in approaches to the consideration of the relationship between the biological and social structure in the human identity structure.
The problem of the ratio of biological and social human personality is one of the central problems of modern psychology. In the process of the formation and development of psychological science, almost all possible links between the concepts of "mental", "social" and "biological" were considered. Mental development was interpreted and as a fully spontaneous process, independent of any biological, nor from social, and as a derivative only from biological or only on social development or as a result of their parallel action on an individual, etc. Thus, several groups of concepts can be distinguished , differently considering the ratio of social, mental and biological.
In a group of concepts, which prove the spontaneity of mental development, the mental is considered as a phenomenon that completely subordinate to its internal laws is in no way associated with neither biological or socially related. At best, the human body within the framework of the concepts of concepts takes place the role of some "extensive" mental activity. Most often we face this position in the authors who prove the divine origin of mental phenomena.
In biology concepts, mental is considered as a linear function of the development of the body, as something definitely following this development. From the standpoint of these concepts, all the features of the mental processes, states and properties of a person are determined by the peculiarities of the biological structure, and their development is subject to exclusively biological laws. At the same time, laws discovered in the study of animals, which do not take into account the specifics of the development of the human body are often used. Often, in these concepts, the main biogenetic law is attracted to explaining mental development - the law of recapitulation, according to which the evolution of the species is reproduced in the development of an individual to which this individual belongs. The extreme manifestation of this position is the statement that there is no mental as an independent phenomenon in nature, since all mental phenomena can be described or explained by biological (physiological) concepts. It should be noted that this point of view is very widespread among the physiologists. For example, I. P. Pavlov adhered to this point of view.
There are a number of sociology concepts, which also proceed from the idea of \u200b\u200brecapitulation, but only here it seems somewhat different. As part of the concepts of concepts, it is argued that the mental development of the individual in the secessive form reproduces the main steps of the process of historical development of society, primarily the development of its spiritual life, culture.
The most bright essence of such concepts expressed V. Stern. In the interpretation proposed by him, the recoupulation principle covers the evolution of the psyche of animals, and the history of the spiritual development of society. He writes: "The human individual in the first months of the infant period with the predominance of lower senses, with anonymous reflex and impulsive existence, is in the stage of the mammal; In the second half of the year, the development of grabbing and versatile imitation, he reaches the development of the highest mammal - monkey, and in the second year, mastering the vertical gait and speech is the elementary human state. In the first five years of the game and fairy tales, he stands on the steps of primitive peoples. Then he follows to school, a more intense introduction into a social integer with certain duties, is an ontogenetic parallel of human entry into culture with its state and economic organizations. In the first school years, the simple content of the ancient and Old Testament world is most adequate to the children's spirit, the ages of
the fanaticism of Christian culture, and only in the period of maturity is achieved spiritual differentiation corresponding to the state of the culture of the new time "*.
Of course, we will not discuss the question of the truth of one or another approach. However, in our opinion, leading such analogies, it is impossible not to take into account the system of learning and education, which is historically developing in each society and has its own specifics in each social and historical formation. At the same time, every generation of people takes society at a certain stage of its development and is included in that system of social relations, which has already developed at this stage. Therefore, a person in his development has no need to repeat in a folded form the entire previous story.
No one will challenge the fact that a person is born as a representative of a certain biological species. At the same time, a person after birth turns out to be in a certain social environment and therefore develops not only as a biological object, but both Representative of a particular society.
* Stern V. Basics of human genetics. - M., 1965.
476 part IV. Psychic properties of the person
Of course, these two tendencies are reflected in the laws of human development. Moreover, these two trends are in constant interaction, and it is important for psychology to find out the nature of their relationship.
The results of numerous studies of the patterns of mental development of a person suggest that the initial prerequisite for the mental development of the individual is its biological development. Individual is born with a certain set of biological properties and physiological mechanisms, which act as the basis of its mental development. But these prerequisites are implemented only when a person is in human society.
Considering the problem of interaction and mutual influence of the biological and social in the mental development of a person, we allocate three levels of human organizations: the level of the biological organization, the social level and the level of the mental organization. Thus, it is necessary to keep in mind that it is about interaction in the Triad "Biological and Mental-Social". Moreover, the approach to the study of the relationship of the components of this triad is formed from the understanding of the psychological essence of the concept of "personality". However, to answer the question of what personality is psychologically, in itself is a very difficult task. Moreover, the solution of this issue has its own history.
It should be noted that in various domestic psychological schools the concept of "personality", and even more so the ratio of biological and social in person, their role in mental development is interpreted in different ways. Despite the fact that all domestic psychologists are unconditionally accepted by the point of view, which claims that the concept of "personality" refers to the social level of human organization, there are certain differences on the issue of the degree of manifestation of social and biological determinants. So, the difference in views on this problem we will find in the works of representatives of the Moscow and St. Petersburg Universities, which are the leading centers of domestic psychology. For example, in the works of Moscow scientists, it is most often possible to meet the view that social determinants play a more significant role in the development and formation of personality. At the same time, the works of representatives of the St. Petersburg University proves the idea of \u200b\u200bequal significance to develop the identity of social and biological determinants.
From our point of view, despite the incomprehension of views on certain aspects of the study of the individual, in general, these positions are more complemented by each other.
In the history of domestic psychology, the idea of \u200b\u200bthe psychological essence of the person has repeatedly changed. Initially, the understanding of the personality is precisely as a psychological category was built on the transfer of component parts, forming a person as some mental reality. In this case, personality acts as a set of qualities, properties, features, features of human psyche. From a certain point of view, this approach was very convenient because it made it possible to avoid a number of theoretical difficulties. However, this approach to the problem of understanding the psychological essence of the concept of "personality" was named academician A. V. Petrovsky "Collectorsky", for in this case of personal
Chapter 20. Personality 477
it turns into a certain product, the capacity of the interests, the ability, the task of the psychologist to the cataloging of all this and the identification of individual uniqueness of its combination in each individual person, turns from the position of this hike. Such an approach deprives the concept of "personality" of its categorical content.
In the 60s. XX century The agenda faced the issue of structuring numerous personal qualities. From the mid-1960s. Attempts began to find out the general personality structure. The approach of K. K. Platonova, who understood a certain biosocial hierarchical structure under the identity is very characteristic of this direction. The scientist highlighted the following substructures in it: focus; experience (knowledge, skills, skills); Individual features of various forms of reflection (sensations, perception, memory, thinking) and, finally, the combined properties of temperament.
It should be noted that the approach K. K. Platonova was subjected to a certain criticism sO Parties of domestic scientists, and above all representatives of the Moscow Psychological School. This was caused by the fact that the general structure of the individual was interpreted as a certain combination of its biological and socially-conditioned features. As a result, it is hardly the main thing in the psychology of the personality became the problem of the relationship of social and biological in person. As opposed to the opinion of K. K. Platonov, an idea was expressed that the biological, entering the personality of a person becomes social.
By the end of the 1970s., In addition to the orientation on a structural approach to the problem of personality, the concept of a systemic approach began to develop. In this regard, the ideas of A. N. Leontiev are of particular interest.
Describing a brief feature of the personality understanding Leontiev. Personality, in his opinion, is a psychological education of a special type, generated by the life of a person in society. The coented of various activities creates the basis of personality, the formation of which occurs in the process of social development (ontogenesis). The concept of the "personality" of Leontyev did not attribute the genotypically determined features of the person - the physical constitution, the type of nervous system, temperament, biological needs, affectiveness, natural deposit, as well as inexpressive knowledge, skills, skills, including professional. The above categories, in his opinion, constitute the individual properties of a person. The concept of "Individual", according to Leontiev, reflects, firstly, the integrity and indispensability of a particular person as a separate individual of this biological species and, secondly, the peculiarities of a particular representative of the species that distinguish it from other representatives of this species. Why did Leontyev divided these characteristics into two groups: Individual and Personal? In his opinion, individual properties, including genotypically determined, can change diverse during the human life. But from this they do not become personal, because the person does not eat an individual enriched in previous experience. Individual properties do not go to personality properties. Even transformed, they remain individual properties, without determining the emerging personality, but by making up the prerequisites and conditions for its formation.
478 Part IV. Psychic properties of the person
The approach formulated by Leontiev's approach to understanding the problem of personality found its further development in the works of domestic psychologists - representatives of the Moscow school, including A. V. Petrovsky. The textbook "General Psychology", prepared under his editorial office, gives the following identity definition: "A person in psychology is denoted by the system social quality acquired by an individual in subject activity and communication and characterizing the level and quality of the representation of public relations in an individual" *.
What is the person as a special social quality of the individual? First of all, it should be processed from the fact that the concepts of "individual" and "personality" are not identical. Personality is a special quality that is acquired by an individual in society in the process of entering into public relations in its nature. Therefore, very often in domestic psychology, personality is considered as a "supersensible" quality, although the carrier of this quality is quite sensual, a physical individual with all its congenital and acquired properties.
To understand the foundations on which certain properties of the person are formed, it is necessary to consider the life of a person in society. The inclusion of an individual into the system of social relations determines the content and nature of the activities performed by them, the circle and methods of communication with other people, i.e. the features of his social being, lifestyle. But the lifestyle of individual individuals, certain communities of people, as well as society as a whole is determined by the historically developing system of social relations. And this means that the personality can be understood or explored only in the context of specific social conditions, a particular historical era. Moreover, it should be noted that for the personality society is not just an external environment. The person is constantly included in the system of social relations, which is mediated by many factors.
Petrovsky believes that the identity of a particular person can continue in other people, and with the death of an individual she does not completely die. And in the words "he lives in us and after death" there are no mysticism, no pure metaphoricity, it is a statement of the fact of the ideal representation of the individual after its material disappearance.
Considering the point of view of representatives of the Moscow Psychological School on the Personality Problem, it should be noted that in the concept of personality in most cases the authors include certain properties belonging to the individual, and those properties that determine the originality of the individual, its individuality. However, the concepts of "individual", "personality" and "individuality" are not identical on the content, each of them reveals the specific aspect of individual being of a person. The personality can only be understood in the system of stable interpersonal relations mediated by the content, values, the meaning of the joint activities of each of the participants. These interpersonal relationships are real, but by nature is superitive. They manifest themselves in the specific individual properties and actions of people entering the team, but do not reduce them.
Just as the concepts of "individual" and "personality" are not identical, the personality and individuality, in turn, form unity, but not identity.
* General psychology: studies. For students ped. In-Tov / Ed. A. V. Petrovsky. - 3rd ed., Pererab. and add. - M.: Enlightenment, 1986.
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If the features of individuality are not presented in the interpersonal relationship system, they are insignificant to evaluate the person and do not receive a condition for development, just as personalities are acting as personalities, to the greatest degree of "drawn" in the leading activities for this social community. Individual features of a person have not been manifested to a certain time until they become necessary in the interpersonal relationship system, the subject of which will be the person as a person. Therefore, but the opinion of representatives of the Moscow Psychological School, individuality is only one of the parties of the person.
Thus, two main points are traced in the position of representatives of Moscow psychological school. First, the personality and its characteristics are compared with the level of social manifestation of the qualities and properties of a person. Secondly, the personality is considered as a social product, in no way associated with biological determinants, and therefore, it can be concluded that socially affects the mental development of the individual.
The idea of \u200b\u200bthe problem of personality, formed in the framework of St. Petersburg Psychological School, is most pronounced in the works of B. G. Ananyev. The first distinctive feature of the Ananian approach to consideration of the problem of personality psychology is that, unlike representatives of Moscow psychological school, considering three levels of human organization "Individual - personality - individuality", it allocates the following levels: "Individual - a subject of activity - personality - individuality" . This is the main difference in approaches, which is largely due to various views on the ratio of biological and social and their influence on the process of human mental development.
The question of the need for an experiment for linguistics for the first time put in 1938 L.V. Scherba in the article mentioned already "On the Trojac aspect of language phenomena and an experiment in the linguistics". The scientist believed that "to withdraw a language system, that is, a dictionary and grammar", it is possible from "according to texts, that is, from the respective language material." In his opinion, it is committed to obviously that there is no other method and cannot exist in applied to the dead. At the same time, L.V. Scherba noted that the dead languages \u200b\u200bare becoming when they cease to serve the gun of communication and thinking inside the human team, they cease to develop and adapt to the expression of new concepts and their shades, they are terminated what can be called a paganorative process.
The case should be a little otherwise, he wrote, - in relation to live languages. According to Scherbi, "Most linguists usually approach live languages, however, as well as to the dead, i.e. Accumulates language material, in other words, writes texts, and then processes the principles of the dead languages. " Scherba believed, "that at the same time the dead dictionaries and grammar are obtained." He believed that "the researcher of living languages \u200b\u200bshould flow differently."
"The researcher," wrote Shcherb, "should also proceed with so | or otherwise understood language material. But, having built it from the facts of this, the material of a certain abstract system, it is necessary to check | "Its on new facts, i.e. to look if the facts-out-out of it are responsible. Thus, the principle of II is introduced experiment.Having made any assumption about the meaning of this or "other word, one form, about one or another word of word formation or formation, etc., you should try whether it is possible to associate a number of various forms, applying this rule."
Scherba also wrote that the experiment may have as a positive \ and a negative result. Negative results indicate either infidelity of the postulated rule, or on the need for some restrictions, or that the rules are already no longer, and there are only the facts of the dictionary, etc. resulting examples of the right |; (1-3) and Incorrect (4) proposals, Scherba argued that the language researcher should apply to the issue of the correctness or incorrect language material to the native speaker, without relying on its intuition. At the same time, he believed that this kind of experiment is already being held in nature when the child learns To speak or when an adult man studies a foreign language, or with pathology, when the collapse of speech occurs.
(1) No trade was in the city.
(2) There was no trade in the city.
I (3) There was no trade in the city.
I (4) * There was no trade in the city.
He mentioned the researcher and the mistakes of writers, believing that "Lyapsus" is associated with a bad sense of language. It is noteworthy that at the same time Freud wrote about reservations and cheers, treating it in a psychoanalysis paradigm. At the same time, under the experiment in the linguistics of Scherboga sub-paragraph | Valo: 1) introspection, self-surveillance and 2) setting the actual experiment. He wrote about the principle of experiment as an important moment, which allows you to deeper into the understanding of human speech activity. Since he wrote it in the zo-e years of the XX century, when there was a struggle of opinions in the Soviet linguistics, a scientist, fearing accusations in individualism, argued the methodological correctness of the method proposed by it. So, in addition to said Scherba added: "With a very common fear that, with this method, the" individual speech system "will be investigated, and not the language 127
system, you need to end once and forever. After all, the individual speech system is only a specific manifestation of the language system. " Even if you follow a narrow understanding of the role of an experiment in linguistics as checking the provisions of the regulatory language system with the facts of a living language, it should be recognized following the scientists that linguistic knowledge makes it possible to understand human consciousness.
Domestic psycholingwist L.V. Sugar noted that supporters of traditional methods of linguistic analysis have a number of objections to experiment.Usually they are reduced to the following:
1. The materials of the experiments are very interesting, but do not you know what they can say the tests on the task of the experimenter? How to prove that there are really linguistic rules in the experiment?
2. In the experiment, artificial situations are created, which is not characteristic of the natural functioning of the language and speech.
3. In spontaneous speech, it is sometimes manifested that it is not possible to organize any experiment, i.e. The possibilities of experimental techniques are quite limited.
Sugar believed that these questions could be answered as follows:
1. The question is what is being studied in the experiment - language or speech? Traditional linguistics recognizes that otherwise, than it is impossible to exit through speech. But if you study the language through spontaneous texts, why you can not study it through the texts received in the experiments? (Recall that in linguistics the language is understood as a system, and speech - as its implementation.)
2. Although the situation in the experiment is both artificial, the principal features of speech activities, detected, in the experiment, are characteristic of speech activities and in other, not experimental situations. Conduct a clear line between typical and atypical, natural and artificial situations can not be.
3. The experiment is not the only possible method of psycholinguistic research. Psycholinguistics does not deny any material nor the method of observation, which has traditional linguistics. Psycholinguistics This material uses, but a somewhat different angle of view, in a wider context and material, and methods. The speech, and the nonsense context, and the overall working conditions, and the intention of the Communication, and the state of the participants in communication are also taken into account.
As a feature of the language of domestic psycholinguistics, it can be noted that it uses the concept of "subject", and not "informant". Informant(from lat. Informatio - clarification, presentation) is a subject included in the experiment and informing the experimenter on its course, on the characteristics of its interaction with the object. Test- This is the subject that, being a native speaker, is at the same time an expert in its use, and at the same time indirectly informs the experimental information about the fragments of its linguistic consciousness. In other words, psycholinguistics accepts the fact of a subjective interpretation by the native language material by the native language not as a factor, but as a fact to be scientific analysis.
An important feature of psycholinguistics is to appeal to the meaning of the word - to its semantics (from Greek. Semantikos - denoting). In linguistics, the analysis of semantics is connected, first of all, with the study of the lexical meaning of words and expressions, changes in their values, studying the revolutions of speech or grammatical forms. Psycholinguistics distinguishes objective and subjective semantics. The first is the semantic system of language values, the second is represented as an associative system that exists in the consciousness of an individual. In this regard, semantic features are divided into association related associations (subjective) and semantic components of vocabulary taken in an abstract logical (objective) plan. The psycholinguistic concept of the "semantic field" is a set of words together with their associations.
One of the attempts to experimentally determine the subjective semantic fields and connections within them is the method of an associative experiment.
2. Associative experiment
Associative experiment (Associative Experiment) is the most developed technique of psycholinguistic analysis of semantics.
2.1. Associative experiment procedure.The test is presented to the list of words and it is said that they need to answer the first words in the head. Typically, every test is given 100 words and 7-10 minutes to the answers. Most reactionsresisting in associative dictionaries received from students128129
universities and colleges aged 17-25 years, for which language incentivesis native.
There are several varieties of an associative experiment:
1. Free Associative Experiment. The subject is not put
No restrictions on the reaction.
2. Directed associative experiment. Test
Lads to give associations of a certain grammatical or se
Mantic class (for example, to choose an adjective
).
3. Chain associative experiment. Sussu sustained
react to stimulusseveral associations - for example,
give 10 seconds of reactions for 20 seconds.
There are special dictionaries of associative norms, including the dictionary of J. Diase (J. Deese. The Structure of Associations in Language and Thought. Baltimore, 1965). In Russian, the first vocabulary of this kind was the "dictionary of associative norms of the Russian language" under. A.A. Leontiev (Moscow, 1977).
Currently, the most complete dictionary in Russian (and in principle) is the "Russian Associative Dictionary" (compilers: Yu.N. Karaulov, Yu.A. Sorokin, E.F. Tarasov, N.V. Ufimseva, A. Cherkasova. - M., 1994-2002). It includes the following parts: t. 1. Direct dictionary: from stimulus to reaction; t. 2. Reverse Dictionary: From the reaction to the incentive; vol. 3-6 are also direct and inverse dictionaries of two other lists of words. In this dictionary, 1277 incentives, which is slightly less than the number of words that are used by speaking in everyday speech (1500-3000); As an answer, 12,600 different words were recorded, and only more than a million reactions.
The structure of the vocabulary article in the Russian Associative Dictionary is as follows: First, the capital word is given, then the reaction is given in descending order of the frequency (indicated by the number). Inside the reaction groups are followed in alphabetical order (5):
(5) Forest ... Field, Trees 11, Autumn, Big, Birza 7, etc.
At the end of each article are given numbers (6):
(6) Forest ... 549 +186 + 0 + 119.
The first digit indicates the total number of reactions to incentives, the second - the number of different reactions, the third - the number of subjects, which left this stimulus without an answer, i.e. The number of failures. The fourth is the number of single answers, i.e. reactions that
only once and the frequency of which is equal, respectively, unity is given.
2.2. Interpretation of the answers of the associative experiment.there is
Many features of interpretation of the results of associative exploration
Riment. Without bypowing scientific disputes, consider some of them.
When analyzing the responses of the associative experiment, primarily syntagmatic (7) and paradigmatic (8) associations are distinguished:
(7) sky - blue, car - rides, smoking - bad
(8) Table - Chair, Father- mother
Syntagmatic associations are called associations, the grammar class of which is differ from the grammatical class incentive.Paradigmatic associations are the words reactions of the same grammatical class as words-incentives. They obey the principle of "minimal contrast", according to which the smallest words of incentives differ from words-reactions in the composition of semantic components, the more high the likelihood of actualization of the word-reaction in the associative process. This principle explains why the semantic composition of the word-incentive word can be restored by the nature of the association: a number of associations issued for the Word contain a number of features similar to those contained in the word-incentive (9).
Non-port carrier reactionscan easily restore stimulus(in the case (9) is holiday).
(9) summer and; summer 10; Recreation 6; Short, soon, Hurray 4; idleness,
In Prostokvashino, began, school
It is believed that paradigmatic associations reflect language relations, and syntagmatic - speech.
Bench-species relations (10) are also isolated, reactions having a phonetic similarity with an incentive (11), clisited (12) and personal (13):
(10) Animal - Cat, Desk - Furniture
(11) House- tom, mouse- book
(12) Master - Golden Hands, Guest- stone
(13) man - I have to
2.3. The value of the results of the associative experiment.Asso
Catent experiment is widely known and is actively used in Psi
Holingvistism, psychology, sociology, psychiatry.
The results of the associative experiment can be used primarily in different fields of linguistics. In particular, due to the fact that it is usually carried out on a large number of subjects, you can construct a table of frequency distribution of words-reactions to
each word-incentive. It will be possible to calculate semantic proximity. (semantic distance)between different words. The measure of the semantic proximity of the couple of words recognizes the degree of coincidence of the distribution of answers, i.e. Data similarity on them associations. This amount appears in the works of different authors under different names: "intersection coefficient", "Association coefficient", "overlapping measure".
The definition of the semantic distance between words can help solve one of the possible problems for linguistics - synonymy. So, if you need to determine the degree of similarity between words that have a similar value (14), then different people can be interviewed and everyone will present this similarity in different ways. So for someone workwill look like a business,and for someone on work.And it is also possible to offer the subject to give reactions to each of these words (it is better to show them to the rotor - in the list with other words), and then see how the number of reactions is the same. It may be that some pairs of words "closer" to each other than others. (In this case, the closer was the couple work - work,next followed the para a business- work,and then labor is a matter).Thus, a poll of a large number of subjects with an associative experiment will show the measure of semantic proximity between these words. (fourteen) work, work, business
Sometimes this kind of data coincide with the results of a distribution-statistical analysis of texts, when researchers do not apply to the experiment, and conduct an independent calculation of phrases (the so-called distribution). The associative experiment allows us to find out how fragments of the linguistic consciousness are arranged in native speakers.
At one time, J. Diz (J. Deeee) tried to reconstruct the semantic composition of the word on the basis of an associative experiment. Matrians semantic distancessecondary associations on the word-stimulus (i.e. associations on associations), he subjected to the procedure for factor analysis. Selected factors obtained a substantive interpretation and act as semantic components. A.A. Leontyev, commenting on the results of the design, believed that they clearly show the ability to highlight the factors that can be interpreted in the formal processing of these associative experiment, which can be interpreted as semantic components of words. And thereby a associative experiment can serve as a way to obtain both linguistic and psychological knowledge.
It is precisely because during an associative experiment, the subject is invited to respond to this or that word the first to the first word or phrase, you can get very interesting results (15):
(15) STUDENT(652 people) - institute 44, Eternal 41, Student
ka 39, poor 34, spa 28, funny 20, young, good 18,
Bad 16, scholarship 14, exam and, applicant, martyr,
Lecturer 10, Eternal Sensation of Hunger, Wine, Hunger, Go
Loden, wonderful times, psychosis, five years of rest - two
minutes of shame 1.
The associative experiment shows the presence of the word (as well as the subject matter indicated by the word) of the psychological component. Thus, the associative experiment makes it possible to build a semantic structure of the word. It serves as a valuable material for studying psychological equivalents that in linguistics is called a semantic field, and open the semantic ties of words in the mental novel.
In the same connection, it should be noted that its main advantage of an associative experiment is its simplicity, ease of use, as it can be carried out with a large group of subjects simultaneously. The tests work with the meaning of the word in the "mode of use", which allows you to allocate some unconscious components of the value. So, according to the results of the experiment, it turns out that in the word examin the consciousness of the carriers of the Russian language (and, accordingly, culture) is present and such a psychological moment of this word as difficult, fear, terrible, heavy(sixteen). In the linguistic dictionaries it is absent.
(16) EXAM(626 people) - hard 87, take 48, pass 35,
Session 26, standing 21, ticket 18, soon 17, in mathematics 13, on
Certificate of maturity, fear 10, terrible 8, heavy 6.
A feature of associative reactions to the word is that testmay be sensitive to the phonological and syntactular level of the word-incentive.
Note that some phonetic associations can also be considered as semantic (17). They are usually given subjects who do not wish to cooperate with experimenters, or in a state of fatigue (for example, at the end of a long experiment), as well as mentally retarded subjects.
Some reactions (18) can be interpreted both as semantic, and as phonetic. They are most often given by the subject in the state of fatigue or mentally retarded subjects.
(17) mom - Rama, House - Smoke, Guest- bone
Most associations are due to speech stamps, clichés. At the same time, the associations also reflect various aspects of the native culture of the subject (18) and text reminiscence (19).
(18) Square- Red
(19) Master - Margarita
It is important to note that the plan of verbal associations is not isomorphic completely plan for subject relations. For example, in the experiments of the 30s of Carvoski (Karwosky) and Dorkus (Dorcus), it is shown that the colors are associated otherwise than the words that are denoted (on a par with the words-names of the color, the tests of different colors were presented). In other words, in the consciousness of the tests of the colors themselves are somewhat different than words that are denoted.
Of particular importance is an associative experiment for psychologists, since it is one of the oldest techniques of experimental psychology. George Miller very vividly describes the history of this reception. Sir Francis Galton, English scientist and cousin Charles Darwin, first tried to spend an associative experiment in 1879. He chose 75 words, wrote each of them on a separate card and did not touch them for several days. Then he took the cards on one and looked at them. He calved the time in a chronometer, starting from the moment when his eyes stayed on the Word, and, even with a moment, when the word read had caused two different thoughts. He recorded these thoughts for each word from the list, but refused to publish the results. "They are exposed," Halton wrote, "the essence of human thought with such amazing reachesity and reliability, which can hardly be saved if you publish them and make the property of the world."
Currently, such a reception is known as the method of free Associations Kent-Rosanov (G.H. Kent, A.j. rozanoff). It uses a set of 100 words as irritants. Speech reactions to these words are standardized on a large number of mentally healthy individuals, and determined the share of non-standard speech reactions (their ratio with standard). These data allow you to determine the degree of eccentricity, the unusual thinking of specific subjects.
Associative fieldeach person has its own and in the composition of the "nominations, and on the strength of relations between them. The actualization of one or another connection is not accidental and may depend even on the situation (20). Undoubtedly the impact of the level of human education on the device of its mental lexicon. So Associative experiments on the material of Russian and Estonian languages \u200b\u200brevealed that persons with higher technical education give more often paradigmatic associations, and with humanitarian - syntagmatic.
(20) friend - Mishka
The nature of associations affects the age, and geographical conditions, and the profession of man. According to A.A. Leontiev, different reactions to the same stimulus gave a resident of Yaroslavl (21) or Dushanbe (22), conductor (23), nurse (24) and builder (25).
(21) brush- rowan.
(22) Brush - grapes
brush - smooth, brush- soft
brush - amputation
brush - hairHowever, belonging to a certain people, one culture makes the "center" of the associative field as a whole sufficiently stable, and the relationship is regularly repeated in this language (26, 27, 28). According to Tver psycholingwist, A.A. Zavolovsky, associations depend on the cultural and historical traditions of the people - Russian (29), Uzbek (30), French (31).
(26) poet - Pushkin
(27) number - three
friend- comrade, friend - enemy, friend- right
bread - Sol
bread-tea
bread - wine.
Indicative data obtained when comparing associations in the historical perspective. So, when they compared the associations on the same incentives, it turned out that the three most frequent reactions to the word-stimulus in 1910 on average were about 46% of all responses, and in 1954 there are already about 60% of all answers, those. The most frequent reactions have become much more frequent. This means that as a result of the standard education, distribution of television and other mass communication, the stereotype of reactions increased, people began to think more equally.
3. Semantic differential method
Method semantic Differential(Semantic differential - from Greek. Semantikos - Meaning and lat. Differentia - Difference) belongs to the methods of psycholinguistics and experimental psychoshemantics. It serves to build subjective semantic spaces and refers to the methods of scaling. The latter are used in psychology in order to obtain quantitative indicators to assess the relationship to certain objects. As an object, both physical and social processes can act as an object. In psycholinguistics, words can act as objects of research. The semantic differential in psycholinguistics is the method of quantitative (and at the same time qualitative) indexing the meaning of the word with the help of two-pole scales, each of which has gradation with a pair of antonymic adjectives.
The procedure for conducting an experiment with this technique is as follows. Testedthe word is presented, and they should mark the figure that corresponds to their idea of \u200b\u200bthe Word. Each scale has gradation from +3 to -3 or just 7
Associative experiment has received its broadest spread as a method for studying the group and individual consciousness of man. The effectiveness of its use in various areas is ensured as follows:- Automatic character of association;
- Conjugacy of the process of an associative experiment with human physiological reactions;
- Low level of human control ability.
Due to this, many types of associative experiment, association typologies that are necessary to obtain specific accurate results were formed.
The method of associative experiment in psychology has proven quite firmly at the end of the XIX century. One of the variety of techniques aimed at studying the personality became an associative test based on the concept of reaction and incentive. The interpretation of the results obtained is made depending on the views of researchers using an associative experiment.
In social psychology, an associative experiment is applied to determine the level of cohesion of groups, detecting a leader in them, etc. In personality psychology, it is necessary to determine the psychoshemant of consciousness. In criminalistics, this type of experiment allows you to identify truthful and false identity readings.
Associative structures allow you to reflect the existing relationships of reality objects and establish new links on the basis of which the object recognition process occurs. This association mechanism is characterized by indirectness, intimacy of associations, and their orientation on sensual experience.
Associative experiment technique.
Among the methods of analyzing speech, an associative experiment plays an important role, since it is used to analyze the level of development of speech, erudition and lexical reserve erudible. The traditional method of an associative experiment divides into two groups of speech analysis:- direct techniques - contain tasks that require linguistic knowledge from the subject. This method helps the subject to give a conscious answer regarding the most important signs of a variety of language signs. Based on the results obtained, conclusions are made on the belonging of individual data from group standards. Direct methods for carrying out an associative experiment can be to perform analytical type assignments;
- indirect techniques - these methods do not require conscious reactions. Among them are the following groups of methods:
- Psychophysiological methods - this group of the indirect method is based on the correlation of first-in-line and interimal reactions, such as the registration of the salivary glands in response to stimuli words. If the reactions coincide, then adequate understanding and adoption of semantic incentives occurs. The absence of reactions indicates a distorted idea of \u200b\u200bthe signs of pronounced words;
- Associative methods;
- Gaming methods;
- Methods of semantic differential.
- Free - reactions are limited to quantitatively - can be carried out both oral and writing. The absence of restrictions necessitates the free nature of this experiment;
- Directional - reactions are limited qualitatively - this method is aimed at building a number of associations on semantic grammatical characteristics;
- Chain - reactions are limited to the time of their generation - carrying out the experiment in this way it is to obtain several associations from the subject to one specified incentive in a short period of time.
The importance of analyzing the results obtained during the associative experiment.
The answers received during the experiment are analyzed and divided into the following groups:- Syntagmatic - in this group, the grammatical classes of associations and incentives do not coincide. Associations of this group are associated with speech relations.
- Paradigmatic - In this group, the grammatical classes of associations and incentives completely coincide, as a result of which the actualization of reactions during the Association increases. Associations of this group are associated with language relations.
The special importance of the associative experiment is to allocate the psychological component in the meaning of the word or subject. Due to this, there is a real possibility of building a word structure. Based on the experiments carried out similarly, it is possible to obtain the most valuable material, the so-called linguistic field, which is hidden in the mental state of the native speaker and determines the semantic communication of words. The main advantage of the Associative Experiment is its convenience and simplicity, the ability to work simultaneously with a huge group of subjects. Associative reactions enter into a certain important feature - possessing phonological and syntactive sensitivity to the level of word-incentive. The phonetic association can be considered as a meaningful in subjects experiencing fatigue.
The question of the need for an experiment for linguistics for the first time put in 1938 L.V. Scherba in the article mentioned already "On the Trojac aspect of language phenomena and an experiment in the linguistics". The scientist believed that "to withdraw a linguistic system, that is, a dictionary and gram of teak", it is possible from "according to texts, that is, from the respective language material." In his opinion, it is quite obvious that there is no other method and cannot exist in applied to the dead. At the same time, L.V. Scherba noted that the dead languages \u200b\u200bare becoming when they cease to serve the gun of communication and thinking inside the human team, they cease to develop and adapt to the expression of new concepts and their shades, they are terminated what can be called a paganorative process.
The case should be a little otherwise, he wrote, - in relation to live languages. According to Scherbi, "Most linguists usually approach live languages, however, as well as to the dead, i.e. Accumulates language material, in other words, writes texts, and then processes the principles of the dead languages. " Scherba believed, "that at the same time the dead dictionaries and grammar are obtained." He believed that "the researcher of living languages \u200b\u200bshould flow differently."
"The researcher," Scherb wrote, "should also proceed from one way or another of the understanding language material. But, building a certain abstract system from the facts of this material, it is necessary to check it on new facts, i.e. Watch whether the facts of reality deposited from it are responsible. Thus, the linguistics is introduced the principle experiment.Having made any assumption about the meaning of a particular word, one form or another, about one or another word formation or form formation rule, etc., you should try whether it is possible to link a number of various forms using this rule. "
Scherba also wrote that the experiment can have both positive and negative results. Negative results indicate either infidelity of the postulated rule, or on the need for some restrictions, or on the fact that the rules are no longer there, and there are only the facts of the dictionary, etc. Running examples of the correct; (1-3) and incorrect (4) proposals, Scherba argued that the language researcher should apply to the question of the correctness or incorrectness of the linguistic material to the native speaker, without relying on its intuition. At the same time, he believed that this kind of experiment is already being carried out in nature, when a child learns to speak or when an adult is studying a foreign language, or with pathology, when the collapse of speech occurs.
There was no trade in the city.
There was no trade in the city.
I (3) There was no trade in the city.
I (4) * There was no trade in the city.
He mentioned the researcher and the mistakes of writers, believing that "Lyapsus" is associated with a bad sense of language. It is noteworthy that at the same time Freud wrote about reservations and cheers, treating it in a psychoanalysis paradigm. At the same time, under the experiment in the linguistics of Scherbe, it was implied: 1) introspection, self-surveillance and 2) setting the experiment itself. He wrote about the principle of experiment as an important moment, which allows you to deeper into the understanding of human speech activity. Since he wrote it in the 7th years of the XX century, when the struggle of opinions, a scientist, fearing charges in individualism, was a struggle, scientist, who fearing the accusations of individualism, argued the methodological correctness of the method proposed by it. So, in addition to said Scherba added: "With a very common fear that, with this method, the" individual speech system "will be investigated, and not the language system, it is necessary to end once and for all. After all, the individual speech system is only a specific manifestation of the language system. " Even if you follow a narrow understanding of the role of an experiment in linguistics as checking the provisions of the regulatory language system with the facts of a living language, it should be recognized following the scientists that linguistic knowledge makes it possible to understand human consciousness.
Domestic psycholingwist L.V. Sugar noted that supporters of traditional methods of linguistic analysis have a number of objections to experiment.Usually they are reduced to the following:
Materials of experiments are very interesting, but do not you know what they can say the tests on the task of the experimenter? How to prove that there are really linguistic rules in the experiment?
In the experiment, artificial situations are created, which is not characteristic of the natural functioning of the language and speech.
In spontaneous speech, it is sometimes manifested that it is not possible to organize any experiment, i.e. The possibilities of experimental techniques are quite limited.
Sugar believed that these questions could be answered as follows:
The question is what is being studied in the experiment - language or speech? Traditional linguistics recognizes that otherwise, than it is impossible to exit through speech. But if you study the language through spontaneous texts, why you can not study it through the texts received in the experiments? (Recall that in linguistics the language is understood as a system, and speech - as its implementation.)
Although the situations in the experiment are artificial, the fundamental features of speech activity, detected, in the experiment, are characteristic of speech activities and in other, not experimental situations. Conduct a clear line between typical and atypical, natural and artificial situations can not be.
The experiment is not the only possible method of psycholinguistic research. Psycholinguistics does not deny any material nor the method of observation, which has traditional linguistics. Psycholinguistics This material uses, but a somewhat different angle of view, in a wider context and material, and methods. The speech, and the nonsense context, and the overall working conditions, and the intention of the Communication, and the state of the participants in communication are also taken into account.
As a feature of the language of domestic psycholinguistics, it can be noted that it uses the concept of "subject", and not "informant". Informant(from lat. Informatio - clarification, presentation) is a subject included in the experiment and informing the experimenter on its course, on the characteristics of its interaction with the object. Test- This is the subject that, being a native speaker, is at the same time an expert in its use, and at the same time indirectly informs the experimental information about the fragments of its linguistic consciousness. In other words, psycholinguistics accepts the fact of a subjective interpretation by the native language material by the native language not as a factor, but as a fact to be scientific analysis.
An important feature of psycholinguistics is to appeal to the meaning of the word - to its semantics (from Greek. Semantikos - denoting). In linguistics, the analysis of semantics is connected, first of all, with the study of the lexical meaning of words and expressions, changes in their values, studying the revolutions of speech or grammatical forms. Psycholinguistics distinguishes objective and subjective semantics. The first is the semantic system of language values, the second is represented as an associative system that exists in the consciousness of an individual. In this regard, semantic features are divided into association related associations (subjective) and semantic components of vocabulary taken in an abstract logical (objective) plan. The psycholinguistic concept of the "semantic field" is a set of words together with their associations.
One of the attempts to experimentally determine the subjective semantic fields and connections within them is the method of an associative experiment.
In order to experimentally study the subjective semantic fields of words formed and functioning in human consciousness, as well as the nature of semantic ties of words inside the semantic field in psycholinguistics, the method of associative experiment is used. Its authors in practical psychology it is customary to be American psychologists X. G. Kent and A. J. Rozanova (1910). The psycholinguistic versions of the associative experiment were developed by J. Diza and Ch. Osgood (299, 331, etc.). In domestic psychology and psycholingestics, the method of an associative experiment was improved and tested in experimental studies A. R. Luria and O. S. Vinogradova (44, 156, etc.).
Currently, an associative experiment is the most developed technique of psycholinguistic analysis of speech semantics.
The procedure for an associative experiment is as follows. The test is presented a word or a whole set of words and it is said that they need to answer the first words in the head. Typically, each subject is given 100 words and 7-10 minutes per answers *. Most of the reactions given in associative dictionaries received from university students and colleges at the age of 17-25 years (in this case, incentive words were given in their native to the test language).
In applied psycholinguistics, several basic embodiments of the associative experiment were developed:
1. "Free" Associative Experiment. The subjects are not given any restrictions on verbal reactions.
2. "Directional" Associative Experiment. The subject is invited to call only the words of a certain grammatical or semantic class (for example, to choose adjectives for nouns).
3. "Chain" Associative experiment. The subjects are invited to respond to the word-incentive at once with several verbal associations - for example, to name 10 different words or phrases for 20 seconds.
