"The woman is created for a man, not a man for a woman" - such a postulate ...
The subject of physics.
Physics is a natural science whose task is to study nature. Nature for us is a combination of the phenomena of the surrounding world, from the interaction. The measure of the justice of scientific findings is experience. The method of any science is to observe, reflections and experience. For physics, whose name means "Environmental Science" is essential to establish patterns that are observed in phenomena both alive and inanimate nature. These patterns are expressed or described by those or other physical laws.
In the near historical past, all the phenomena of nature was made to divide into classes.: Heat, electricity, mechanics, magnetism, chemical phenomena, light phenomena, x-rays, nuclear transformations. etc. However, this classification of phenomena is a display of various sides of one physical picture of the world.
Why is the study of physics so important for humanity? One of the essential motives is the need to apply physical, primarily experimental methods to obtain qualitatively new information about phenomena from other science areas. This is a pure pragmatic approach. As for the physics itself, in it the opening of new phenomena and comprehend them allows you to improve and build a more slender picture of the world, a system of ideas about nature.
An example of the pragmatic value of physical methods - the creation of a microscope made it possible to investigate many microscopic objects and obtain a huge number of knowledge about living microscopic objects including in the cell biology section. The use of X-ray structural analysis made it possible to decipher the DNA structure. Own achievements of physics - in the last century it was understood that thermal phenomena can be reduced to mechanical. Heat and temperature effects can be described using the laws of mechanics.
When studying any limited circle of phenomena, it is important to establish patterns or principles with which all known observed phenomena of the series are explained. The establishment of these principles will continue to predict some new phenomena.
Physics, being science of natural, is not based on laws and principles that can be obtained, proved, considered purely speculatively. Always, any physical law is a consequence and obtained as a result of generalizing a set of experienced, experimental facts. Any experience is made using measuring instruments. In the process of performing experience, certain results with some errors are measured. The question arises that those laws that are confirmed by these experiments are respected with some accuracy? Indeed, in some cases, well-known patterns are valid only in limited limits and with limited accuracy. With the improvement of equipment, measuring techniques and accumulation of arrays of experienced facts it is possible to obtain more accurate results, or refute the previously observed with relatively large errors. In this case, the primary formulated principles are replaced with new ones. This process illustrates the methodology of physics science.
As an example, consider the evolution of Newtonian mechanics. It is called Newton's because Isaac Newton robbed and systematized a family of experienced facts in the "mathematical principles of natural philosophy" - 1642. Newtonian mechanics with very good accuracy describes relatively slow motion, you are valid by the non-relativistic approximation. v.<< c. and is the limit case of relativistic mechanics when v /c.<< 1 . Principles of Newtonian mechanics unfair when describing micromyr objects, in atomic, molecular scales. In this case, the proper, confirmed by the experience is achieved only on the basis of the principles of quantum mechanics.
Model, theory, law.
The model is a mental image of a phenomenon based on well-known concepts, and limited when considering the phenomenon only the most significant parties. The model allows you to build a useful, possibly mathematical description. The model is a display of a phenomenon in which its most essential properties are taken into account. Example: a quasiclassical planetary model of the boron atom. Model assumptions consist in neglecting the sizes of the kernel and electrons. The model lowers the sustainability of such education. The model of the boron atom correctly describes the spectrum of the simplest hydrogen-like atoms.
Theory. Sometimes the term theory and model are synonymous. More often, the model assumes relative simplicity, compared with the theory. The theory considers a wider circle of phenomena, studies them in more detail. It is possible that the theory is based on a number of models and so on to solve problems with high mathematical accuracy. Example: Atomic - molecular theory of the structure of the substance.
Law - short and general approval regarding the nature of the processes. For example: a closed system pulse is saved. Or, for example, the law of world community: the force is proportional to the production of masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. The law establishes the relationship between physical quantities describing the phenomenon. To be called a law, some approval must be repeatedly confirmed by experimental facts in a wide range of conditions. Moreover, this experimental check should give any times the exact result. For example, the law of energy conservation considered in the acts of the collision of particles states: the energy of the system before the collision is equal to the energy of the system after the collision. The equal sign takes place always, in a variety of experiments, equality is performed with the accuracy achievable with modern appliances.
Units systems, dimension.
Physics - quantitative science. Any measurement gives the result in the form of a number. The measured number implies that some scales (standards) are entered, which will be called units of measurements (standards).
Home\u003e DocumentWhy a person needs measurements
Measurements are one of the most important affairs in modern life. But it was not always like that. When a primitive man killed a bear in an unequal duel, he, of course, was happy if he turned out to be quite large. It promised a fed life to him and all the tribe for a long time. But he did not drag a bear carcass on the scales: at that time there were no weights. There was no special need for measurements when a person did a stone ax: technical conditions did not exist on such axes and everything was determined by the size of a suitable stone that was able to find. Everything was done on the eye, as the wizard was prompted. Later, people began to live in large groups. The exchange of goods, the first states began to go to trade, the first states arose. Then there was a need for measurements. Tsarist songs had to know what the field area had each peasant. This was determined how much grain he should give the king. It was necessary to measure the harvest from each field, and during the sale of flaxseed meat, wine and other liquids - the volume of sold goods. When the ships began to build, it was necessary to schedule the right dimensions in advance: otherwise the ship would be sank. And, of course, they could not do without measurements ancient builders of pyramids, palaces and temples, still amazing us with their proportionality and beauty.
Vintage Russian measures.
The Russian people created their own system of measures. Monuments of the X century speak not only about the existence of a system of measures in Kievan Rus, but also by the state supervision for their correctness. This supervision was assigned to the clergy. In one of the charters of Prince Vladimir Svyatoslavovich says: "... hedgehogs installed there is an encouraged and entrusted to eat the bishops of the town and everywhere all sorts of measure and swords and scales ... dishlishing, neither to multiply, nor samither ..." (... long established And entrusted to the bishops to observe the correctness of the measures ... Do not allow the diminution or an increase in their ...). It was caused by this need for supervision by trade needs both within the country and with the countries of the West (Byzantium, Rome, later German cities) and the East (Central Asia, Persia, India). In the church area there were bazaars, the churches were lari for storing contracts for trade transactions, under the churches there were faithful scales and measures, the goods were kept in the basements of the churches. Weighing were carried out in the presence of representatives of the clergy who received a duty in favor of the church Measures of length The oldest of them are elbow and soot. The exact initial length of that and other measures we do not know; A certain Englishman traveled in Russia in 1554, testifies that the Russian elbow was equal to half the English yard. According to the "trading book", compiled for Russian merchants at the turn of the XVI and XVII centuries, three elbows were equal to the two Arshinam. The name "Arshin" comes from the Persian word "ARSH", which means elbow. The first mention of the soot is found in the chronicles of the XI century, compiled by the Kiev Monk Nestor. At a later times, a measure of the distance of the versta equal to 500 seats was established. In the ancient monuments of the versta called the field and equalizes sometimes to 750 seats. This can be explained by the existence in antiquity of shorter soot. Finally, the verst to 500 seeds was established only in the XVIII century. In the era of the fragmentation of Russia, there was no single system of measures. In the XV and XVI centuries, the Russian lands are associated around Moscow. With the emergence and growth of nationwide trade and with the establishment of fees for the treasury from the entire population of the United Country, the question of a unified system of measures for the entire state. Mera Arshin, arising from trade with the eastern peoples, is used. In the XVIII century, measures were specified. Peter 1 Decree set the equality of the three-hour phase of seven English feet. The former Russian length system, supplemented with new measures, was finalized: Mile \u003d 7 versts (\u003d 7.47 kilometers); Versta \u003d 500 seedlines (\u003d 1.07 kilometers); Soot \u003d 3 ARSHINAM \u003d 7 feet (\u003d 2.13 meters); Arshin \u003d 16 tops \u003d 28 inches (\u003d 71,12 centimeter); Foot \u003d 12 inches (\u003d 30.48 centimeters); Inch \u003d 10 lines (2.54 centimeters); Line \u003d 10 points (2.54 millimeters). When they talked about the growth of a person, they indicated only how many cameras he exceeds 2 ARSHIN. Therefore, the words "man of 12 heights of growth" meant that its growth is equal to 2 Arshinam 12 tops, that is, 196 cm. Square measures In the "Russian truth" - the legislative monument, which refers to the XI - XIII centuries, the land measure of the plow is used. It was a measure of the Earth with which the tribute was paid. There are some reason to consider a plow equal to 8-9 hectares. As in many countries, the amount of rye often received the amount of rye needed to sowing this area. In the XIII-XV centuries, the main unit of the area was a variable area, for sowing each it was necessary to approximately 24 pones (that is, 400 kg.) Rye. Half of this area, called tithons became the main measure of the square in pre-revolutionary Russia. It was leveling about 1.1 hectares. The tithing was sometimes called boxes. Another unit for measuring areas equal to half of the tithing was called (quarter). In the future, the size of the decade was aligned not with measurements of volume and mass, but with lengths of length. In the "book of a sleepy letter" as a guide to account for taxes from the Earth, a decrease in a level 80 * 30 \u003d 2400 square seats is established. The tax unit of the Earth was C O X A (this is the amount of arable land, which was able to process one plower). Weight Measures (Mass) and Volume The ancient Russian weight unit was hryvnia. It is mentioned in the Treaties of the X century between the Kiev princes and the Byzantine emperors. By complicated calculations, scientists learned that Grivna weighed 68.22 g. Hryvnaya was peeled by the Arab US unit rotle. Then the main units when weighing steel pound and Poud. The pound was leveling 6 hryvnias, and PUD - 40 pounds. For the weighing of gold, spools were used, which were 1,96 share of the pound (from here there is a proverb "Mal Spool YES"). The words "pound" and "PUD" come from the same Latin word "pondus" meaning the severity. Officials that told scales were called "punching" or "Vesseli". In one of the stories of Maxim Gorky in the description of the barn of a fist, we read: "On one dash, two castles are one of the other pudding (heavier)." By the end of the XVII century, a system of Russian weights in the following form was formed: last \u003d 72 pounds (\u003d 1.18 t.); Berkchets \u003d 10 plowing (\u003d 1.64 c); PUD \u003d 40 large humerens (or pounds), or 80 small humeren, or 16 impressions (\u003d 16.38 kg.); Initial ancient fluid measures - barrel and bucket - remain unidentified exactly. There is reason to believe that the bucket contained 33 pounds of water, and the barrel is 10 buckets. The bucket was divided by 10 tons.
D.I. Inendeyev - metrologist
In 1892, the brilliant Russian chemist Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleev was at the head of the main chamber of measures and scales. Guiding the work of the main chamber of measures and weights, D.I. Mendeleev completely transformed the measurement case in Russia, established research work and decided all questions about measures that were caused by the growth of science and technology in Russia. In 1899, he was published by D.I. Mendeleev new law on measures and scales. In the first years after the revolution, the main chamber of measures and scales, continued the traditions of Mendeleev, conducted a tremendous work on the preparation of the introduction of the metric system in the USSR. After some renaming and renaming the former major chamber of measures and scales currently exists in the form of the All-Union Scientific Research Institute of Metrology named after D.I. Mendeleeva.
French measures
Initially in France, and in all cultural Europe, we used Latin weights of weight and length. But feudal fragmentation made its adjustments. Let's say, a different Senor came fantasy slightly increase the pound. None of his subjects will objected, do not rebel due to such trifles. But if you count, in general, all the rural grain, then what is the benefit! Also with urban shops of artisans. Someone was beneficial to reduce the soot, to increase someone. Depending on whether they are sold cloth or buy. By slightly, on a little bit, and here you are already the Rhine Pound, and Amsterdam, and Nuremberg and Parisian, etc., etc. And with the seeds and it was worse, only more than a dozen different units were rotated in the south of France Length. True, in the glorious city of Paris in the fortress, Le Grandfather, since the time of Julius Caesar, a standard of length was done to the fortress wall. It was an iron curved circulation, the legs of which ended with two protrusions with parallel faces, between which should accurately include all in the use of soy. Salegin of a charter stayed by the official measure of length until 1776. At first glance, the lengths looked like this: Lingerie Marine - 5, 556 km. Lingerie land \u003d 2 miles \u003d 3.3898 km Mile (from Lat. Thousand) \u003d 1000 TUAZ. TUAZ (soot) \u003d 1.949 meters. Foot (feet) \u003d 1/6 TUAZ \u003d 12 inches \u003d 32.484 cm. Inch (finger) \u003d 12 lines \u003d 2,256 mm. Line \u003d 12 points \u003d 2,256 mm. Point \u003d 0.188 mm. In fact, no one has canceled feudal privileges, all this concerned the city of Paris, well, dofine, as a last resort. Somewhere in the outback of foot it could easily be determined as the size of the feet of the senior, or as the average length of the feet of 16 people leaving the utmost on Sunday. Paris pound \u003d Livr \u003d 16 oz \u003d 289.41 gr. Oz (1/12 pound) \u003d 30,588 gr. Gran (grain) \u003d 0.053 gr. But the artillery pound was still equal to 491,4144 gr., That is, simply corresponded to the Nyrenbeg pound, which was still in the 16th century Mr. Gartman, one of theoretics - masters of the artillery shop. Accordingly, the magnitude of the pound in the provinces was walked with traditions. Measures of liquid and bulk bodies, also did not differ in slim monotony, because France was still a country where the population mainly grown bread and wine. MUYID WINE \u003d about 268 liters network - about 156 liters of mine \u003d 0.5 network \u003d about 78 liters mini \u003d 0.5 mines \u003d about 39 liters of Buasso \u003d about 13 liters
English measures
British measures used in the UK, USA. Canada and other countries. Some of these measures in a number of countries are somewhat different in their size, therefore below are presented, mainly rounded metric equivalents of English measures, convenient for practical calculations.
Measures of length
Mile Sea (United Kingdom) \u003d 10 cable \u003d 1,8532 km
Cable (United Kingdom) \u003d 185,3182 m
Cable (USA) \u003d 185,3249 m
Mile is authorized \u003d 8 Farlongam \u003d 5280 feet \u003d 1609,344 m
Farlong \u003d 10CHNAM \u003d 201.168 m
CHINE \u003d 4 Roda \u003d 100 Links \u003d 20,1168 m
Rod (Paul, Perch) \u003d 5.5 yards \u003d 5,0292 m
Yard \u003d 3 feet \u003d 0.9144 m
Foot \u003d 3 Handam \u003d 12 inches \u003d 0.3048 m
Hand \u003d 4 inches \u003d 10.16 cm
Inch \u003d 12 lines \u003d 72 points \u003d 1000 miles \u003d 2.54 cm
Line \u003d 6 points \u003d 2,1167 mm
Point \u003d 0.353 mm
MIL \u003d 0,0254 mm
Square measures
Sq. Mile \u003d 640 acres \u003d 2.59 km 2
Acre \u003d 4 ores \u003d 4046.86 m 2
Ore \u003d 40 square meters. Roda \u003d 1011.71 m 2
Sq. Rod (Paul, Perch) \u003d 30.25 square meters. yard \u003d 25,293 m 2
Sq. yard \u003d 9 square meters. feet \u003d 0,83613 m 2
Sq. foot \u003d 144 square meters. inches \u003d 929.03 cm 2
Sq. inch \u003d 6,4516 cm 2
Massive measures
Ton big, or long \u003d 20 Handredweights \u003d 1016,05 kg
Ton small, or short (USA, Canada, etc.) \u003d 20 cents \u003d 907,185 kg
Handredweight \u003d 4 quorters \u003d 50.8 kg
Cental \u003d 100 pounds \u003d 45,3592 kg
Quarter \u003d 2 moans \u003d 12.7 kg
Moa \u003d 14 pounds \u003d 6.35 kg
Pound \u003d 16 oz \u003d 7000 grenades \u003d 453,592 g
Oz \u003d 16 drachmas \u003d 437.5 grana \u003d 28.35 g
Drachma \u003d 1.772 g
Grand Prix \u003d 64.8 mg
Units of volume and capacity
Cube yard \u003d 27 cubic meters. feet \u003d 0,7646 cubic meters. m cube. foot \u003d 1728 cubic inches \u003d 0,02832 cubic meters. m cube. inch \u003d 16,387 cubic meters. cm
Units of volume and capacity for liquids
Gallon (English) \u003d 4 quarts \u003d 8 pints \u003d 4,546 l
Quart (English) \u003d 1,136 l
Pint (English) \u003d 0.568 l
Units of volume and capacity for bulk substances
Bushel (english) \u003d 8 gallons (English) \u003d 36,37 l
Collapse of ancient measures
In the I-II of our era, the Romans were traded almost all the world famous and introduced their measures of all conquered countries. But after a few centuries, Rome was conquered by the Germans and the empire created by the Romans broke into many small states. After that, the collapse of the entered system of measures began. Each king, and even the duke, tried to introduce his system of measures, and if the monetary units managed. The collapse of the action system reached the highest point in the XVII-XVIII centuries, when Germany turned out to be fragmented for so many states, how many days a year, as a result of this there were 40 different feet and elbows, 30 different centners, 24 different miles. In France, there were 18 units of length, called Lingerie, etc. This caused difficulty in trade affairs, and when taxing taxes, and in the development of industry. After all, the measures acted at the same time were not connected with each other, had various units into smaller. It was difficult for this in this way, and what is happening here about the illiterate peasant. Of course, I used merchants and officials to rob people. In Russia, in different localities, almost all measures had different meanings, so in the textbooks of arithmetic to the revolution, detailed tables were placed. In one common pre-revolutionary directory, you could find up to 100 different feet, 46 different miles, 120 different pounds, etc. The needs of the practice were forced to start searching for a single system of measures. It was clear that it was necessary to abandon the establishment between the units of measurement and sizes of the human body. And the step in people is different and the length of the feet of them is not the same, and their fingers have different widths. Therefore, it was necessary to look for new units of measurement in the surrounding nature. The first attempt to find such units were made in antiquity in China and in Egypt. The Egyptians chose a mass of 1000 grains as a unit of mass. But the grains are unequal! Therefore, the idea of \u200b\u200bone of the Chinese ministers, who proposed long before our era, to choose 100 grains of red sorghum as a unit 100, was also unacceptable. Scientists have advanced different ideas. Who offered to take the basics of measures related to bee honeycomb, who is the path passing in the first second, freely falling body, and the famous scientist XVII century Christians Guigens proposed to take the third part of the length of the pendulum made by one swing per second. This length is very close to the double length of the Babylonian elbow. Even before him, the Polish scientist Stanislav Pudlovsky proposed to take a unit of measurement of the last pendulum itself.
Birth metric system measures.
It is not surprising that when in the eighties of the XVIII merchants of several French cities appealed to the government with a request to establish a system of measures united for the whole country, scientists immediately remembered the proposal of the Guigens. The adoption of this offer prevented that the length of the second pendulum was different in various places of the globe. In the northern pole, it is more, but at the equator less. At this time, the bourgeois revolution occurred in France. A national meeting was convened, which created a commission at the Academy of Sciences, compiled from the largest French scientists of that time. The Commission had to do work on creating a new system of measures. One of the members of the Commission was the famous mathematician and astronomer Pierre Simon Laplace. For his scientific research it was very important to know the exact length of the earth meridian. Someone from the members of the Commission remembered the proposal of the Muton astronomer to take a part of the length of the meridian equal to one 21600 part of the meridian. Laplace immediately supported this proposal (and maybe he himself came across this thought of the remaining members of the Commission). Made only one dimension. For convenience, one forty-millionth part of the earth meridian was decided for convenience. This proposal was submitted to the National Assembly and accepted by them. All other units were agreed with a new unit called meter. Per unit area was accepted square metervolume - cubic meter, masses - mass cubic centimeter Waters under certain conditions. In 1790, the National Assembly adopted a decree on reform of measures of measures. The report submitted by the National Assembly was noted that there is nothing arbitrary in the draft reform, and there is nothing local. "If the memory of these works has been lost and only some results have been preserved, there would be no sign in them, according to which it was possible to know what nation had a plan for these works, and carried out them," said the report. As you can see, the Academy Commission, it strives to ensure that the new system of measures does not give rise to some kind of nation to reject the system as French. She sought to justify the slogan: "At all times, for all nations," which was proclaimed later. Already in April 17956, a law on new measures was approved, a single standard was introduced for the entire republic: the platinum line at which the meter was drawn. The Commission of the Paris Academy of Sciences from the very beginning of work on the development of the H6O system found that the relations of neighboring units should be 10. For each value (length, weight, area, volume) from the main unit of this value are formed by other, large and smaller measures in the same way (for The exception, the names "Micron", the "centner", "ton"). For the formation of the names of measures, a large basic unit, Greek words are added to the name: "Dec" - "ten", "Hekto" - "Hundred", "Kilo" - "Thousand", "Miria" - "ten thousand" ; To form the name of measures smaller than the main unit, also in front of the particle: "Dezi" - "ten", "Santi" - "hundred", "Milli" - "Thousand".
Archive meter.
The Law of 1795, by setting a temporary meter, indicates that the work of the Commission will continue. Measuring work was completed only by the fall of 1798 and gave the final length of the meter at 3 feet of 11,296 lines instead of 3 fells of 11.44 lines, which length had a temporary meter of 1795 (ancient French foot was 12 inches, inch-12 lines). Foreign Minister of France was in those years an outstanding diplomat Talleyuran, who was still engaged in the draft reform, he proposed to convene representatives of the Allied and neutral countries to discuss a new system of measures and legend of its international nature. In 1795, delegates traveled to the International Congress; It was announced on the end of work on checking the definition of the length of the main standards. In the same year, the final prototypes of meters and a kilogram were made. They were published in the archives of the republic for storage, on this they got the names archive. The temporary meter was canceled and an archive meter is recognized instead of it. He had a species of a rod, whose cross section resembles the letter H. Archival standards only in 90 years have gone to the new one who received the name of international.
Reasons that prevented
metric system measures.
The population of France met new measures without much enthusiasm. The reason for such a relationship was partly the most new units of measures that are not fitted with century habits, as well as new, incomprehensible to the population name. Among the persons relating to new measures without delight was Napoleon. Decree of 1812, he, along with the metric system, introduced a "sour" system for consumption in trade. Restoration in France In 1815, the royal authorities contributed to the fence of the metric system. The revolutionary origin of the metric system prevented the spread of it in other countries. Since 1850, advanced scientists begin energetic campaigning in favor of the metric system. However, the reasons for this were then the international exhibitions that showed all the amenities of existing various national measures. Especially fruitful in this direction was the activities of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences and its member of Boris Semenovich Jacobi. In the seventies, this activity was crowned with the actual transformation of the metric system to international.
Metric system of measures in Russia.
In Russia, scientists since the beginning of the XIX century realized the appointment of the metric system and tried to implement it widely into practice. During the years from 1860 to 1870, after energetic performances, D.I. Indeleeva, Academician B.S. Skiobi, Professor of Mathematics A.Yu.Davidov, is carried out by the company, the author of the School textbooks of mathematics, and Academician A.V. Gadolin. Russian manufacturers and breeders joined scientists. Russian technical society instructed the Special Commission chaired by Academician A.V. Gadolina to develop this question. This commission received many proposals from scientific and technical organizations unanimously supporting proposals on the transition to the metric system. Published in 1899 the law on measures and scales developed by D.T. Mendeleev included paragraph number 11: "International method and kilograms, their divisions, as well as other metric measures allowed to apply in Russia, for sure with the main Russian measures, in commercial and other Transactions, contracts, estimates, contracts, and the like - mutual agreement of the Contracting Parties, as well as within the activities of individual officials ... with an arrangement or by order of those who are subject to ministerial ... ". The final solution to the issue of the metric system in Russia received after the Great October Socialist Revolution. In 1918, the Council of People's Commissars, chaired by V.I. Lenin, was published a decree, which was proposed: "Put the international metric system of measures and weighs with decimal units and derivatives in the foundation of all measurements. To take the length of the length - the meter, and as the basis of the weight unit (mass) - kilogram. For samples of the units of the metric system, take a copy of an international meter, wearing a sign number 28, and a copy of an international kilogram, wearing a sign No. 12, made from iridial platinum, transmitted by Russia in the first international conference of measures and scales in Paris in 1889 and stored in the main chamber of measures And scales in Petrograd. " From January 1, 1927, when the transition of industry and transport on the metric system was prepared, the metric system of measures was the only method of measures and scales permitted in the USSR.
Vintage Russian measures
in proverbs and sayings.
BUT 
rushn yes caftan, yes two on patches.
Beard with a heap, and words with a bag.
Lit - seven miles to heaven and all the forest.
Seven mosquito mosquito was looking for a mosquer on the nose.
On Arshan beard, yes the mind on the span.
On three ARSHIN in the land sees!
Neither the inches will not give up.
From thought to the thought of five thousand versts.
The hunter for seven miles walks the cheerlee.
To write (speak) about other people's sins of Arsh, and about their own listeners.
You are from the truth (from service) to the span, and she is from you to the soot.
Pulling vests, but do not be simple.
For this, it is possible to put a pudding (ruble) candle.
Grains powder coats.
It's not bad that the boob with a halfway.
One grain pound brings.
Your spool is more expensive.
Ate a halfway - Owl.
We will find out how much Pouda Lich.
He has a creep (mind) in his head.
Thin pounds, and good spools.
Comparison table Mer.
Measures of length
1 sage \u003d 2,1335808 meters
1 ARSHIN \u003d 0.7111936 meters
1 cub \u003d 0,0444496 meters
1 foot \u003d 0.304797264 meters
1 inch \u003d 0.025399772 meters 1 kilometer \u003d 0,9373912 versts
1 meter \u003d 0,4686956 soy
1 meter \u003d 1.40609 ARSHINA
1 meter \u003d 22,4974 top
1 meter \u003d 3,2808693 foot
1 meter \u003d 39,3704320 inches
1 sage \u003d 7 feet
1 sage \u003d 3 ARSHINA
1 soot \u003d 48 tops
1 mile \u003d 7 miles
1 verst \u003d 1,06679 kilometers
Volume and Square Measures
1 quarter \u003d 209,90759 liters
1 bucket \u003d 12,299273 liters
1 tenth \u003d 1,09252014 hectare 1 liter \u003d 0.03811201 Chetver
1 liter \u003d 0.00952800 quarters
1 liter \u003d 0,08130562 buckets
1 hectare \u003d 0,91531493 tenth
1 barrel \u003d 40 buckets
1 barrel \u003d 400 ton
1 barrel \u003d 4000 chapters
1 quarter \u003d 64 Garnitsa
Measures Weight
1 pound \u003d 0.409528 kilogram 1 spool \u003d 4,2659174 grams Document
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Metrology - Science of measurements
Metrology - science of measurements, methods and means of ensuring their unity and how to achieve the required accuracy.
This is a science that is engaged in establishing units of measurements of various physical quantities and reproducing their standards, the development of measurement methods of physical quantities, as well as analysis of measurement accuracy and research and elimination of the reasons that cause errors in measurements.
In a practical life, a person has been dealing with measurements everywhere. At each step, there are and known from time immemorial measurement times of such values \u200b\u200bas the length, volume, weight, time, etc. Of course, the methods and means of measurement of these values \u200b\u200bin antiquity were primitive and imperfect, however, without them it is impossible to imagine the evolution of a person reasonable .
Great meaning of measurements in modern society. They are not only the basis for scientific and technical knowledge, but are of paramount importance for taking into account material resources and planning, for internal and foreign trade, to ensure product quality, interchangeability of components and parts and improving technology, to ensure the safety of labor and other types of human activity.
Metrology is of great importance for the progress of natural and technical sciences, since the increase in measurement accuracy is one of the means of improving ways to the knowledge of nature by man, discoveries and practical use of accurate knowledge.
To ensure scientific and technological progress, metrology should be discovered in its development other areas of science and technology, for for each of them, accurate measurements are one of the main ways to improve their improvement.
Tasks of science metrology
Since the metrology studies the methods and means of measuring physical quantities with the maximum degree of accuracy, its tasks and goals are measured from the very definition of science. However, given the colossal importance of metrology as science, for scientific and technological progress and the evolution of human society, all terms and definitions of metrology, including its goals and objectives, are standardized through regulatory documents - GOSTs.
So, the main objectives of metrology (according to GOST 16263-70) are:
- establishment of units of physical quantities, state standards and exemplary measuring instruments;
- development of theory, methods and means of measurement and control;
- ensuring the unity of measurements and uniform measuring instruments;
- development of methods for evaluating errors, states of measurement and control;
- development of methods for transmitting units from standards or exemplary measuring instruments to the measurement tools.
Brief history of the development of metrology
The need for measurements arose in time immemorial. For this, primarily used primary means.
For example, the weight of the weight of precious stones - carats, which is translated from the languages \u200b\u200bof the Ancient South-East, "Seed Bob", "Peas"; A unit of pharmaceutical weight - Gran that translated from Latin, French, English, Spanish means "grain".
Many measures had anthropometric origin or were associated with the specific personnel of man.
Thus, in Kievan Rus, they were used in everyday life - the length of the phalange of the index finger; The span is the distance between the ends of the elongated large and index fingers; elbow - the distance from the elbow to the end of the middle finger; Sashen - from "sniff", "achieve", i.e. you can get; Syazhen - a limit of what can be reached: the distance from the sole of the left leg until the end of the middle finger stretched up the right hand; Musto - from "Verti", "turning" the plow back, the length of the furrow.
Ancient Babylonians set the year, month, hour. Subsequently, the 1/86400 part of the middle period of the Earth's appeal around its axis was called a second.
In Babylon in II century. BC e. Time was measured in mines. Mina equal to the time interval (equal, approximately two astronomical clock)For which from the waters taken in the Babylon, the "mine" of water, the mass of which was about 500
G. Then Mina declined and turned into a minute familiar to us.
Over time, the water watches gave way to sandy, and then more complex pendulum mechanisms.
The most important metrological document in Russia is the Dvina diploma of Ivan the Terrible (1550). It regulates the rules for the storage and transmission of the size of a new measure of bulk substances - amms. Its copper copies were sent by cities to store elected people - old builders, Sotsky, Corolovals. With these measures, it was necessary to make brave wooden copies for urban mothers, and with those, in turn, wooden copies for use in everyday life.
The metrological reform of Peter I to appeal to Russia was admitted to English measures that were particularly widely distributed on the fleet and in shipbuilding - feet, inches.
In 1736, by decision of the Senate, the Space Commission was formed and measures under the chairmanship of the chief director of the Mint Count M.G. Golovkin. The Commission included an outstanding scientist of the XVIII century, the contemporary of M. V. Lomonosov, - Leonard Euler, who made an invaluable contribution to the development of many sciences.
As the initial measures, the Commission made a copper Arshin and a wooden soot, a bucket of the Moscow Kamennorova Pety Court was adopted for the measure of substances. The most important step, summed up the work of the Commission, was the creation of a Russian reference pound.
The idea of \u200b\u200bbuilding a measurement system on a decimal basis belongs to the French Astronoma Muton, who lived in the XVII century. Later it was proposed to take one forty millionth part of the earth meridian as a unit of length. Based on the only unit - meter - the whole system was built, called the metric.
In Russia, the decree "On the Russian measures and scales" system (1835), the standards of length and mass were approved - platinum soil and platinum pound.
In accordance with the International Metrological Convention, signed in 1875, Russia received platinumiridia odds of mass units № 12
and 26
and standards units of length № 11
and 28
who were delivered to the new building of the depot of exemplary measures and scales.
In 1892, the Depot Managing was appointed D.I. Mendeleev, which he in 1893 converts measures to the main chamber of measures and scales is one of the first in the world of metrological profile research institutions.
The metric system in Russia was introduced in 1918 by the decree of the Council of People's Commissars "On the introduction of an international metric system of measures and scales". The further development of metrology in Russia is associated with the creation of a system and standardization service bodies.
The development of natural sciences led to the emergence of new and new measuring instruments, and they, in turn, stimulated the development of sciences, becoming an increasingly powerful means of their promotion.
Questions and tasks for exam tickets
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Not only schoolchildren, but even adults sometimes wonder: why do you need physics? This topic is especially relevant for the parents of students who received the education in their time, far from physics and technology.
But how to help a schoolboy? In addition, teachers can ask an essay on the house in which you need to describe your thoughts about the need to study science. Of course, it is better to charge eleventh graders, who have a complete picture of the subject.
What is physics
In simple language, physics is, of course, at present the physics is increasingly moving away from her, deepening in the technosphere. Nevertheless, the subject is closely connected not only with our planet, but also with space.
So why do you need physics? Its task is to understand how certain phenomena occur, why certain processes are formed. It is also desirable to strive for the creation of special calculations that would help predict certain events. For example, as Isaac Newton discovered the law of world community? He studied the subject that had fallen down on top, was observed for mechanical phenomena. Then created formulas that really work.
What sections are physics
The subject has several sections that are generalized or in-depth studied at school:
- mechanics;
- oscillations and waves;
- thermodynamics;
- optics;
- electricity;
- the quantum physics;
- molecular physics;
- nuclear physics.
Each section has subsections, studying various processes in detail. If you do not just learn the theory, paragraphs and lectures, but to learn to represent, experimenting with what we are talking about, the science will seem very interesting, and you will understand why physics needs. Sophisticated sciences that cannot be applied in practice, such as the physics of the atom and nucleus, can be considered differently: to read interesting articles from popular science journals, see documentaries about this area.
How does the subject helps in ordinary life
In the composition "Why Need Physics" is recommended to give examples if they are appropriate. Suppose if you describe why you need to study the mechanics, then you should mention cases from everyday life. Such an example can be the usual car trip: from the village to the city you need to get to the free highway in 30 minutes. Distance about 60 kilometers. Of course, we need to know how much speed it is better to move on the road, preferably with a margin of time.
You can also give an example of construction. Suppose when the house is erected, you need to correctly calculate the strength. It is impossible to choose a harvester material. A schoolboy can hold another experiment to understand why physics needs, for example, take a long board, put at the ends of the chairs. The board will be located on the backs of furniture. Next, you should load the center of the board of bricks. The board will fade. With a decrease in the distance between the chairs, the deflection will be less. Accordingly, a person gets food for reflection.
The hostess when cooking dinner or lunch is often faced with physical phenomena: heat, electricity, mechanical work. To understand how to do it right, you need to understand the laws of nature. Often learns a lot of experience. And physics is the science of experience, observations.
Professions and specialty related to physics
But why do you need to study physics to the one who ends with school? Of course, those who enter the University or College on Humanitarian Specialties, the subject is practically not needed. But in very many spheres, science is required. Let's look at what:
- geology;
- transport;
- power supply;
- electrical engineering and appliances;
- medicine;
- astronomy;
- construction and architecture;
- heat supply;
- gas supply;
- water supply and so on.
For example, even a train driver needs to know this science to understand how locomotive works; The builder should be able to design durable and durable buildings.
Programmers, IT-sphere experts should also know physics to understand how electronics, office equipment works. In addition, they need to create realistic objects for programs, applications.
It is used almost everywhere: radiography, ultrasound, dental equipment, laser therapy.
What science is connected
Physics is very closely interconnected with mathematics, since when solving tasks, you need to be able to convert various formulas, carry out calculations and build graphs. You can add this idea into an essay "Why need to study physics," if it comes to calculations.
This science is also associated with geography to understand natural phenomena, be able to analyze future events, weather.
Biology and chemistry are also associated with physics. For example, no live cell can exist without gravity, air. Also living cells should be moved in space.
How to write an essay of the 7th grade student
And now let's talk about what can write a seventh grader, partially studied some sections of physics. For example, you can write about the same gravity or clarify the measurement of the distance that it has passed from one point to another to calculate the speed of its walk. Student of grade 7, an essay "Why Need Physics" can add different experiments that were conducted in the lessons.
As you can see, creative work can be written quite interesting. In addition, it develops thinking, gives new ideas, awakens curiosity to one of the most important sciences. Indeed, in the future, physics can help with any life circumstances: in everyday life, when choosing a profession, with a device for a good job, during the rest in nature.
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The role of measurements is exceptionally large - no branch of the country's economy can do without them.
The role of measurements in the life and development of human society is enormous. Any area of \u200b\u200bscience and technology is unthinkable without measurement. Currently, the measurement in scientific research, in production and operation of various devices is spent more than a tenth of the public labor. And in many areas, for example, in electronic or cosmic, their share reaches half of all costs. The level of measuring equipment is one of the most important indicators of scientific and technological progress.
In the role of measurements, the details of the signs used to form the final indicators are acting; In the role of resources - the details of the basis of the final indicators.
On the role of measurements of certain physical quantities, it is estimated to be judged by the composition of the measuring instrument park. What data is characterized by the park of measuring instruments in our country.
Great The role of measurements in the problem of improving the quality of products. Indeed, the measurement results performed during the processing, testing, testing, product testing are the main source of information, on the basis of which appropriate adjustments are made in their design, manufacturing technology. Obtaining unreliable information leads to a decrease in product quality, accidents, incorrect solutions.
Significant - the role of the density measurement in the organization of the correct system of quantitative accounting of liquid substances during their acceptance, storage and vacation, when the mass of liquids (for example, fuel-lubricating) cannot be measured by direct weighing on scales. The amount of fluid is first determined in bulk units, and then multiplying to the density found for the same conditions as the volume translated the result in a unit of mass.
To correctly understand what is the role of measurement, you need to figure out how it is carried out. For measurement, interaction is necessary between the system above which the measurement is carried out and the measuring instrument. At the same time, the testimony of the measuring instrument should be expressed in the macroscopic effect, directly perceived by our senses, such as moving the arrow on the scale.
It was previously noted that the role of measurements is constantly increasing.
The development of science and technology is inextricably linked with the increase in the role of measurements. The variety of types of measurements and measuring instruments is steadily increases, and this qualitative and quantitative measurement development should go within the framework of ensuring the unity of measurements, under which the expression of the measurement result in legal units is understood with the values \u200b\u200bof the characteristics of errors.
Tasks illustrating the main provisions of modern metrology, showing the role of measurements in science, production, trade, daily life, will help you to evaluate the importance of your work if you are a metrologist, will make it possible to make sure that you need a competent approach to carry out measurements if you are an experimenter , Wake up your attention to the problems of improving measurement tools, if you are a device-making agent.
According to the authorship of the specific characteristics does not reduce, but increases the role of measuring the value of the court to assess the internal thermal resistance.
In modern society as the knowledge of them, the role of measurements is increasingly growing.
Constantly carrying out the improvement of GCI standards and other documents of legislative metrology reflects an objective process of increasing the role of measurements in modern science and technique, the desire to improve the efficiency of technological processes and the quality of products.
There is an overview of the work on measurement and experiments; Determining the current level of design systems of software. The role of measurements in the creation of theoretical models is discussed, and measures are very highlighted to ensure reliability and reliability. As examples, modern methods of measuring software characteristics and, in particular, the Metrics of the complexity of software associated with the process of control transmission, module connectivity and the theory of Holzted software tools are discussed. The use of experimental methods is also considered when evaluating causal relationships. A review of specific experimental work programs are carried out, providing for the study of conditional and unconditional management transmissions. In conclusion, it is argued that progress in the field of software design is largely related to the improvement of measurement methods and experimental assessment of methods and practical results of software systems design.
