"Sports Metrology"

The object, tasks and content of "sports metrology", its place among other academic disciplines.

Sports metrology- this is a science of measurements in physical education and sports.It must be viewed as a specific application to about g and, and, the main task of which, as is known, is to ensure the accuracy and unity of measurements.

In this way, the subject of sports metrology is comprehensive control in physical education and sports and the use of its results in planning the training of athletes and physical education.The word "metrology" translated from the ancient Greek means "science of measurements" (Metron - Measure, Logos - Word, Science).

The main task of general metrology is to ensure the unity and accuracy of measurements. Sports metrology as a scientific discipline is part of general metrology. Its main tasks include:

1. Development of new means and measurement methods.

2. Registration of changes in a state of dealing under the influence of various physical exertion.

3. Collecting mass data, formation of assessments and norms.

4. Processing the results of measurements in order to organize efficient control and management of the training process.

However, as an educational discipline, sports metrology goes beyond the framework of general metrology. Thus, in physical education and sports, in addition to ensuring the measurement of physical quantities, such as length, mass, etc., are subject to measuring pedagogical, psychological, biological and social indicators, which cannot be called physical in their content. The method of their measurements, the total metrology does not and, therefore, special measurements have been developed, the results of which comprehensively characterize the preparedness of physical education and athletes.

The use of methods of mathematical statistics in sports metrology has given the opportunity to obtain a more accurate view of the measured objects, compare them and evaluate the measurement results.

In the practice of physical education and sports, measurements are carried out in the process of systematic control (FR. Checking something), during which various indicators of competitive and training activities are recorded, as well as the state of athletes. Such control is called complex.

This makes it possible to establish causal relationships between loads and results in competitions. And after comparison and analysis, develop a program and plan for training athletes.

Thus, the subject of sports metrology is a comprehensive control in physical education and sports and the use of its results in planning the training of athletes and physical education systems.

Systematic control over athletes allows you to determine the measure of their stability and take into account possible errors of measurements.

2. Cales and units of measurements. System C.

Name scale

Actually measurements that meet the definition of this action are not produced in the scale of the Names. Here we are talking about the grouping of objects identical on a certain trait, and the appropriation of designations. It is not by chance that another name of this scale is nominal (from the Latin word NOME is a name).

The notation assigned to objects is numbers. For example, length-floppy athletes in length in this scale can be denoted by number 1, jumpers in height - 2, triple jumpers - 3, jumpers with sixth - 4.

At nominal measurements, the entered symbolism means that the object 1 is only different from objects 2, 3 or 4. However, how different and what exactly, it is impossible to measure on this scale.

Scale order

If some facilities have a certain quality, then the ordinal dimensions allow you to answer the question of differences in this capacity. For example, competitions in a run of 100 m - it

determination of the level of development of speed-force qualities. At the athlete who won the race, the level of these qualities is currently higher than that who came the second. In the second, in turn, higher than the third, etc.

But most often the order scale is used where high-quality measurements are impossible in the accepted system of units.

When using this scale, you can add and subtract the ranks or make any other mathematical actions over them.

Scale intervals

Measurements in this scale are not only ordered in rank, but also separated by certain intervals. In the interval, the units of measurement (degrees, second, etc.) are installed. The measured object here is assigned a number equal to the number of units of the measurement that it contains.

Here you can use any methods of statistics, except for determining the relationship. This is due to the fact that the zero point of this scale is chosen arbitrarily.

Collection of relationship

In the scale of the relationship, the zero point is not arbitrary, and, therefore, at some point in time, the measured quality can be zero. In this regard, when evaluating the measurement results in this scale it is possible to determine "how many times" one object is greater than the other.

In this scale, some of the units of measurement is adopted for the standard, and the measured value contains so many of these units, how many times it is more reference. The measurement results in this scale can be processed by any methods of mathematical statistics.

Basic Units Sing

Size dimension name designation

russian international

Length l Meter M M

Mass M kilogram kg kg

Time T Second with S

Power e. Ampere current A A

Kelvin temperature to k

Number of Mol Mol Mol

Candela Light CD CD

4 measurement accuracy. Error and varieties and methods of elimination.

No measurement can be performed absolutely. The measurement result inevitably contains an error, the value of which is the less less than the measurement method and the measuring device.

Basic error- This is the error of the measurement method or the measuring instrument, which takes place in normal conditions of their application.

Additional error- This is the error of the measuring instrument, caused by the deviation of the conditions for its work from normal.

The value of D A \u003d A-A0, equal to the difference between the indication of the measuring device (A) and the true value of the measured value (A0), is called an absolute measurement error. It is measured in the same units that the measured value itself.

The relative error is the ratio of the absolute error to the value of the measured value:

The systematic is called the error, the value of which does not change from measurement to the measurement. Due to this feature, a systematic error can often be predicted in advance or in the extreme case detected and eliminated at the end of the measurement process.

Tarising (from him. Tarieren) is called testing of measuring instruments by comparing with readings of exemplary values \u200b\u200bof measures (standards *) in the entire range of possible values \u200b\u200bof the measured value.

Calibration is called the definition of errors or amendment for a set of measures (for example, a set of dynamometers). And when taring, and when calibrating to the input of the measuring system, the source of the reference signal is connected instead of an athlete.

Randomization (from the English Random - random) is called the transformation of a systematic error in random. This technique is aimed at eliminating unknown systematic errors. According to the randomization method, the measurement of the magnitude is studied several times. In this case, the measurements are organized so that the constant factor affecting their result acted in each case differently. For example, in the study of physical performance, it can be recommended to measure it repeatedly, every time changing the method of job task. At the end of all measurements, their results are averaged according to the rules of mathematical statistics.

Random errors arise under the action of a variety of factors that neither predict in advance nor accurately consider.

4. Probable probability theory. Random event, random quantity, probability.

Probability theory - The theory of probabilities can be defined as a section of mathematics, in which the patterns inherent in mass random phenomena are studied.

Conditional probability - The conditional probability of the RA (c) of events is called the likelihood of an event in, found under the assumption that an event has already come.

Elementary event - Events U1, U2, ..., un, forming a complete group in pairwise incompatible and equilibrium events, will be called elementary events.

Random event - The event is called random, if it objectively can come or not to step in this test.

Event - the result (outcome) of the test is called an event.

Any random event has a degree of WHO capita, which in principle can be measured numerically. To compare events to the degree of their ability, you need to tie with each of them some number that the greater is the more possibility of the event. This number we will call the probability of an event.

Characterizing the probability of events by numbers, you need to install some unit of measurement. As such a unit, it is natural to take the likelihood of a reliable event, i.e. Such an event, which as a result of experience inevitably must occur.

The probability of any event is a numerical expression of its occurrence.

In some simple cases, the probabilities of events can be easily determined directly based on the test conditions.

Random value- This is a value that takes one of the variety of values \u200b\u200bas a result of experience, and the appearance of one or another value of this magnitude before it is impossible to accurately predict.

5. Genuine and selective aggregate. Sampling. Unordered I. ranked samples.

In selective observation, the concepts of "general aggregate" are used - the set of units to be studied by the explorers of interest to the researcher, and the "selective set" is randomly chosen from the general population of some part of it. This sample imposes a requirement of representativeness, i.e. When studying only a part of the general population, the conclusions obtained can be applied to the entire totality.

The characteristics of the general and selective aggregates can serve as the average values \u200b\u200bof the studied signs, their dispersion and the average quadratic deviations, fashion and median, and others. The researchers may also be interested in the distribution of units on the grounds in general and selective aggregates. In this case, frequencies are called respectively general and selective.

The system of selection and methods for the characteristics of the units of the common set is the content of the sample method, the essence of which is to obtain primary data when observing the sample, followed by generalization, analysis and distribution to the entire general set in order to obtain reliable information on the phenomenon under study.

The representativeness of the sample is ensured by compliance with the principle of chance of selection of objects of aggregate to the sample. If the totality is a qualitatively homogeneous, the principle of chance is implemented by a simple random selection of sampling objects. A simple random selection is called such a sample formation procedure, which provides for each unit of aggregate the same likelihood of being selected for observation for any sample of a given volume. Thus, the purpose of the sample method is to conclude the meaning of the signs of the general population based on the information of the random sample from this totality.

The size of the sample - in the audit - the number of units taken by the auditor from the totable aggregate. Samplecalled disorderedIf the order of the elements in it is not essential.

6. Statistical statistical characteristics of the center of the center.

Indicators of the distribution center.These include power average in the form of middle arithmetic and structuralmiddle - fashion and median.

Average arpmeticfor a discrete row of distribution calculated by the formula:

In contrast to the average arithmetic, calculated on the basis of all the option, fashion and median characterizes the characterization value in a statistical unit occupying a certain position in the variational series.

Mediana ( Me.) -the value of the feature at a statistical unit standing in the middle of a ranked row and dividing a combination into two equal part.

Fashion (Mo) - the most common meaning of the sign in the aggregate.Fashion is widely used in statistical practice when study of purchasing demand, registration of prices, etc.

For discrete variational series Mo.and Me.selected in accordance with the definitions: Fashion - like the value of the sign with the highest frequency : The position of the median with an odd total of a set is determined by its number, where N is the volume of statistical aggregate. With an even amount of a number of median is equal to the middle of two options in the middle of the row.

Median use as the most reliable indicator typicalthe values \u200b\u200bof the inhomogeneous aggregate, as it is insensitive to extreme values \u200b\u200bof the feature that may differ significantly from the main massif of its values. In addition, Median finds practical application due to a special mathematical properties: Consider the definition of fashion and medians in the following example: there are a number of distribution of workers in the level of qualifications.

7. The main statistical characteristics of the dispersion (variation).

The homogeneity of statistical aggregates is characterized by the value of the variation (scattering) of the feature, i.e. Invisitating its values \u200b\u200bfrom different statistical units. To measure variation in statistics, absolute and relative indicators are used.

To absolute indicators of variationrelate:

Variation variation R.it is the easiest indicator of variation:

This indicator is the difference between the maximum and minimum values \u200b\u200bof the signs and characterizes the scatter of the cell elements. Only the extreme signs of the attribution captures the repetition of its intermediate values, it does not take into account the repeatability of its intermediate values, and also does not reflect deviations of all the options for the sign values.

Scope is often used in practical activities, for example, the difference between Max and Min Pension, wages in various industries, etc.

Medium linear deviationd.it is a strictest characteristic of the characterization of the feature, which takes into account the difference in all units of the totality studied. Medium linear deviationrepresents middle arithmetic absolute valuesdeviations of individual options from their middle arithmetic. This indicator is calculated by the formulas of a simple and suspended middle arithmetic:

In practical calculations, the average linear deviation is used to assess the rhythm of production, the uniformity of the supply. Since modules have bad mathematical properties, in practice other indicators of medium deviation from the average - dispersion and the average quadratic deviation are used.

Average quadratic deviationit is the average quadratic deviation of individual values \u200b\u200bof the feature from their average arithmetic:

8. Suppracture differences in statistical indicators.

IN statisticsthe magnitude is called statistically significantif the probability of its random occurrence is small, that is zero hypothesismay be rejected. The difference is called "statistically significant" if there are data, the appearance of which would be unlikely, assuming that this difference is absent; This expression does not mean that this difference must be great, it is important, or meaning in the general sense of the word.

9. Graphic image of variational series. Polygon and histogram of distribution.

Graphs are a visual form of display of distribution rows. For image series, linear graphs and planar charts are used, built in a rectangular coordinate system.

For graphical representation of attribute distribution rows, various charts are used: columns, linear, circular, curly, sectoral, etc.

For discrete variational series, the schedule is a distribution polygon.

The distribution polygon is a broken line connecting points with coordinates or where - the discrete value of the feature, - frequency, frequency. The polygon is used for a graphic image of a discrete variational series, and this schedule is a type of statistical broken. In the rectangular coordinate system along the abscissa axis, options for the feature are postponed, and according to the ordinate axis, the frequency of each option. At the intersection of the abscissa and ordinates, the points corresponding to this number of distribution are recorded. By connecting these points with straight, we get a broken, which is a polygon, or an empirical distribution curve. To close the polygon, the extreme peaks are connected to the points on the abscissa axis, aligned with one division in the accepted scale, or with the middle of the previous one (before the initial) and subsequent (last) intervals.

The image of the interval variation rows is used histograms, which are a stepped figures consisting of rectangles, the bases of which are equal to the width of the interval, and the height - frequency (frequency) of the equal interval row or the density of the non-interval interval distribution of the diagram is similar to the construction of a bar chart of a histogram applied to the graphic image of continuous (interval ) variational series. In this case, the abscissa axis lay the ranges of the row. The rectangles are built on these segments, the height of which along the axis of the ordinate in the accepted scale corresponds to frequencies. At equal intervals along the abscissa axis, rectangles are laying, closed with each other, with equal bases and orders, proportional to the weights. This step polygon is called a histogram. Its constructing is similar to the construction of column charts. The histogram can be converted to the distribution polygon, for which the mid-upper sides of the rectangles are combined with straight lines. Two extreme points of rectangles closed along the abscissa axis in the middle of the intervals, similar to the installation of the landfill. In case of inequality of intervals, the schedule is built not in frequencies or generals, but on the distribution density (frequency ratio or frequency ratio to the size of the interval), and then the height of the rectangles of the graphics will correspond to the values \u200b\u200bof this density.

When constructing graphs of rows of distribution, the ratio of the scale along the abscissa axis and the axis of the ordinate has a large value. In this case, it is necessary to be guided by the "Rule of Golden Section", according to which the height of the graph should be about two times less than its foundation.

10.Normal law of distribution (essence, value). The curve of the normal distribution and its properties. http://igriki.narod.ru/index.files/16001.gif.

The continuous random value is called distributed according to the normal law, if its distribution density is equal

where m is the mathematical expectation of a random variable;

σ2 - dispersion of random variable, characteristic of scattering of random values \u200b\u200bnear mathematical expectation.

The condition for the emergence of the normal distribution is the formation of a feature as the sum of the large number of mutually independent terms, none of which is not characterized extremely large compared to other dispersions.

Normal distribution is the limit, other distributions are approaching it.

Mathematical expectation of a random variety of X. Distributed according to the normal law, equal

mX \u003d M, and dispersion dx \u003d σ2.

The probability of incoming random variables, distributed according to the normal law, in the interval (α, β) is expressed by the formula

where - Tabernated Function

11. Put three sigm and its practical application.

When considering the normal distribution law, an important private case is allocated, which is usually three sigm.

Those. The likelihood that a random value will deviate from its mathematical expectation by a value greater than the tripled average quadratic deviation is almost equal to zero.

This rule is called the rule of three sigm.

Do not practice it is believed that if for any random variable, the rule of three sigm is performed, then this random value has a normal distribution.

12.Vids statistical relationships.

The qualitative analysis of the studied phenomenon allows you to highlight the main causal relations of this phenomenon, establish factor and efficiency.

The relationships studied in statistics can be classified for a number of features:

1) by character character: functional (rigid), correlation (probabilistic) functional bonds - these are connections in which each value of a factor corresponds to the only value of the resulting feature.

In the correlation bonds, different values \u200b\u200bof the characteristic feature may correspond to a separate value of the factor notation.

Such bonds are manifested with a large number of observations, through the change in the average value of the effective feature under the influence of factor signs.

2) According to analytical expression: straight, curvilinear.

3) in the direction: direct, reverse.

4) by the number of factor attributes that affect the productive basis: single-factor, multifactorial.

Tasks of statistical examination of relationships:

Establishing the presence of the direction of communication;

Quantitative measurement of the effect of factors;

Measurement of tightness of communication;

Assessment of the accuracy of the data received.

13. The main tasks of correlation analysis.

1. Measurement of the degree of connectivity of two or more variables. Our general knowledge of objectively existing causing connections must be complemented by scientifically based knowledge of quantitativeextent dependencies between variables. This item implies verificationalready known ties.

2. Detection of unknown causal connections. Correlation analysis directly does not reveal the causal bonds between variables, but establishes the strength of these connections and their significance. Cause of nature is found with the help of logical reasoning disclosing the mechanism of connections.

3. Selection of factors that significantly affect the sign. The most important factors that are more correlated with the signs studied are stronger.

14.Correlation field. Forms of interconnection.

Sampled data analysis tool. If the values \u200b\u200bof two signs of XL are given. . . xn and yl. . . Un, then when compiling K. p. Points with coordinates (XL, YL) (xn.. Un) are applied to the plane. The location of the points allows preliminary conclusion about the character and form of dependence.

To describe the causal relationship between phenomena and processes, the division of statistical signs is used,reflecting individual sides of interrelated phenomena, on the factor and efficient.Factors are considered signs that determine the change in other related signs, causes and conditions of such changes. Executive are signs varying under the influence of factor.

Forms of manifestation of existing relationships are very diverse. As the most common types of their species functional and statistical connections.

Functionalcall such a relationship in which a certain value of a factor corresponds to one and only one value of the productive. Such a connection is possible when conditions that the behavior of one feature (effectively) affects only the second feature (factor) and no others. Such links are abstractions, in real life they are rare, but are widely used in the exact sciences and first of all, in mathematics. For example: The dependence of the circle area from radius: S \u003d π ∙ r.2

Functional communication is manifested in all cases of observation and for each specific unit of the aggregate.In mass phenomena manifest statistical bonds in which strictly defined value of the factor is made in compliance with many values \u200b\u200bof the effective. Such connections have a place if there are several factors, and to describe the communication, uses one or more defining (accounted) factors.

Strictly distinction between functional and statistical bond can be obtained with their mathematical formulation.

Functional communication can be represented by the equation:
due to the action of uncontrolled factors or measurement errors.

An example of a statistical connection can be the dependence of the cost of the product unit from the level of productivity: the higher the productivity, the lower the cost. But other factors are influenced by the cost of products in addition to productivity, other factors are influenced by other factors: the cost of raw materials, materials, fuels, general production and generality expenses, etc. Therefore, it cannot be argued that the change in labor productivity by 5% (promotion) will lead to a similar reduction in cost. There may be an inverse picture, if the cost will be influenced in more degrees of other factors, for example, raw materials and materials will increase dramatically.

Sports metrology - This is a science of measurements in physical education and sports. It should be considered as a specific application to the total metrology, as one of the components of the practical (applied) metrology

The subject of sports metrology There are comprehensive control in physical education and sports and the use of its results in planning the training of athletes and physical education.

The main names are called the units whose values \u200b\u200bare determined by special samples - references

The word "magnitude" is often trying to express the size of this particular physical quantity.

All parameters measured in sports science are divided into four levels:

- integralreflecting the total (cumulative) effect of the functional state of various systems of the body (for example, sportsmanship);

- Complexbelonging to one of the functional systems of the body of an athlete (for example, physical preparedness);

- Differentialcharacterizing only one property of the system (for example, powerful qualities);

- singlerevealing one value (value) of a separate properties of the system (maximum muscle strength).

The measurement is called a set of operations performed using technical means storing a unit of magnitude and allowing to compare with a measurable value.

The definition was widespread: "Measurement is a cognitive process, consisting in comparison by the physical experiment of this value with a known value adopted for the comparison unit."

The standard is given a definition more concise, but containing the same thought: "Measurement is the foundation of the physical value by experimentally with the help of special technical means."

Measurements based on the use of human senses (tanging, smelling, vision, hearing and taste) are called organoleptic .

Measurements performed using special technical means are called instrumental . Among them can be automated and automatic.

By a method for producing a numerical value of the measured value, all measurements are divided into four main types: straight, indirect, cumulative and joint .

Direct measurements - These are measurements in which the desired value of the magnitude is in direct comparison of the physical value with its measure. For example, when determining the length of the object, the ruler compares the desired value (quantitative expression of the length value) with measure, i.e. ruler. To direct measurements include the temperature measurement of the thermometer, the electrical voltage - voltmeter, etc. Direct measurements are the basis of more complex measurements.

Indirect measurements They differ from direct the fact that the desired value of the magnitude is set according to the results of direct measurements of such values \u200b\u200bthat are associated with the desired definite dependence. So, using a well-known functional relationship, you can calculate electrical resistance according to the results of measurements of the voltage drop and current. The values \u200b\u200bof certain values \u200b\u200bare easier and easier to find by indirect measurements, since direct measurements are sometimes practically impossible to implement. For example, a solid density is usually determined by the results of measurements of volume and mass.

Cumulative measurements They are called those in which the values \u200b\u200bof the measured values \u200b\u200bare found according to repeated measurements of one or more of the same names at various combinations of measures or these values. The results of total measurements are found by solving the system of equations compiled by the results of several direct measurements.

Joint measurements - These are simultaneous measurements (direct or indirect) two or more inhomogeneous physical quantities to determine the functional dependence between them. For example, determining the dependence of the body length from temperature.

By the nature of the change in the measured value in the measurement process distinguishes statistical, dynamic and static measurements .

Statistical measurementsassociated with the definition of the characteristics of random processes, sound signals, noise levels, etc.

Dynamic measurements Associated with such values \u200b\u200bthat are undergoing certain changes in the measurement process. For example, efforts developed by the athlete in the support period when jumping in length from running.

Static measurements Take the place when the measured value is almost constant (length of jumping in length, range of shell, core weight, etc.).

According to the number of measuring measurement information there are single and multi-time .

Single measurements - This is one dimension of one value, i.e. The number of measurements is equal to the number of measured values. Since single measurements are always associated with errors, at least three single measurements should be carried out and the end result is found as an average arithmetic value.

Multiple measurements Characterized by the exceedment of the number of measurements of the amount of measured values. Usually the minimum number of measurements in this case is more than three. The advantage of multiple measurements is to significantly reduce the effects of random factors on the measurement error.

In relation to the main units of measurement are divided into absolute and relative . Absolute measurements Call those under which a direct measurement of one (sometimes several) main values \u200b\u200band physical constant are used. So, in the well-known formula Einstein E \u003d M * from the mass (M), the main physical value that can be measured by directly (weighing), and the speed of light (C) is a physical constant.

Relative measurements based on the establishment of the ratio of the measured value to the homogeneous used as a unit. It is clear that the desired value depends on the unit used.

In metrological practice, the basis for measuring the physical size is scale measurements - an ordered set of physical values

Table 5. Characteristics and examples of measurement scales

Scale		Characteristics	Mathematical methods	Examples
Names		Objects are grouped, and groups are indicated by numbers. The fact that the number of one group is more or less different, nothing else speaks of their properties, except what they differ	Number of cases. Fashion. Tetrachloric and polychoric coefficients correlation	Athlete number, amplua, etc.
Order		The numbers assigned to objects reflect the amount of property belonging to them. It is possible to establish the ratio "more" or "less"	Median. Rank correlation. Rank criteria. Checking hypotheses not parametric statistics	Results of ranking athletes in test
Intervals		There is a measurement unit, with which objects can not only be arranged, but also attribute them to the numbers so that equal differences reflect different differences in the number of measured properties. Zero point arbitrary and does not indicate the absence of a property	All methods of statistics, except for determining the relationship	Temperature of body, joint corners, etc.
Relation	Numbers assigned subjects have all the properties of terval scale. On the scale there is absolute zero, which indicates full lack of this property object. The ratio of numbers, in their own objects after rhenium reflects quantitative measured relations are measurable properties		All methods statistics	Length I. body mass, the power of movements acceleration etc.

In the preparation and conduct of high-precision measurements in metrological practice, influence is taken into account:

Measurement object;

Subject (expert, or experimental);

Measurement method;

Measuring;

Measurement conditions.

Items of sports metrology as part of the total metrology are measurements and control in sports. And the term "measurement" in sports metrology is interpreted in the broadest sense and is understood as the establishment of conformity between studied phenomena and numbers

The main measurable and controlled parameters in sports medicine, the training process and in scientific research on sports are physiological ("internal"), physical ("external") and psychological parameters of training load and recovery; parameters of the qualities of strength, speed, endurance, flexibility and agility; Functional parameters of cardiovascular and respiratory systems; biomechanical parameters of sports equipment; Linear and arc body size parameters.

Like any living system, the athlete is a complex, non-trivial measurement object. From the usual, classical, objects of measurement, the athlete has a number of differences: variability, multidimensionality, qualitativeness, adaptability and mobility.

Variability -the impermanence of variable values \u200b\u200bcharacterizing the state of the athlete and its activities. All indicators of the athlete are continuously changed: physiological (oxygen consumption, pulse rate, etc.), morphoanatomic (growth, mass, body proportions, etc.), biomechanical (kinematic, dynamic and energy characteristics of movements), psychophysiological, etc. The variability makes the necessary multiple measurements and processing their results by methods of mathematical statistics,

Multidimensional - A large number of variables that need to be measured simultaneously in order to accurately characterize the state and activity of an athlete. Along with the "output variables", characterizing the athlete, the "input variables" should be monitored, characterizing the effect of the external environment on an athlete. The role of input variables can play the intensity of physical and emotional loads, the oxygen concentration in the inhaled air, the ambient temperature, etc. The desire to reduce the number of measured variables is a characteristic feature of sports metrology. It is due not only to organizational difficulties arising when trying to simultaneously register many variables, but also in the fact that with an increase in the number of variables, the complexity of their analysis sharply increases.

Qualitativity- Qualitative character, i.e. Lack of accurate quantitative measure. The physical qualities of the athlete, the properties of the personality and the team, the quality of the inventory and many other factors of the sports result are not yet amenable to accurate measurement, but nevertheless should be evaluated as accurate as possible. Without such an assessment, further progress is difficult both in the sports of higher achievements and in mass physical education, which is in dire need of health care monitoring and engaged in the work.

Adaptability - The person's property to adapt (adapt) to the surrounding conditions. Adaptability underlies the student and gives an athlete the opportunity to master new elements of movements and perform them in conventional and in complicated conditions (at the heat and cold, with emotional tension, fatigue, hypoxia, etc.). But at the same time adaptability complicates the task of sports measurements. With multiple studies, the athlete gets used to the study procedure ("learns to be studied") and as such training begins to show other results, although its functional state can remain unchanged.

Mobility - The peculiarity of the athlete based on the fact that in the overwhelming majority of sports activities athlete is associated with continuous movements. Compared to studies carried out with a fixed person, measurements under sports activities are accompanied by additional distortions of recorded curves and errors in measurements.

Testing - indirect measurement

Testing is replaced by measurement whenever the object being studied is not available to direct measurement. For example, it is almost impossible to accurately determine the performance of the athlete's heart during intense muscular work. Therefore, an indirect measurement is used: the heart rate is measured and other cardiological indicators characterizing cardiac performance. Tests are used in cases where the phenomenon is not quite specifically.

Dough (From English. Test - Sample, Testing) In sports practice is a measurement or test conducted in order to determine the state or human abilities.

Different measurements and tests can be produced very much, but not all sorts of measurements can be used as tests. The test in sports practice may be called only the measurement or test that meets the following metrological requirements:

The purpose of the use of the test must be determined; Standard (technique, procedure and testing conditions should be the same in all cases of testing);

It is necessary to determine the reliability and informativeness of the test;

The test requires a rating system;

You should specify the type of control (operational, current or stage).

Reliability tests The degree of coincidence of the results when re-testing the same people in the same conditions is called. It is clear that the complete coincidence of the results during repeated measurements is almost impossible.

Test consistency It is characterized by the independence of the results of testing from personal qualities of a person conducting or an evaluating test. If the results of athletes in the test, which conduct different specialists (experts, judges) coincide, this indicates a high degree of test consistency. This property depends on the coincidence of testing methods from different specialists.

The informativeness of the test is the degree of accuracy with which it measures the property (quality, ability, characteristic, etc.), to evaluate which is used. In the literature until 1980, instead of the term "informativeness", an adequate term "validity" was applied.

Evaluation - Unified Measuring

sports results and tests

Estimate (or pedagogical assessment) Called a unified measure of success in any task, in a particular case - in the test.

The process of determining (excretion, calculation) of estimates is called the estimation. It consists of the following stages:

1) a scale is selected, with which it is possible to translate test results in the assessment;

2) in accordance with the selected scale, the test results are converted to points (points);

3) The points obtained are compared with the rules and the final assessment is displayed. It characterizes the level of athlete's preparedness relative to other members of the group (teams, team).

four types of such scales encountered in sports and physical education.

First - proportional Scale (a). When using it, equal gains of results in the test are encouraged by equal increments in points. So, in this scale, as can be seen from fig. 7, the decrease in the time of running 0.1 s is estimated in 20 points. They will receive an athlete who ran 100 m in 12.8 s, and running the same distance for 12.7 s, and an athlete that improved its result from 12.1 to 12 s. Proportional scales are accepted in modern pentathlon, skating sports, skiing, skiing diet, biathlon and other sports.

Second type - progressive scale (B). Here, as can be seen from the figure, equal growth gains are estimated in different ways. The higher the absolute increments, the greater the prefix in the assessment. So, for improving the result in running 100 meters from 12.8 to 12.7 s is given 20 points, from 12.7 to 12.6 C - 30 points. Progressive scales are applied in swimming, individual types of athletics, weightlifting.

Third type - regressing Scale (B). In this scale, as well as the previous, equal gains in tests in tests are also dropped in different ways, but the higher the absolute increase, the less the increase in the assessment. So, for improving the result of running 100 m from 12.8 to 12.7 s is given 20 points, from 12.7 to 12.6 s - 18 points ... from 12.1 to 12.0 s - 4 points. Scale of this type adopted in some types of athletics jumps and throwing.

Fourth Type - synotoid (orS.-Youx) Scale (g). It can be seen that the increases in the middle zone are raised above, and the improvement in very low or very high results is faintly encouraged. Thus, for improving the result from 12.8 to 12.7 ° C and from 12.1 to 12.0 s, 10 points are charged, and from 12.5 to 12.4 s - 30 points. In sports, such scales are not used, but they are used in assessing physical fitness. For example, it looks like a scale of the standards of physical fitness of the US population.

Norms - Basics Comparison of Results

Norm In sports metrology, the boundary value of the test result is based on the classification of athletes

The suitability of the norms. Norms are compiled for a specific group of people and are only suitable for this group.

Another characteristic of the norms - representativeness. It reflects their suitability for evaluating all people from the general population (for example, to assess the physical condition of all first-graders of the city of Moscow). Representatives can only be the norms obtained on typical material.

The third characteristic of the norms - their modernity. It is known that the results in competitive exercises and tests are constantly growing and use the norms developed by a long time, not recommended. Some norms set by many years ago are perceived now as naive, although in due time they reflected the actual situation characterizing the average level of human physical condition.

Quality is a generalized concept that can relate to products, services, processes, labor and any other activity, including physical culture and sports.

Quality are indicators that do not have certain units of measurement. Such indicators in physical education, and especially in sports, a lot: artistry, expressiveness in gymnastics, figure skating, jumping into water; Entertainment in sports games and martial arts, etc. To quantify such indicators, qualimetry methods are used.

Qualimeter is a section of metrology that studies issues of measurement and quantitative assessment of quality indicators

Error Call the deviation of the measurement results from the valid (true) value of the measured value

For reasons for error divided into instrumental, methodical and subjective. Instrumental (hardware) error - error of measuring instruments (component of the error of measuring instruments), caused by imperfection tool of measurement, its structural and technological features, non-ideal implementation of the principle of operation and the influence of external conditions. Tool errors are also used to interfere with the input of the measurement tools caused by its connection to the object. Instrumental error is one of the most tangible components of measurement errors. Methodical error - constituent measurement errors, due to the imperfection of the applied method of measurement and simplification when building a measurement tool design, including mathematical dependencies. Sometimes measurement tools affect the measured object. For example, a mask for the fence of exhaled air makes it difficult to breathe, and the athlete can demonstrate underestimated performance compared to the one that he could demonstrate without a mask. In most cases, these errors "act" regularly, i.e. refer to systematic. Subjective (Personal) Error Arises due to individual characteristics (degrees of care, concentration, preparedness) of measurements producing operators. These errors are practically absent when using automatic or automated measuring instruments. In most cases, subjective errors relate to random, but some can be systematic. A valid relative error The ratio of absolute error is called the true meaning of the measured value: Specified relative error - This is the ratio of absolute error to the maximum possible value of the measured value:

The primary standard is a benchmark that reproduces a physical value unit with the highest accuracy possible in this area of \u200b\u200bmeasurements at the current level of scientific and technical achievements. The primary standard may be national (state) and international. The standard that ensures the reproduction of the unit under special conditions and replacing the primary standard in these conditions is called special. Officially approved primary or special standards are called public or special standards. The national standard is approved as an initial measurement tool for the country by the national authority for metrology. In Russia, national (state) standards approves the State Standard of the Russian Federation.

The measure is called a measurement tool intended for playing the physical quantities of the specified size. This type of measuring instruments include weights, limit lengths, etc. In practice, unambiguous and multivalued measures are used, as well as sets and stores of measures.

Measuring instruments are measuring instruments that allow you to obtain measuring information in a form convenient for perception by the user. They are a set of converting elements forming a measuring chain, and a reading device.

Lecture 2.

Measuring physical quantities

The measurement in the broad sense of the word is called the establishment of conformity between the studied phenomena, on the one hand, and the numbers, on the other.

Measurement of physical quantity - This is an experienced connection between the measured value and unit of measurement of this value, which is usually produced using special technical means. At the same time, the physical quantity is understood as the characteristics of various properties common in a quantitative relation for many physical objects, but individual qualitatively for each of them. Physical values \u200b\u200binclude length, time, weight, temperature and many others. Obtaining information about the quantitative characteristics of physical quantities itself is a measurement task.

1. Elements of the system of measurement of physical quantities

The main elements fully characterizing the measurement system of any physical quantities are presented in Fig. one.

Whatever measurements of physical quantities were made, all of them are possible only if there are generally accepted units of measurements (meters, seconds, kilograms, etc.) and the measurement scales that allow you to streamline the measured objects and attribute them numbers. This is ensured by using appropriate measurement tools that allow you to obtain the necessary accuracy. To achieve unity of measurements, there are developed standards and rules.

It should be noted that the measurement of physical quantities is the basis of all without exception in sports practice. It may be independent, for example, in determining the mass of the body links; serve as the first stage of assessing sports results and test results, for example, when assessing scores in points based on the results of measuring the length of jumping from the place; Indirectly influence the qualitative assessment of performing skills, for example, on the amplitude of movements, rhythm, the position of the blocks of the body.

Fig. 1. Basic elements of the measurement system of physical quantities

2. Types of measurements

Measurements are divided by measurement tools (organoleptic and instrumental) and by the method for producing a numerical value of the measured value (direct, indirect, cumulative, joint).

Organoleptic is called measurements based on the use of human senses (vision, hearing, etc.). For example, the human eye can determine with high accuracy with pairing comparison the relative brightness of light sources. One of the types of organoleptic measurements is the detection - the decision on whether the value of the measured value is different from zero or not.

Tools are called measurements performed using special technical means. Most of the measurements of physical quantities are instrumental.

Direct measurements are measurements in which the desired value is directly compared to the physical size with measure. Such measurements can be attributed, for example, the definition of the length of the subject by comparing it with a measure - ruler.

Indirect measurements are distinguished by the fact that the value of the values \u200b\u200bis set according to the results of direct measurements of the values \u200b\u200bassociated with the desired specific functional dependence. So, measuring the volume and body weight, it can be calculated (indirectly measure) its density or, measuring the duration of the flight phase of the jump, calculate its height.

Cumulative measurements are called those in which the values \u200b\u200bof the measured values \u200b\u200bare found according to their repeated measurements under various combinations of measures. The results of repeated measurements are substituted into the equations, and the desired value is calculated. For example, the volume of the body can first be found in measuring the volume of the displaced fluid, and then to measure its geometric sizes.

Joint measurements are simultaneous measurements of two and more inhomogeneous physical quantities to establish functional dependence between them. For example, determining the dependence of electrical resistance from temperature.

3. Units of measurements

Units of measurement of physical quantities are values \u200b\u200bof values \u200b\u200bof values \u200b\u200bthat are considered to be equal to one. They are set for a numerical meaning of any value in the form of a symbol (5.56 m; 11.51 s, etc.). Units of measurement are written with a capital letter, if they are named after known scientists (724 N; 220 V, etc.). The combination of units belonging to a certain system of quantities and built in accordance with the principles adopted forms a system of units.

The system of units includes basic and derivative units. The main and independent units are primarily called. The quantities whose units are made for major, as a rule, reflect the most common properties of matter (length, time, etc.). The derivatives are called units expressed through the main.

Throughout history, there are quite many systems of units of measurements. Introduction In 1799 in France, the length of the length - a meter equal to one ten million part of the quarter of the Arc of the Paris Meridian, served as the basis of the metric system. In 1832, the German scientist Gauss was proposed a system called absolute, in which a millimeter, milligrams, seconds were introduced as the main units. In physics, I found the application of the SGS system (centimeter, gram, second), in the technique of the ISS (meter, kilogram-power, second).

The most universal system of units covering all branches of science and technology is the international system of units (Systeme International ďunites - Franz.) With the abbreviated name "Si", in the Russian transcription "SI". She was adopted in 1960 by the XI General Conference on Measures and Sighs. Currently, the system se seven main and two additional units (Table 1).

Table 1. Basic and additional units of SI system

Value
	Name	Designation
			international
	Maintenance
	Kilogram
Electric current power
Thermodynamic temperature
Number of substances
The power of light
	Additional
Flat corner
Solid angle	Steradian

In addition to those listed in Table 1, units of the sectivity of the bits (from Binary Digit - binary discharge) and bytes (1 byte are 8-bit) are entered into the system.

System C has 18 derivatives of units having special names. Some of them, which are used in sports measurements, are presented in Table 2.

Table 2. Some derivatives of SI system units

Value
	Name	Designation
Pressure
Energy, work
Power
Electrical voltage
Electrical resistance
Light

Introduced units of measurements that are not related to the SI system or any other system of units are used in physical culture and sports due to tradition and prevalence in reference books. The use of some of them is limited. The most frequently used non-system units are used: a time unit - minute (1 min \u003d 60 s), a flat angle - degree (1 degrees \u003d π / 180 Run), volume - liter (1 l \u003d 10 -3 m 3), forces - kilogram -syl (1 kg \u003d 9.81 H) (Kilogram should not be confused - kg with a kilogram of the mass kg), work - a kilogramometer (1 kg · m \u003d 9,81 j), the amount of heat - calorie (1 cal \u003d 4, 18 J), Power - horsepower (1 l. \u003d 736 W), pressure is a millimeter of a mercury pillar (1 mm Hg. Art. \u003d 121.1 N / m 2).

The incidental units include decimal multiple and dollane units, in the name of which there are consoles: kilogram - a thousand (for example, kilogram kg \u003d 10 3 g), mega - a million (megawatt MW \u003d 10 6 W), Milli - one thousandth (Milliamper Ma \u003d 10 -3 a), micro - one millionth (microsecond μS \u003d 10 -6 C), nano - one billion (nanometer nm \u003d 10 -9 m), etc. The animal is also used by angstrom - one ten-billion meters (1 Å \u003d 10-10 m). The same group includes national units, for example, English: inch \u003d 0.0254 m, yard \u003d 0.9144 m or such specific as sea mile \u003d 1852 m.

If the measured physical quantities are used directly at pedagogical or biomechanical control, and further computations are made with them, they can be presented in units of different systems or non-system units. For example, the load capacity in weightlifting can be defined in kilograms or tons; The angle of flexion of the foot impact rate when running - in degrees, etc. If the measured physical quantities participate in the calculations, then they must be presented in units of measurement of one system. For example, in the formula for calculating the moment of human body inertia by the pendulum method, the fluctuations should be substituted in seconds, the distance is in meters, the mass is in kilograms.

4. Scale measurements

The measurement scales are ordered sets of physical values. In sports practice, they find the use of four types of scales.

Name scales (nominal scale) is the simplest of all scales. It serve in it to detect and distinguishing the objects under study. For example, each player of the football team is assigned a specific number - number. Accordingly, the player at number 1 differs from the player at number 5, etc., but as far as they differ and what exactly can be measured. You can only calculate how often a number is found.

The scale of order consists of numbers (ranks), which are assigned to athletes according to the results shown, for example, places in boxing competitions, the struggle, so on. Unlike the name scale, on the scale of order can be installed, which of athletes are stronger, and who is weaker But how stronger or weaker cannot be said. The order scale is widely used to assess the qualitative indicators of sportsmanship. With ranks found on the order scale, you can produce a large number of mathematical operations, for example, to calculate rank correlation coefficients.

The scale of intervals is characterized in that the numbers in it are not only ordered in ranks, but also separated by certain intervals. In this scale, the units of measurement are installed, and the measured object is assigned a number equal to the number of units of the measurement that it contains. The zero point in the scale of intervals is chosen arbitrarily. An example of using this scale may be a measurement of calendar time (the beginning of the reference can be selected different), Celsius temperature, potential energy.

The ratio of the relationship has a strictly defined zero point. On this scale, you can find out how many times one measurement object exceeds the other. For example, when measuring the length of the jump find, how many times this length is longer than the length of the body adopted per unit (meter line). In the sport on the ratio, the distance, strength, speed, acceleration, etc. are measured.

5. Measurement accuracy

Measurement accuracy - This is the degree of approximation of the measurement result to the valid value of the measured value. Measurement error The difference between the measured value and the valid value of the measured value is called. Terms "Measurement Accuracy" and "Measurement Error" have the opposite meaning and are equally used to characterize the measurement result.

No measurement can be performed absolutely accurately, and the measurement result inevitably contains an error, the value of which is less than the exact measurement method and the measuring device.

For reasons of occurrence, the error is divided into methodological, instrumental and subjective.

Methodical error is due to the imperfection of the method of measurements and the inadequacy of the mathematical apparatus used. For example, a mask for the fence of exhaled air makes it difficult to breathe, which reduces the measured performance; The mathematical operation of a linear smoothing in three points of dependence of the acceleration of the body of the athlete's body from time to time may not reflect the features of the kinematics of movement in the characteristic moments.

The instrumental error is caused by the imperfection of measuring instruments (measuring equipment), non-compliance with the rules of operation of measuring instruments. It is usually given in technical documentation for measuring instruments.

Subjective error arises due to inattention or insufficient operator's preparedness. This error is practically absent when using automatic measurement tools.

By the nature of the change in the results during repeated measurements, the error is divided into systematic and random.

The systematic is the error, the value of which does not change from measurement to the measurement. As a result, it can often be predicted in advance and eliminated. Systematic errors are known origin and known value (for example, delaying the light signal when measuring the reaction time due to the inertness of the light bulb); known origin, but an unknown value (the device constantly overstars or underestimates the measured value to different quantities); Unknown origin and unknown value.

To eliminate the systematic error, appropriate amendments are introduced, eliminating the sources of errors: the measuring equipment itself is properly located, the conditions for its operation are observed, etc. The calibration is applied (it. Tariren - graduate) - checking the instrument readings by comparing with standards (exemplary measures or exemplary measuring devices).

Random is the error that occurs under the action of a variety of factors that cannot be predicted in advance and take into account. Due to the fact that many factors affect the body of the athlete and the sport result, almost all measurements in the field of physical culture and sports have random errors. They are fundamentally unrelacted, however, with the help of methods of mathematical statistics, you can estimate their value, determine the required number of measurements to obtain a result with a given accuracy, correctly interpret the measurement results. The main way to reduce random errors is to carry out a number of repeated measurements.

In a separate group, there is a so-called coarse error, or misses. This is a measurement error that significantly exceeds the expected one. Frames occur, for example, due to the wrong reference on the scale of the device or error in the result of the result, the sudden voltage jump in the network, etc. Proms are easily detected, since they fall sharply from the total number of numbers obtained. There are statistical methods for their detection. Proma should be discarded.

In the form of the presentation, the error is divided into absolute and relative.

Absolute error (or just error) Δx. equal to the difference between the measurement result X. and the true meaning of the measured value X 0:

Δx \u003d x - x 0 (1)

The absolute error is measured in the same units that the measured value itself. The absolute error of lines, resistance stores and other measures in most cases corresponds to the price of division. For example, for a millimeter line Δx. \u003d 1 mm.

Since the true value of the measured value is usually not possible, it is possible, it takes the value of this value obtained by a more accurate way. For example, the determination of the frequency of steps when running on the basis of counting the number of steps over the time interval, measured using a manual stopwatch, gave the result of 3.4 step / s. The same indicator measured by a radiotelemetric system, including contact sensors - switches, was 3.3 step / s. Consequently, the absolute measurement error with a manual stopwatch is 3.4 - 3.3 \u003d 0.1 step / s.

The error of measuring instruments should be significantly lower than the most measured value and the range of its changes. Otherwise, the measurement results do not carry any objective information about the object being studied and cannot be used in any kind of control in sports. For example, measuring the maximum strength of the brush bends with a dynamometer with an absolute error of 3 kg, taking into account the fact that the value of the force is usually within 30 - 50 kg, does not allow the measurement results at the current control.

Relative error ԑ represents the percentage of absolute error Δx. to the value of the measured value X. (sign Δx. Not taken into account):

(2)

The relative error of measuring instruments is characterized by the accuracy class. K.. Accuracy class is the percentage of the absolute error of the device Δx. To the maximum value of the value measured by them X MAX:

(3)

For example, according to the degree of accuracy, electromechanical devices are divided into 8 grades of accuracy from 0.05 to 4.

In the case when measurement errors are random in nature, and the measurements themselves are direct and carried out repeatedly, their result is given as a confidence interval with a given trust probability. With a small number of measurements n. (sample size n.≤ 30) Trust interval:

(4)

with a large number of measurements (sampling n.≥ 30) Trust interval:

(5)

where - selective arithmetic arithmetic (arithmetic average of measured values);

S. - selective standard deviation;

t α. - the boundary value of the T-criterion of Student (located on the T-distribution table of Student depending on the number of degrees of freedom ν \u003d N-1 and level of significance α ; The level of significance is usually accepted α \u003d 0.05, which is consistent with a trust probability of a trustful probability for most sports studies. α \u003d 0.95, that is, 95% confidence probability);

u α. - percentage points of normalized normal distribution (for α = 0,05 u α. = u. 0,05 = 1,96).

In the field of physical culture and sports, along with expressions (4) and (5), the measurement result is made (indicating n.) as:

(6)

where is the standard error of the average arithmetic .

Values and In expressions (4) and (5), as well as in the expression (6), they are an absolute value of the difference between the sample medium and the true value of the measured value and, thus, characterize the accuracy (error) of measurements.

Selective arithmetic and standard deviation, as well as other numeric characteristics can be calculated on a computer using statistical packets, for example, Statgraphics Plus for Windows (work with a package is studied in detail in the course of computer processing of experimental research data - see AG allowance Katranov and A.V. Samsonova, 2004).

It should be noted that the values \u200b\u200bmeasured in sports practice are not only determined with one or another measurement error (error), but also themselves, as a rule, vary in some limits due to their random nature. In most cases, measurement errors are significantly less than the value of the natural variation of the determined value, and the overall measurement result, as in the case of a random error, is given in the form of expressions (4) - (6).

As an example, you can consider measuring the results in the run of 100 m of schoolchildren in the amount of 50 people. The measurements were carried out by a manual stopwatch with an accuracy of tenth of a second, that is, with an absolute error of 0.1 s. The results ranged from 12.8 s to 17.6 s. It can be seen that the measurement error is significantly less than the results in the race and their variation. The calculated selective characteristics were: \u003d 15.4 s; S. \u003d 0.94 s. Substituting these values \u200b\u200bas well u α. \u003d 1.96 (at 95% trust probability) and n. \u003d 50 in expression (5) and considering that it makes no sense to calculate the boundaries of the confidence interval with greater accuracy than the accuracy of measuring the time of the run by a manual stopwatch (0.1 s), the final result is written in the form:

(15.4 ± 0.3) s, α = 0,05.

Often, when conducting sports measurements, the question arises: how much measurements need to be made to get the result with a given accuracy? For example, how much do you need to perform jumps in length from a place when evaluating high-speed-power abilities so that with a 95% probability to determine the average result, differing from the true value of no more than 1 cm? If the measured value is random and obeys the normal distribution law, the number of measurements (sample size) is by the formula:

(7)

where d. - the difference between the sample medium result from its true value, that is, the measurement accuracy that is specified in advance.

In formula (7), selective standard deviation S.calculated on the basis of a certain number of pre-performed measurements.

6. Measurement tools

Measurement tools - These are technical devices for measuring units of physical quantities having normalized errors. Measurement tools include: measures, transducery sensors, measuring instruments, measuring systems.

The measure is called a measurement means for reproducing the physical quantities of the specified size (ruler, weights, electrical resistance, etc.).

The sensor-converter is a device for detecting physical properties and transforming measuring information into a form, convenient for processing, storage and transmission (limit switches, variable resistance, photoresistors, etc.).

Measuring instruments are measuring instruments to obtain measuring information in a form convenient for perception by the user. They consist of converting elements forming a measuring circuit, and a reading device. In the practice of sports measurements, electromechanical and digital devices (ammeters, voltmeters, oxmeters, etc.) are widely used.

Measuring systems consist of functionally combined measurement tools and auxiliary devices connected by communication channels (measurement system of inter-vent corners, effort, etc.).

Taking into account the methods used methods, the measurement means are divided into contact and non-contact. Contacts suggest direct interaction with the body of the test or sports projectile. Contactless tools are based on light-maintenance. For example, the acceleration of the sports projectile can be measured using the contact tools using accelerometer sensors or contactless means using a strobe.

Recently, powerful automated measuring systems appeared, such as the MOCAP human recognition and digitization system (Motion Capture - motion capture). This system is a set of sensors attached to the body of an athlete, information from which enters the computer and processed by the corresponding software. The coordinates of each sensor shifted with special detectors 500 times per second. The system ensures the accuracy of measuring the spatial coordinate no worse than 5 mm.

Details of the means and measurement methods are considered in the relevant sections of the theoretical course and workshop on sports metrology.

7. Unity of measurements

The unity of measurements is such a measurement state at which their accuracy is ensured, and the values \u200b\u200bof the measured values \u200b\u200bare expressed in legalized units. The unity of measurements is based on legal, organizational and technical foundations.

The legal framework for ensuring the unity of measurements are presented by the Law of the Russian Federation "On Ensuring the Unity of Measurements", adopted in 1993. The main articles of the law establish: the structure of the state management of the unity of measurements; regulatory documents to ensure the unity of measurements; units of quantities and state standards of units of quantities; Means and measurement techniques.

The organizational foundations of ensuring the unity of measurements are to work in the work of the metrological service of Russia, which consists of state and departmental metrological services. The departmental metrological service is also in the sports field.

The technical basis for ensuring the unity of measurements is the system of reproducing certain size of physical quantities and transferring information about them to everyone without exception to the measurement funds in the country.

Questions for self-control

1. What elements includes a system for measuring physical quantities?
2. What types of measurements are divided into?
3. What units of measurements are included in the international system of units?
4. What non-system units are most often used in sports practice?
5. What are the measured scales?
6. What is the accuracy and measurement error?
7. What are the types of measurement error?
8. How to eliminate or reduce measurement errors?
9. How to calculate the error and write the result of direct measurement?
10. How to find the number of measurements to obtain a result with a given accuracy?
11. What are the measuring instruments?
12. What is the basics of ensuring the unity of measurements?

ISBN 5900871517 The cycle of lectures is designed for students of full-time and correspondence branches of the faculties of the physical culture of pedagogical universities and institutions. And the term measurement in sports metrology is interpreted in the broadest sense and is understood as the establishment of conformity between the studied phenomena and the numbers in modern theory and sports practice, measurements are widely used to solve the most diverse tasks of managing athletes. Multidimensionality a large number of variables that need ...

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Page 2

UDC 796.

Polevoshchikov M.M. Sports metrology. Lecture 3: Measurements in physical culture and sports. / Mari State University. - Yoshkar-Ola: Marga, 2008. - 34c.

ISBN 5-900871-51-7

The cycle of lectures is intended for students of the full-time and correspondence branches of the faculties of the physical culture of pedagogical universities and institutions. The collections contain theoretical material on the basics of metrology, standardization, the content of control and control in the process of physical education and sports is revealed.

The proposed allowance will be useful not only to students in the study of the training discipline "Sports Metrology", but also teachers of universities, graduate students engaged in research and development work.

Mariy State

University, 2008.

Measurements in physical culture and sports

Testing - indirect measurement

Evaluation - Unified Measuring

Sports results and tests

Features of measurements in sports

Items of sports metrology, as parts of general metrology, are measurements and control in sports. And the term "measurement" in sports metrology is interpreted in the broadest sense and is understood as the establishment of conformity between studied phenomena and numbers

In modern theory and sports practices, measurements are widely used to solve the most diverse tasks of the management of athletes. These tasks concern the direct study of pedagogical and biomechanical parameters of sports skills, the diagnosis of energy-functional parameters of sports efficiency, accounting for anatomy-morphological parameters of physiological development, monitoring mental conditions.

The main measured and controlled parameters in sports medicine, the training process and in scientific research on sports are: physiological ("internal"), physical ("external) and psychological parameters of training load and recovery; parameters of the qualities of strength, speed, endurance, flexibility and agility; Functional parameters of cardiovascular and respiratory systems; biomechanical parameters of sports equipment; Linear and arc body size parameters.

Like any living system, the athlete is a complex, non-trivial measurement object. From the usual, classical objects of measurement, the athlete has a number of differences: variability, multidimensionality, qualitativeness, adaptability and mobility.Variability - The impermanence of variable values \u200b\u200bcharacterizing the state of the athlete and its activities. All indicators of an athlete are continuously changed: physiological (oxygen consumption, pulse frequency, etc.), morpho-anatomical (growth, weight, body proportions, etc.), biomechanical (kinematic, dynamic and energy characteristics of movements), psycho-physiological and etc. The variability makes the necessary multiple measurements and the processing of their results by methods of mathematical statistics.

Multidimensional - A large number of variables that need to be measured simultaneously in order to accurately characterize the state and activity of an athlete. Along with the variables characterizing the athlete, "output variables", and "input variables" should be monitored, characterizing the effect of the external environment on an athlete. The role of input variables can play: the intensity of physical and emotional loads, the concentration of oxygen in the inhaled air, the ambient temperature, etc. The desire to reduce the number of measured variables is a characteristic feature of sports metrology. It is due not only by organizational difficulties arising when trying to simultaneously register many variables, but so that with an increase in the number of variables, the complexity of their analysis sharply increases.

Claritativity - Qualitative character (from Latinqualitas. - quality), i.e. Lack of accurate, quantitative measure. The physical qualities of the athlete, the properties of the personality and the team, the quality of the inventory and many other factors of the sports result are not yet amenable to accurate measurement, but nevertheless should be evaluated as accurate as possible. Without such an assessment, further progress is difficult both in the sports of higher achievements and in mass physical education, which is in dire need of health care monitoring and engaged in the work.

Adaptability - The person's property to adapt (adapt) to the surrounding conditions. Adaptability underlies the student and gives an athlete the opportunity to master new elements of movements and perform them in conventional and in complicated conditions (at the heat and cold, with emotional tension, fatigue, hypoxia, etc.). But at the same time adaptability complicates the task of sports measurements. With multiple studies, the athlete gets used to the study procedure ("learns to be studied") and as such training begins to show other results, although its functional state can remain unchanged.

Mobility - The peculiarity of the athlete based on the fact that in the overwhelming majority of sports activities athlete is associated with continuous movements. Compared to studies carried out with a fixed person, measurements under sports activities are accompanied by additional distortions of recorded curves and errors in measurements.

Testing - indirect measurement.

Testing is replaced by measurement whenever the object being studied is not available to direct measurement. For example, it is almost impossible to accurately determine the performance of the athlete's heart during intense muscular work. Therefore, an indirect measurement is used: the heart rate is measured and other cardiological indicators characterizing cardiac performance. Tests are used in cases where the phenomenon is not quite specifically. For example, it is more correct to talk about testing dexterity, flexibility, etc. than about their dimension. However, flexibility (mobility) in a certain joint and in certain conditions can be measured.

Test (from English test - Sample, test) in sports practice is a measurement or test conducted to determine the state or human abilities.

Different measurements and tests can be produced very much, but not all sorts of measurements can be used as tests. The test in sports practice may be called only the measurement or test that meets the followingmetrological requirements:

• the purpose of the use of the test should be determined; Standard (technique, procedure and testing conditions should be the same in all cases of testing);
• it is necessary to determine the reliability and informativeness of the test;
• the test requires a rating system;
• you must specify the type of control (operational, current or stage).

Tests that meet the requirements of reliability and informativeness are calledgood or authentic.

The test process is calledtesting and the resulting measurement or testing numeric value istest results (or the result of the test). For example, running 100 meters is a test, the procedure for conducting race and timing - testing, running time - the result of the test.

As for the classification of tests, the analysis of foreign and domestic literature shows that there are various approaches to this problem. Depending on the application of the application, there are tests: pedagogical, psychological, achievements, individually oriented, intelligence, special abilities, etc. According to the methodology of interpretation of test results, tests are classified on regulatory and oriented and criterion-oriented.

Regulatory-oriented test (in English Norm - Referenced Test It allows you to compare the achievements (level of preparation) of individual subjects with each other. Regulatory-oriented tests are used to obtain reliable and normally distributed points to compare the tested.

Score (Individual score, test score) - a quantitative indicator of the severity of the measured property in this subject, obtained using this test.

Criterial-oriented test(in English Criterion - Referenced Test ) Allows to be assessed to what extent the subjects captured the necessary task (motor quality, technique of movements, etc.).

Tests based on motor tasks are calledmotor or motor. The results of them can be either motor achievements (the time of passage of the distance, the number of repetitions passed through the distance, etc.), or physiological and biochemical indicators. Depending on this, the motor tests are subdivided into three groups.

Table 1. Varieties of motor tests

Test Name Task Athlete Test Result Example

Controls Show maximum motor run 1500 m,

exercise result achievement running time

Standard identical for all, physiological or registration of heart rate

For

Functional dosage: a) according to the magnitude of the biocymical indicator

Samples not performed by work whether under standard slave 1000 kgm / min

Either those.

B) largest physico- motor rates of running speed

Great shifts. For standard magnitude, 160 UD / min

Not physiological

Shifts.

Maximum show maximum physiological or determination of the maximum

Functional result Biochemical indicators - oxygen

Debt or max

Samples of Tel Symalo

Consumption

Oxygen

Tests whose results depend on two or more factors are calledheterogeneous , and if preferential from one factor, thenhomogenic tests. More often in sports practice is used not one, but several tests that have a common ultimate goal. Such a group of tests is called calledcomplex or battery tests.

Proper definition of testing goal facilitates the proper selection of tests. Measurements of various sides of the preparedness of athletes should be heldsystematically . This makes it possible to compare the values \u200b\u200bof the indicators at different stages of the workout and, depending on the dynamics of increases in tests, normalize the load.

The efficiency of rationing depends onaccuracy The results of the control, which in turn depends on the standard of testing and measure the results in them. To standardize testing in sports practice, the following requirements should be followed:

1) The mode of the day preceding testing should be built according to the same scheme. It eliminates medium and large loads, but a recovery classes can be conducted. This will ensure the equality of the current states of athletes, and the initial level before testing will be the same;

2) the warm-up before testing should be standard (by duration, selection of exercises, sequences of their execution);

3) testing whenever possible should be among the same people who know how people do;

4) the test diagram does not change and remains constant on testing to testing;

5) the intervals between the repetitions of the same test should eliminate fatigue arising after the first attempt;

6) The athlete must strive to show the maximum possible result in the test. Such motivation is real, if a competitive environment is created during testing. However, this factor acts well when monitoring the preparedness of children. In adult athletes, high quality testing is possible only if the comprehensive control is systematic and the content of the training process will be adjusted by its results.

Description of the methodology for performing any test must take into account all these requirements.

Test accuracy is estimated differently than measurement accuracy. When estimating the measurement accuracy, the measurement result is compared with the result obtained by a more accurate method. When testing, the possibility of comparing the results obtained with more accurate is most often missing. And therefore, it is necessary to check the quality of the results obtained when testing the results, but the quality of the measurement instrument itself - the test. The quality of the test is determined by its informativeness, reliability and objectivity.

Test reliability.

Reliability tests The degree of coincidence of the results when re-testing the same people in the same conditions is called. It is clear that the complete coincidence of the results during repeated measurements is almost impossible.

Variation of results when repeated measurements are calledintindividual or intragroupeither intraklassova. The main reasons for such a variation of test results, which distorts the assessment of the true state of the athlete's preparedness, i.e. makes a definite error or error in this assessment, the following circumstances are:

1) random changes in the state of the test in the process of testing (psychological stress, addiction, fatigue, change of motivation to the performance of the test, the change in the concentration of attention, instability of the original posture and other conditions of measurement procedures during testing);

2) uncontrollable changes to external conditions ( Temperature, humidity , Wind, solar radiation , presence of unauthorized persons, etc.);

3) instability of metrological characteristicstechnical measuring instruments(TSI), used when testing. The instability can be caused by several reasons due to the imperfection of the TSI used: the error of the measurement results due to changes in the voltage of the network, the instability of the characteristics of electronic measuring instruments and sensors with changes in temperature, humidity, the presence of electromagnetic interference, etc. It should be noted, that for this reason, measurement errors can be significant values;

1. changes in the state of the experimenter (operator, coach, teacher, judges), exercising or evaluating test results

And replacing one experimenter to others;

1. dough imperfection for assessing this quality or a specific preparedness indicator.

There are special mathematical formulas to determine the reliability coefficient of the test.

Table 2 shows the gradation of test reliability levels.

Tests, the reliability of which is less than those specified in the table of values, is not recommended.

Speaking about the reliability of tests, they distinguish their stability (reproducibility), consistency, equivalence.

Under stability The test is understood by the issues of the results during its repetition at a certain time under the same conditions. Repeated testing is usually calledretesty . Dough stability depends on:

Test type;

Contingent subjects;

The time interval between the test and the retaile.

For a quantitative evaluation of stability, a dispersion analysis is used, according to the same scheme as in the case of calculating the usual reliability.

Consistency The test is characterized by the independence of test results from personal qualities of a person conducting or an evaluating test. If the results of athletes in the test, which are carried out different experts (experts, judges) coincide, this indicates

high degree of test consistency. This property depends on the coincidence of testing methods from different specialists.

When a new test is created, it is necessary to check it on consistency. This is done like this: a unified test method is being developed, and then two or more experts in turn under standard conditions test the same athletes.

Equivalence tests.The same motor quality (ability, side of the preparedness) can be measured using multiple tests. For example, the maximum speed - according to the results of running from the segments of 10, 20 or 30 m. Powerful endurance - by the number of pull-ups on the crossbar, push ups in the stop, the number of rod lifting in the position lying on the back, etc. Such tests are calledequivalent.

The equivalence of tests is determined as follows: the athletes perform one type of dough and then, after a small rest, the second, etc.

If the results of the assessments coincide (for example, the best in pull-ups turn out to be the best and in push-ups), then this indicates the equivalence of tests. The equivalence coefficient is determined using correlation or dispersion analysis.

The use of equivalent tests increases the reliability of the assessment of the controlled properties of the motility of athletes. Therefore, if you need to carry out an in-depth examination, it is better to apply several equivalent tests, such a complex is calledhomogenic . In all other cases it is better to useheterogeneous Complexes: They consist of non-equivalent tests.

There are no universal homogeneous or heterogeneous complexes. So, for example, for weakly prepared people, such a complex, like running per 100 and 800 m, jump and length from a place, pulling up on the crossbar, will be homogeneous. For highly qualified athletes, it may be heterogeneous.

Until a certain degree, the reliability of tests can be increased by:

More strict standardization of testing,

Increasing the number of attempts

Increase the number of appraisers (judges, experts) and improving the consistency of their opinions,

Increasing the number of equivalent tests,

• better motivation subjects
• metrologically reasonable choice of technical means of money, providing specified measurement accuracy during testing.

Informativeness tests.

Informativeness test- This is the degree of accuracy with which it measures the property (quality, ability, characteristic, etc.), to evaluate which is used. In the literature until 1980, instead of the term "informative", an adequate term "validity" was applied.

Currently, informativeness is divided into several species. The structure of the types of information is shown in Figure 1.

Fig. 1. The structure of species of information.

So, in particular, if the test is used to determine the state of the athlete at the time of the examination, they are talking aboutdiagnosticinformativeness. If, based on test results, they want to conclude possible future athlete performance, the test must haveprognosticinformative. The test may be diagnostically informative, and forecast is not foreseen.

The degree of informative can be quantified - based on experimental data (the so-calledempirical informativeness) and high-quality - based on a meaningful analysis of the situation (substantive or logical informative). In this case, the test is called meaningfully or logically informative on the basis of the opinions of expert experts.

Factor informativeness - one of very frequent modelstheoretical informativeness. The informativeness of tests in relation to the hidden criterion, which is artificially compiled from their results, is determined based on test battery indicators with factor analysis.

Factor informativeness is associated with the concept of the dimension of tests in the sense that the number of factors is forced to determine the number of hidden criteria. In this case, the dimension of tests depends not only on the number of estimated motor abilities, but also from the other properties of the engine test. When this influence can be partially excluded, then factor informativeness remains a movable model approximation of theoretical or constructive informativeness, i.e. Validity of motor tests to motor abilities.

Simple or complex Informativeness is distinguished by the number of tests for which the criterion is selected, i.e. For one or two or more tests. The following three types of informativeness are closely associated with the mutual relationship of simple and complex informativeness. Pure informativeness expresses the degree of increasing the complex informativeness of the test battery when this test includes a higher order tests in the battery.Paramorphic informativeness expresses the internal informativeness of the test in the framework of the projection of rigging to certain activities. It is determined by expert experts, taking into account the professional estimation of gifting. It can be defined as hidden (for the "intuitive" specialists) the informativeness of individual tests.

Obvious Informativeness is largely due to informative and shows how obvious the test content for testing persons is. It is associated with the motivation of the subjects. Informativenessinternal or external It arises depending on whether the informativeness of the test is determined based on comparison with the results of other tests or on the basis of the criterion, which in relation to this battery tests is external.

Absolute Informativeness concerns the definition of one criterion in absolute understanding, without attracting any other criteria.

Differentialinformativeness characterizes mutual differences between two or more criteria. For example, when choosing sports talents, a situation can occur when the tested manifests the ability to two different sports disciplines. At the same time, it is necessary to solve the question to which of these two disciplines it is most capable.

In accordance with the time interval between the measurement (testing) and the determination of the results of the criterion distinguish two types of informativeness - Synchronous and diachry. Diaphricon informativeness, or informative criteria, may have two forms. One of them is the case when the criterion would be measured earlier than the test -retrospectiveinformativeness.

If we talk about the assessment of the preparedness of athletes, the most informative indicator is the result in a competitive exercise. However, it depends on a large number of factors, and the same result in the competitive exercise can show people noticeably different from each other by the structure of the preparedness. For example, an athlete with excellent swimming techniques and relatively low physical performance and an athlete with secondary equipment, but with high performance will be competed equally successfully (with other things being equal).

To identify the leading factors, on which the result depends in the competitive exercise, and informative tests are used. But how to find out the measure of the informativeness of each of them? For example, which of the listed tests are informative when evaluating the preparedness of tennis players: a simple reaction time, time is the reaction of choice, jump up from the place, running 60 m? To answer this question, it is necessary to know the methods for determining informativeness. There are two of them: logical (meaningful) and empirical.

Logical method Definition of informative tests. The essence of this method of determining informativeness is a logical (qualitative) comparison of biomechanical, physiological, psychological and other characteristics of criteria and tests.

Suppose that we want to choose tests to assess the preparedness of highly qualified runners by 400 m. Calculations show that in this exercise with a result of 45.0 with approximately 72% of energy supplied due to the anaerobic mechanisms of energy production and 28% of the aerobic account. Consequently, the most informative will be tests that allow to identify the level and structure of the anaerobic features of the runner: running on segments of 200-300 m with a maximum speed, jumping from foot to foot at the maximum rate at a distance of 100-200 m, repeated running on segments up to 50 m with Very short leisure intervals. As clinical and biochemical studies show, according to the results of these tasks, it is possible to judge the capacity and capacity of the anaerobic energy sources and, therefore, they can be used as informative tests.

The above simple example has a limited value, since in cyclic sports, logical informativeness can be checked experimentally. Most often, the logical method of determining informativeness is used in sports where there is no clear quantitative criterion. For example, in sports games, the logical analysis of the game fragments allows first to construct a specific test, and then check its informativeness.

Empirical method Definitions of informative testsin the presence of measured criteria. Earlier it was said about the importance of using a single logical analysis for preliminary assessment of test informativeness. This procedure allows you to cut off knowingly non-informative tests, the structure of which corresponds little to the structure of the main activity of athletes or physical cultants. The remaining tests, the substantive informativeness of which are recognized as high, must pass an additional empirical check, for this test results are compared with the criterion. As a criterion, usually use:

1) the result in a competitive exercise;

2) the most significant elements of competitive exercises;

3) the results of tests whose informativeness for athletes of this qualification was established earlier;

4) the amount of points recruited athlete when performing a test complex;

5) the qualifications of athletes.

When using the first four criteria, the overall scheme for determining the informativeness of the test is:

1) The quantitative values \u200b\u200bof the criteria are measured. This is not necessary to carry out special competitions. You can, for example, to use the results of the competition previously. It is important only to ensure that the competition and testing are not separated by a long time interval.

If as a criterion is supposed to use any element of the competitive exercise, it is necessary that it be the most informative.

Consider the methodology for determining the informativeness of competitive exercise indicators in the following example.

At the championship of the country on skiing races at a distance of 15 km on the rise with a steepness of 7 ° recorded the length of the steps and the speed of running. The obtained values \u200b\u200bwere compared with the place employed athlete at competitions (see table).

The ratio between the results in the ski race is 15 km, the lengths and speed on the rise

Already a visual assessment of the ranked rows indicates that athletes have achieved high results at the competition with greater speed on the rise and with a larger step. Calculation of rank correlation coefficients confirms this: between the place in the competition and the length of the stepr TT. \u003d 0.88; Between the place in competitions and speed on the rise - 0.86. Consequently, both of these indicators have high informativeness.

It should be noted that their values \u200b\u200bare also interrelated:r \u003d 0.86.

So, the length of the step and the speed of running on the rise -equivalent Tests and to control the competition skiers can be used by any of them.

2) the next step - testing and evaluating it

results;

3) The last stage of work is the calculation of the correlation coefficients between the values \u200b\u200bof the criterion and tests. The largest correlation coefficients obtained during the calculations will indicate high informativeness of tests.

Empirical method for determining the informativeness of tests In the absence of a single criterion. This situation is most typical for mass physical culture, where a single criterion is either no, or the form of its representation does not allow the use of the methods described above to determine the informativeness of tests. Suppose that we need to make a set of tests for monitoring the physical fitness of students. With the fact that students in the country have several million and such controls should be massive, certain requirements are subject to tests: they should be simple on technology, to be performed in the simplest conditions and have an easy and objective measurement system. Such tests hundreds, but you need to choose the most informative.

You can do this in the following way: 1) Select several tens of tests, the meaningful informativeness of which seems indisputable; 2) with their help to assess the level of physical qualities in a group of students; 3) Process the results obtained on the computer using for this factor analysis.

The basis of this method is the provision that the results of the tests of tests depend on a relatively small number of reasons that are named for convenience.factors . For example, results in a length jump, pomegranate throwing, tightening, the gate of the limit weight rod, in a run of 100 and 5000 m depend on endurance, power and high-speed qualities. However, the contribution of these qualities into the result of each exercise is not the same. Thus, the result in running by 100 m strongly depends on the speed-powerful qualities and a little - from endurance, the bench rods - from the maximum strength, pull-up - from the forcefulness and T, d.

In addition, the results of some of these tests are interconnected, as they are based on the manifestation of the same qualities. Factor analysis allows, firstly, grouped tests with a general qualitative basis, and, secondly (and this is the most important thing), to determine their proportion in this group. The tests with the greatest factorily are considered the most informative.

The best example of using this approach in domestic practice is presented in the work of V. M. Zokiorsky and N. V. Averkovich (1982). 108 students on 15 tests were examined. With the help of factor analysis, it was possible to identify the three most important factor for this group: 1) the strength of the muscles of the upper extremities; 2) the strength of the muscles of the lower extremities; 3) the power of the muscles of the abdominal press and thigh flexors. In the first factor, the highest weight had a test - push up in the stop, on the second - a long-time jump, on the third - lifting straight legs in the Wiste and transitions in the seal from the position lying on the back for one minute. These four tests out of 15 surveyed and were most informative.

The value (degree) of the informativeness of the same test varies depending on the number of factors affecting its conduct. The main factors are shown in the figure.

Fig. 2. The structure of factors affecting the degree

Informativeness test.

In assessing the informativeness of a specific test, it is necessary to take into account the factors affecting a large extent on the magnitude of the information ratio.

Evaluation is a unified meter of sports results and tests.

As a rule, any integrated control program involves the use of not one, but several tests. Thus, the complex for monitoring the preparedness of athletes includes the following tests: running time on Tredban, heart rate, maximum oxygen consumption, maximum power, etc. If one test is used to control, then it is necessary to evaluate its results with special methods: and so can be seen who is stronger and how much. If there are a lot of tests and they are measured in different units (for example, force in kg or H; time in C; IPC - in ml / kg min; CHS- in UD / min, etc.), then compare achievements by absolute values Indicators are impossible. It is possible to solve this problem only if the test results are submitted in the form of estimates (points, points, marks, discharges, etc.). The final assessment of the qualifications of athletes affect the age, state of health, environmental and other features of the conditions for conducting control. With the results of measurement or testing, the athlete's control test does not end. It is necessary to evaluate the results obtained.

Estimate (or pedagogical assessment) Called a unified measure of success in any task, in a particular case - in the test.

Distinguish training estimates that teacher students in the course of the educational process andqualifying Under which all other types of estimates are understood (in particular, the results of official competitions, testing, etc.).

The process of determining (elimination, calculation) of estimates is calledassessment . It consists of the following stages:

1) a scale is selected, with which it is possible to translate test results in the assessment;

2) in accordance with the selected scale, the test results are converted to points (points);

3) The points obtained are compared with the rules, and the final assessment is displayed. It characterizes the level of athlete's preparedness relative to other members of the group (teams, team).

The name of the action is used

Testing

Measurement scale measurement

Test result

Intermediate estimation of the scale of estimates

Glasses

(Intermediate estimate)

Final estimation of norm

final grade

Fig. 3. Scheme estimation of sports results and test results

Not in all cases, estimation occurs at such a detailed scheme. Sometimes intermediate and final estimation merge.

Tasks that are solved during the estimation are diverse. Among them you can highlight the main:

1) According to the results of the estimation, it is necessary to compare different achievements in competitive exercises. Based on this, we can create scientifically based discharge norms in sports. The consequence of underestimated norms is the increase in the number of arresters, not worthy of this title. The oversized norms become for many unattainable and force people to stop sports;

2) Comparison of achievements in different sports allows us to solve the task of equality and their discharge norms (the situation is unjugible, if you suppose in volleyball, it is easy to fulfill the category I of the discharge, and in an athletic-hard);

3) it is necessary to classify many tests based on the results that the specific athlete shows them;

4) The structure of the training of each of the athletes undergoing testing should be established.

Translate test results to points in different ways. In practice, ranking, or streamlining a registered series of measurements often use.

Example This ranking is given in the table.

Table. Ranking test results.

From the table it is clear that the best result is estimated at 1 point, and each subsequent point is more. With all the simplicity and convenience of this approach, injustice is obvious. If you take a run of 30 m, then the differences between the 1st and 2nd place (0.4 s) and between the 2nd and 3rd (0.1 s) are estimated the same, in 1 point. Similarly, in the assessment of pull-ups: the difference in one repetition and seven is estimated the same.

The assessment is carried out in order to stimulate the athlete to achieve maximum results. But with the approach described above, an athlete A, having tightening 6 times more, will receive as many points as the increase in one repetition.

Taking into account all the above, the transformation of test results and evaluation should be done not by ranking, but to use special scales for this. The law of conversion of sports results in glasses is called scale estimates. The scale can be set as a mathematical expression (formula), tables or graphics. The figure shows four types of such scales encountered in sports and physical education.

Glasses glasses

A B.

600 600

Running time at 100m (sec) run time per 100 m (sec)

Glasses glasses

In g

600 600

12,8 12,6 12,4 12,2 12,0 12,8 12,6 12,4 12,2 12,0

Running time at 100m (sec) running time 100m (s)

Fig. four. Types of scales used in assessing the results of control:

A - proportional scale; B - progressive; In - regressive,

G - s-like.

First (a) - proportional scale. When using it, equal gains of results in the test are encouraged by equal increments in points. So, in this scale, as can be seen from the picture, the decrease in the time of running 0.1 s is estimated at 20 points. They will receive an athlete, running 100 m for 12.8 s and running this distance for 12.7 s, and an athlete that improved its result from 12.1 to 12 s. Proportional scales are accepted in modern pentathlon, skating sports, skiing, skiing diet, biathlon and other sports.

Second type progressive Scale (b). Here, as can be seen from the figure, equal growth gains are estimated in different ways. The higher the absolute increments, the greater the increase in the assessment. So, for improving the result in a run of 100 m from 12.8 to 12.7 s is given 20 points, from 12.7 to 12.6 s-30 points. Progressive scales are applied in swimming, individual types of athletics, weightlifting.

Third type - regressive Scale (B). In this scale, as in the previous, equal gains of results in tests are also evaluated in different ways, but the higher the absolute increases, the less the increase in the assessment. So, for improving the result in running 100 m from 12.8 to 12.7 s is given 20 points, from 12.7 to 12.6 s- 18 points ... from 12.1 to 12.0 s-4 points . Scale of this type adopted in some types of athletics jumps and throwing.

Fourth Type - sigmoid (or S-shaped) Scale (g). It can be seen that the increases in the middle zone are raised above, and the improvement in very low or very high results is faintly encouraged. Thus, for improving the result from 12.8 to 12.7 s and from 12.1 to 12.0 s, 10 points are accrued, and from 12.5 to 12.4 s - 30 points. In sports, such scales are not used, but they are used in assessing physical fitness. For example, it looks like a scale of the standards of physical fitness of the US population.

Each of these scales has both its advantages and disadvantages. To eliminate the latter and strengthen the first you can, correctly applying one or another scale.

Evaluation as a unified sports results meter can be effective if it is valid and uses in practice. And it depends on the criteria on the basis of which the results are evaluated. When choosing criteria, you should keep in mind questions: 1) What results should be put in the zero point of scale? And 2) How to evaluate intermediate and maximum achievements?

It is advisable to use the following criteria:

1. Equality of the time intervals necessary to achieve the results corresponding to the same categories in different sports. Naturally, this is possible only if the content and organization of the training process in these sports will not be sharply different.

2. Equality of load volumes that need to be expected to achieve the same qualifying standards in different sports.

3. Equality of global records in different sports.

4. Equal ratios between the number of athletes who fulfilled the discharge norms in different sports.

In practice, multiple scales are used to estimate test results.

Standard scale. It is based on a proportional scale, and it received its name because the scale in it serves as standard (rms) deviation. The most common T-scale is the most common.

When using it, the average result is equal to 50 points, and the whole formula looks like this:

X i -h.

T \u003d 50 + 10  --- \u003d 50 + 10  Z

where T-evaluation of the result in the test; H.i. -Passed result;

X-average result; - Standard deviation.

For example , if the average value in length in length from the place was 224 cm, and the standard deviation is 20 cm, then 49 points are calculated for the result of 222 cm, and for 266 cm - 71 points (check the correctness of these calculations).

In practice, other standard scales are used.

Table 3. Some standard scales

Name of scale basic formula where and for what is used

C - scale C \u003d 5 + 2  · Z With mass surveys when

Not required great accuracy

Scale of school marksH \u003d 3- Z In a number of countries in Europe

Bina scale B \u003d 100 + 16  Z In psychological research

Intellect.

Examing scaleE \u003d 500 + 100  Z In the USA when admission to higher

Educational institution

Percentic scale. This scale is based on the following operation: every athlete from the group gets for its result (in competitions or in test) so many points, how many percent of the athletes he was ahead. Thus, the evaluation of the winner is 100 points Evaluation of the latter - about points. Percentic scale is most suitable for assessing the results of large groups of athletes. In such groups, the statistical distribution of the results is normal (or almost normal). This means that very high and low results show units from the group, and the average majority.

The main advantage of this scale is simplicity, there are no formulas here, and the only thing that needs to be calculated is how the results of athletes are stacked in one percentile (or how many percentles fall on one person). Percente - This is the scale range. With 100 athletes in one percentile one result; At 50 - one result is stacked in two percentile (i.e., if the athlete went around 30 people, he gets 60 points).

Fig.5. An example of a percenter scale built according to the results of testing students of Moscow universities in length jumps (n \u003d 4000, data E. Ya. Bondarevsky):

on the abscissa result in length jumps, according to the percentage of students who showed the result equal to this or better it (for example, 50% of students jump in a length of 4 m 30 cm and further)

The simplicity of the results processing and the clarity of the percentic scale led to their widespread use in practice.

Scale selected points. When developing tables by type of sports, it is not always possible to obtain the statistical distribution of test results. Then they do as follows: they take some high sports result (for example, a world record or 10th result in the history of this sport) and equate it, say, to 1000 or 1200 points. Then, based on the results of mass tests, the average achievement of a group of weakly prepared persons is determined and equated, say, to 100 points. After that, if a proportional scale is used, only arithmetic calculations remains to perform - after all, two points uniquely determine the straight line. Scale built in this way, calledscale selected points.

Subsequent steps for building tables by sports - the choice of scale and the establishment of interclasses - while scientifically not substantiated, and here a certain subjectivism is allowed, based

on the personal opinion of specialists. Therefore, many athletes and coaches in almost all kinds of sports, where table tables are applied, they are not fully considered.

Parametric scales. In the sports of cyclic nature and in weightlifting, the results depend on such parameters as the length of the distance and the weight of the athlete. These dependencies are called parametric.

You can find parametric dependencies that are a geometric location of equivalent achievements. Scale, built on the basis of these dependencies, are called parametric and are among the most accurate.

The scale of Hzolifka. The scales discussed above are used to assess the results of a group of athletes, and the purpose of their application is to determine the mertine-perceptual differences (in points). In the practice of sports, coaches are constantly confronted with one problem: evaluation of the results of periodic testing of the same athlete in different periods of the cycle or preparation phase. For this purpose, the scale of the hcolifec, expressed and the formula:

The best result is the estimated result

Score in points \u003d 100x (1-)

The best result is the worst result

The meaning of this approach lies in the fact that the test result is considered not as an abstract value, but in relationships with the best and worst results shown in this test athlete. As can be seen from the formula, the best result is always estimated at 100 points, the worst is 0 points. This scale is advisable to apply to evaluate the variable indicators.

Example. The best result in a triple leap from 10 m 26 cm, the worst-9 m 37 cm. Current score is 10 m exactly.

10.26 - 10.0

His rating \u003d 100 x (1- ------) \u003d 71 score.

10,26 - 9,37

Assessment of the test complex. There are two main options for evaluating the results of testing athletes on a set of tests. The first is to dismiss a generalized assessment, which informatively characterizes the preparedness of an athlete in competitions. This allows it to be used to predict: the regression equation is calculated, which decides which, you can predict the result in the competition for testing points.

However, simply summarize the results of a particular athlete for all tests is not entirely correct, since the tests themselves are unequivocal. For example, of two tests (response time to the signal and time to hold the maximum running speed) the second is more important for the sprinter than the first one. This importance (weight) of the test can be taken into account in three ways:

1. Expert assessment is given. In this case, experts negotiate that one of the tests (for example, the deduction timeV Ma H. ) The coefficient is attributed 2. And then the glasses accrued on this test are first doubled, and then summed up with glasses during the reaction.

2. The coefficient of each test is established on the basis of factor analysis. It is known to allocate indicators with large or less factories.

3. Quantitative measure of the test of the test may be the value of the correlation coefficient calculated between its result and achievement in competitions.

In all these cases, the estimates obtained are called "weighted".

The second embodiment of the results of comprehensive control is to build "profile »Athlete - graphical form of test results. Graphs lines clearly reflect the strengths and weaknesses of the preparedness of athletes.

Norms are the basics of comparisons of results.

Norm In sports metrology, the boundary value of the test result is based on the basis of the classification of athletes.

There are official norms: discharged in Evsk, in the past - in the complex of the GTO. Unofficial norms are used: they are installed coaches or specialists in the field of sports training for the classification of athletes for any qualities (properties, abilities).

There are three types of norms: a) comparable; b) individual; c) due.

Comparative norms Installed after comparing the achievements of people belonging to the same aggregate. The procedure for determining comparative norms is: 1) the combination of people is selected (for example, students of humanitarian universities in Moscow); 2) their achievements are determined in the test complex; 3) the average values \u200b\u200band standard (rmage) deviations are determined; 4) value x ± 0.5 It is accepted for the average rate, and the remaining gradations (low - high, very low - very high) - depending on the coefficient when . For example, the value of the result in the test above x + 2 It is considered "very high" "norm.

The implementation of this approach is shown in Table 4.

Table 4. Classification

Men in level

Performance

(by K.Kuriru)

Individual norms Based on comparison of indicators

same athlete in different states. These norms are extremely important for individualization of workout in all sports. The need for their determination arose due to significant differences in the structure of the training of athletes.

The gradation of individual norms is established using the same statistical procedures. For the average rate, there are test indicators here, corresponding to the average result in a competitive exercise. Individual norms are widely used in the current control.

Proper norms Installed on the basis of the requirements that are presented by a person living conditions, profession, the need to prepare for the protection of the Motherland. Therefore, in many cases, they are ahead of valid indicators. In sports practice, due rates are established as follows: 1) the informative indicators of the athlete's preparedness are determined;

2) the results are measured in competitive exercise and the corresponding achievements in tests; 3) calculated the regression equation of type y \u003d kx + c, where X is due results in the test, and y is the predicted result in the competitive exercise. Proper results in the test and are due rackeward. It must be achieved, and only then it will be possible to show the planned result in competitions.

Comparative, individual and proper standards are based on a comparison of the results of one athlete with the results of other athletes, indicators of the same athlete in different periods and different states that are available with due values.

Age norms. In the practice of physical education, age norms received the greatest distribution. A typical example is the norms of a comprehensive program of physical education of secondary school students, the norms of the GTO complex, etc. Most of these norms were compiled in the traditional way: test results in various age groups were processed using a standard scale, and on this basis norms were determined.

In this approach, there is one significant drawback: the orientation of a person's passport age does not take into account the significant impact on any indicators of biological age and body sizes.

Experience it shows that among the boys 12 years old are the differences in the length of the body: 130 - 170 cm (x \u003d 149 ± 9 cm). The higher the growth, the greater, as a rule, the length of the legs. Therefore, in running 60 m at the same frequency of steps, high children will show a smaller time.

Age norms taking into account biological age and identities of the physique. Indicators of the biological (motor) age of a person are deprived of the shortcomings inherent in passport agents: their values \u200b\u200bcorrespond to the average calendar age of people. Table 5 shows the motor age as results in two tests.

Table 5. Motor

Age of boys

According to the results

Long jump with

Range and throwing

Ball (80 g)

In accordance with the data of this table, a motor age equal to ten years will have a boy of any passport age, jumping in length from a run by 2 m 76 cm and a throwing ball by 29 m. More often, however, it happens that one test (for example , jump) The boy is ahead of its passport age for two or three years, and otherwise (throwing) -n one year. In this case, the average for all tests is determined, comprehensively reflecting the motor age of the child.

The definition of norms can also be carried out taking into account the joint impact on the results in the passport tests, the length and mass of the body. Regression analysis is carried out and equation is drawn up:

Y \u003d to 1 x 1 + to 2 x 2 + to 3 x 3 + b,

where is a degree result in the test;X 1 - passport age;X 2 - Length and x 3 - body weight.

Based on solutions of the regression equations, nomograms are compiled by which it is easy to determine due results.

The suitability of the norms.The norms are compiled for a specific group of people and are only suitable for this group. For example, according to the Bulgarian specialists, the norm in throwing the ball weighing 80 g for ten-year children living in Sofia, -28.7m, in other cities-30.3 m, in rural areas - 31.60 m. The same situation and in Our country: standards developed in the Baltic States are not suitable for the center of Russia and especially for Central Asia. The suitability of the rules is only for the combination for which they are developed, calledrelevance norms.

Another characteristic of the norms -representativeness. It reflects their suitability for evaluating all people from the general population (for example, to assess the physical condition of all first-graders of the city of Moscow). Representatives can only be the norms obtained on typical material.

The third characteristic of the norms - theirmodernity . It is known that the results in competitive exercises and tests are constantly growing and use the norms developed by a long time, not recommended. Some norms set by many years ago are perceived now as naive, although in due time they reflected the actual situation characterizing the average level of human physical condition.

Quality measurement.

Quality - This is a generalized concept that can relate to products, services, processes, work and any other activity, including physical culture and sports.

Quality There are indicators that do not have certain units of measurement. Such indicators in physical education, and especially in sports, a lot: artistry, expressiveness in gymnastics, figure skating, jumping into water; Entertainment in sports games and martial arts, etc. To quantify such indicators, qualimetry methods are used.

Qualmetry - This is a section of metrology that studies issues of measurement and quantifying quality indicators. Quality measurement - This is the establishment of conformity between the characteristics of such indicators and the requirements for them. At the same time, the requirements ("standard of quality") can not always be expressed in unambiguous and uniform for all form. A specialist who assesses the expressiveness of the athlete's movements, mentally compares what he sees, with what it is as expressive.

In practice, however, quality is estimated not one by one, but in several signs. At the same time, the highest generalized estimate does not necessarily correspond to the maximum values \u200b\u200bfor each trait.

The basis of qualimetry lies several source provisions:

• any quality can be measured; Quantitative methods have long been applied in sports to assess the beauty and expressiveness of movements, and are currently used to evaluate everyone without exception of sports skills, the effectiveness of training and competitive activities, the quality of sports equipment, etc.;
• quality depends on a number of properties forming "tree of quality. "

Example: The type of quality of exercises in figure skating figure, consisting of three levels - the highest (quality of the composition of the composition as a whole), the middle (versions and artistry technique) and the lower (measured indicators characterizing the quality of the execution of individual elements);

• each property is determined by two numbers:relative indicator To and weighed m;
• the sum of the properties of the properties at each level is equal to one (or 100%).

The relative indicator characterizes the identified level of the measured property (as a percentage of its maximum level), and the weightability is the comparative importance of different indicators.For example, figure received for the execution techniqueTo C \u003d. 5.6 points, and for artistry - evaluationTo T. \u003d 5.4 points. The weight of the equipment and artistry technique in figure skating is recognized as the same(M C \u003d m T \u003d 1.0). Therefore, the overall ratingQ \u003d m with k + m t to t amounted to 11.0 points.

Methodological methods of qualimeries are divided into two groups: heuristic (intuitive) - based on expert assessments and survey - and instrumental or hardware.

Conducting examination and survey is partly technical work, involving strict compliance with certain rules, and in part - art requiring intuition and experience.

Expert assessment method.Expert The estimate obtained by finding out the opinions of specialists.Expert (from Lat. E Xpertus - Experienced) - knowledgeable person invited to solve the issue requiring special knowledge. This method allows using a specially selected scale to produce the required measurements by subjective estimates of experts. Such estimates are random variables, they can be processed by some methods of multidimensional statistical analysis.

As a rule, expert assessment or expertise is carried out aspoll or survey Expert Groups.Profile The questionnaire is called a questionnaire containing the questions to be answered in writing. The technique of examination and survey is the collection and generalization of the opinions of individual people. The motto examination is "the mind is good, and two better!". Characteristic examples of expertise: refereeing in gymnastics and figure skating, competition for the title of the best in profession or better scientific work, etc.

The opinion of experts seek whenever the measurements are impossible or very difficult to carry out measurements. Sometimes it is better to get an approximate decision immediately than a long way to look for the exact solution. But a subjective assessment is significantly dependent on the individual characteristics of the expert: qualifications, eruditions, experience, personal tastes, health status, etc. Therefore, individual opinions are treated as random variables and processed by statistical methods. Thus, modern expertise is a system of organizational, logical and mathematic-statistical procedures aimed at obtaining information from specialists and analyzing it in order to develop optimal solutions. And the best coach (teacher, head, etc.) is one that relies simultaneously to its own experience, and on these science and knowledge of other people.

Methods of group examination includes: 1) the wording of tasks; 2) selection and acquisition of a group of experts; 3) drawing up an examination plan; 4) conducting experts survey; 5) Analysis and processing of information received.

Selection of experts - An important stage of expertise, since reliable data can be obtained from any specialist. An expert may be a person: 1) possessing a high level of training; 2) capable of critical analysis of the past and present and to the forecasting of the future; 3) psychologically steady, not inclined to conceduce.

There are other important quality of experts, but the above should be necessarily. For example, the professional competence of the expert is determined by: a) according to the degree of proximity of its assessment to the middle group; b) in terms of test tasks.

For an objective assessment of the competence of experts, special questionnaires can be drawn up, responding to questions of which during a strictly defined time, expert candidates must demonstrate their knowledge. In addition, it is useful to offer them to fill out a profile of self-assessment of their knowledge. Experience shows that people with high self-esteem are mistaken less than others.

Another approach to the selection of experts is based on determining the effectiveness of their activities.Absolute efficiency The activities of the expert is determined by the attitude of the number of cases when the expert is correctly predicted to the further course of events, to the total number of examinations conducted by this specialist.For example, If the expert participated in 10 examinations and 6 times his point of view was confirmed, then the effectiveness of such an expert is 0.6.Relative efficiencythe activities of the expert are the ratio of the absolute effectiveness of its activities to the average absolute efficiency of the expert group.Objective assessment The suitability of the expert is determined by the formula:

 M \u003d | M - M East | .

Where M East - True assessment; M is an expert assessment.

It is desirable to have a homogeneous group of experts, but if it fails, the rank for each of them. Obviously, the expert is the greatest value, the higher the indicators of its activities. To improve the quality of expertise, try to improve the qualifications of experts through special training, training and familiarization with perhaps more extensive objective information on the problem analyzed. Judges in many sports can be viewed as peculiar experts that assess the skill of the athlete (for example, in gymnastics) or the course of the fight (for example, in boxing).

Preparation and conduct of expertise. Preparation of expertise is mainly due to the preparation of its implementation plan. Its most important sections are the selection of experts, the organization of their work, the formulation of issues, processing results.

There are several ways to conduct an examination. The simplest of them-ranging which consists in determining the relative importance of objects of expertise based on their streamlining. Typically, the most preferred object is attributed to the highest (first) rank, the least preferred is the last rank.

After estimating the object that received the most preference from experts, gets the smallest amount of ranks. Recall that in the received evaluation scale, the rank defines only the place of the object relative to other objects that have been examined. But to evaluate how far these objects will take apart from each other, the ranking does not allow, in connection with this, the ranking method is used relatively rarely.

Larger distribution received methoddirect rating Objects on a scale when an expert places each object into a certain estimated interval. Third examination method:sequential comparison of factors.

Comparison of objects of expertise with this method is carried out like this:

1) at first they are ranked in the order of importance;

2) the most important object is attributed to the estimate equal to one, and the rest (also and the procedure: significance) - estimates less than a unit - to zero;

3) Experts decide whether the estimate of the first object will exceed the rest of all the others. If so, the assessment of the "weight" of this object increases even more; If not, then the decision is made to reduce its assessment;

4) This procedure is repeated until all objects are assessed.

Finally, the fourth methodmethod of paired comparison-Inuable on the pairs of comparison of all factors. It is installed in each compared pair of objects the most weighty (it is estimated by the score 1). The second object of this pair is estimated at 0 points.

Wide distribution in physical culture and sports received such a method of expert assessments asquestioning . The profile here is presented as a consistent set of questions, on answers to which are judged on the relative importance of the property under consideration or the likelihood of any events.

In compiling the questionnaire, the most attention is paid to a clear and meaningful formulation of issues. In their character, they are divided into the following types:

1) the question, when answering which you need to choose one of the pre-formulated opinions (in some cases, each of these opinions, the expert must give a quantitative assessment in the order scale);

2) the question of how the decision would receive an expert in a certain situation (and here the choice of several solutions with a quantitative estimate of the preference of each of them);

3) The question requiring the numerical values \u200b\u200bof any value.

The survey can be carried out as part of it, and in absentia in one or more rounds.

The development of computing equipment allows you to pursue a questionnaire in a dialogue mode with a computer. A feature of the dialogue is to draw up a mathematical program providing for the logical building issues and the order of their playback on the display depending on the types of responses to them. In memory of the machine, standard situations are laid, allowing you to control the correctness of the input of the responses, the compliance of the numerical values \u200b\u200bof the real data range. EUM controls the possibility of errors and, if they appear, finds the cause and points to it.

Recently, qualimetric methods (examination, survey, etc.) are increasingly used to solve optimization tasks (optimization of competitive activities, training process). A modern approach to optimization tasks is associated with imitation modeling of competitive and training activities. In contrast to other types of modeling in the synthesis of the simulation model, along with mathematically accurate data, a qualitative information collected by the methods of examination, surveillance and observation is used. For example, when modeling the competition skiers, it is impossible to accurately predict the slip coefficient. Its likely value can be estimated by a survey of ski lubrication specialists who are familiar with the climatic conditions and the characteristics of the track on which competitions will be held.

Questions for self-control

1. What parameters are the main measurable and controlled in modern theory and practice of sports?
2. Why variability is one of the features of an athlete as an object of measurements?
3. Why should I strive to reduce the number of measured variables controlling the state of the athlete?
4. What characterizes the qualitativeness in research in sports?
5. What opportunity gives an athlete adaptability?
6. What is called dough?
7. What are the metrological tests for tests?
8. What tests are called good?
9. What is the difference between a regulatory oriented and criterion-oriented test?
10. What are the varieties of motor tests?
11. What is the difference in homogeneous tests from heterogeneous?
12. What requirements should be respected to standardize testing?

13. What is the reliability of the test?

14. What makes the error in test results?

15. What do you understand under test stability?

16. What does the test stability depend on?

1. What is characterized by the consistency of the test?

18. What tests are called equivalent?

1. What do you understand the informativeness of the test?
2. What are the methods of determining the informative of tests?
3. What is the essence of the logical method for determining the informativeness of tests?
4. What is usually used as a criterion when determining the informativeness of tests?
5. What do when determining the informativeness of tests when there is no single criterion?
6. What is called pedagogical assessment?
7. What scheme is the estimation?
8. What ways can you translate test results to points?
9. What is the estimated scale?
10. What are the features of the proportional scale?
11. What is the difference between the progressive scale from regressing?
12. In what cases are sigmoid scales assessments apply?
13. What is the advantage of a percency scale?
14. What can the scales of the selected points be used?
15. For what purposes is the scale of the hcolifeka?
16. What are the options for evaluating the results of testing athletes on a complex of tests?
17. What is called the norm in sports metrology?
18. What are individual standards based on?
19. How are due rates in sports practice set?
20. How are most of the age standards are made?
21. What are the characteristics of the norms?
22. What does the qualimetry study?
23. What form is expert assessment?
24. What qualities should the expert have?
25. How is the objective assessment of the suitability of the expert?

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The word "metrology" translated from Greek means "Science of measurements" (Metro - Measure, Logos - Teaching, Science). Any science begins with measurements, therefore, the science of measurements, methods and means of ensuring their unity and the required accuracy is fundamental in any field of activity.

Sports metrology - Science of measurements in physical education and sports. The specifics of sports metrology lies in the fact that the object of measurement is a living system - a person. In this regard, sports metrology has a number of fundamental differences from the field of knowledge considering traditional classical measurements of physical quantities. The specifics of sports metrology determine the following features of the measurement object:

• The variability is the impermanence of variable values \u200b\u200bcharacterizing the physiological state of the person and the results of its sports activities. All indicators (physiological, morpho-anatomical, psychophysiological, etc.) are constantly changing, therefore multiple measurements are needed with subsequent statistical processing of the information received.
• Multidimensionality is the need for simultaneous measurement of a large number of variables characterizing the physical condition and the result of sports activities.
• Qualitativeness is the qualitative nature of a number of measurements in the absence of an accurate quantitative measure.
• Adaptability - the ability to adapt to new conditions, which often masks the true measurement result.
• Mobility is a constant movement in space, characteristic of most sports and a substantially complicating measurement process.
• Handling is the possibility of targeted influence on the actions of an athlete during training, depending on objective and subjective factors.

Thus, sports metrology is not only engaged in traditional technical measurements of physical quantities, but also solves important tasks of managing the training process:

• it is used as a toolkit for measuring biological, psychological, pedagogical, sociological and other indicators characterizing the activities of an athlete;
• represents the source material for biomechanical analysis of motor actions athlete.

Subject of sports metrology - Complex control in physical education and sports, which includes control over the state of athlete, training loads, equipment of exercise, sports results and the behavior of an athlete at competitions.

The purpose of sports metrology - Implementation of integrated control to achieve maximum sporting results and preserving the health of the athlete against the background of high loads.

In the course of sports and pedagogical studies and in the implementation of the training process, many different parameters are measured. All of them are divided into four levels:

1. Single - disclose one value of a separate property of the studied biological system (for example, a simple motor reaction time).
2. Differential - characterize one property property (for example, speed).
3. Complex - relate to one of the systems (for example, physical readiness).
4. Integral - reflect the total effect of the functioning of various systems (for example, sports mastery).

The basis for determining all listed parameters is single parameters that are complexly related to higher level parameters. In sports practice, the most common parameters that serve to evaluate basic physical qualities are the most common.

2. Structure of sports metrology

Sections of sports metrology are presented in Fig. 1. Each of them is an independent area of \u200b\u200bknowledge. On the other hand, they are closely related to each other. For example, to evaluate according to the accepted scale, the level of speed-power preparedness of the Sprinter Sprinter at a certain stage of training, it is necessary to choose and carry out the appropriate tests (jump in height from the place, triple jump, etc.). During tests, it is necessary to implement the measurement of physical quantities (height and length of jumping in meters and centimeters with the required accuracy). For this purpose, contact or non-contact measurement facilities can be used.

Fig. 1. Sections of sports metrology

For some sports, the basis of comprehensive control is the measurement of physical quantities (in mild athletics, weightlifting, swimming, etc.), for other - quality indicators (in rhythmic gymnastics, figure skating, etc.). In the other case, the corresponding mathematical apparatus is used to process measurement results, which makes it possible to make correct conclusions based on the measurements performed and estimates.

Questions for self-control

1. What is sports metrology and what is its specificity?
2. What is the subject, the purpose and task of sports metrology?
3. What parameters are measured in sports practice?
4. Which sections include sports metrology?