Why do you need physics? Ideas for writing and not only. Just about the difficult

Measurement (physics)

Measure - A combination of operations to determine the ratio of one (measured) value to another homogeneous value adopted per unit stored in the technical means (measurement means). The resulting value is called the numerical value of the measured value, the numeric value in conjunction with the designation of the unit used is called the value of the physical quantity. The measurement of physical quantity is carried out by experimentally carried out using various measuring instruments - measures, measuring instruments, measuring transducers, systems, installations, etc. The measurement of physical quantity includes several steps: 1) a comparison of the measured value with a unit; 2) transformation into a form, convenient for use (various indication methods).

• The measurement principle is a physical phenomenon or an effect based on measurements.
• Method of measurements - use or set of receptions of comparison of the measured physical size with its unit in accordance with the implemented measurement principle. The measurement method is usually due to the measuring instrument.

The measurement accuracy characteristic is its error. Examples of measurements

1. In the simplest case, applying a ruler with divisions to any part, in fact compare its size with a unit, stored ruler, and, racing the countdown, the value of the value (length, height, thickness, and other part parameters) is obtained.
2. Using the measuring device, the size of the size converted to the movement of the pointer, with a unit, a stored scale of this device, and conduct countdown.

In cases where it is impossible to measure (the value is not highlighted as physical and the unit of measurements of this value is not identified), the estimation of such values \u200b\u200baccording to conditional scales, for example, an earthquake intensity range, MOOS scale - Minerals scales

Science, the subject of studying which are all aspects of measurements, is called metrology.

Classification of measurements

By type of measurements

• Direct measurement is a measurement at which the desired physical value is obtained directly.
• Indirect measurement is the definition of the desired physical value based on the results of direct measurements of other physical quantities that are functionally related to the desired value.
• Joint measurements are simultaneously measured by two or several non-uniform values \u200b\u200bto determine the relationship between them.
• Cumulative measurements - performed simultaneously measuring several of the same names in which the desired values \u200b\u200bare determined by solving the system of equations obtained by measuring these values \u200b\u200bin various combinations.

According to measurement methods

• The direct assessment method is the measurement method at which the value of the value is determined directly by the indicative of the measurement
• The comparison method with measure is the measurement method in which the measured value is compared with the value reproduced by measure.
  • The zero measurement method is the comparison method with a measure in which the resulting effect of the measured value and the measure on the comparison device is adjusted to zero.
  • The measurement method of the substitution is the comparison method with a measure in which the measured value is replaced by a measure with a known value of the magnitude.
  • The measurement method is an add-on - a comparison method with a measure in which the value of the measured value is complemented by a measure of the same value with such a calculation so that their amount affect the comparison device equal to the predetermined value
  • Differential measurement method - measurement method in which the measured value is compared with a homogeneous value having a known value, slightly different from the value of the measured value, and in which the difference between these two values \u200b\u200bis measured

By destination

Technical and metrological measurements

By accuracy

Deterministated and random

In relation to the change in the measured value

Static and dynamic

By number of measurements

Single and multi-time

According to the measurement results

• Absolute measurement - measurement based on direct measurements of one or more of the main values \u200b\u200band (or) using the values \u200b\u200bof physical constants.
• Relative measurement is the measurement of the ratio of the value to the same value that plays the role of the unit, or the measurement of the change in the value with respect to the same value taken for the original.

History

Units and measurement systems

Literature and documentation

Literature

• Kushnir F. V. Radio mechanics: Textbook for communications technical schools - M.: Communication, 1980
• Nefedov V. I., Khakhin V. I., Bitukov V.K. Metrology and radioismes: Textbook for universities - 2006
• N. S. Basics of metrology: Workshop on metrology and measurements - M.: Logos, 2007

Regulatory Technical Documentation

• RMG 29-99 GS Metrology. Basic Terms and Definitions
• GOST 8.207-76 GS Direct measurements with multiple observations. Methods for processing observation results. Basic provisions

Links

see also

Wikimedia Foundation. 2010.

Watch what is "Measurement (physics)" in other dictionaries:

Measurement: In mathematics (as well as in theoretical physics): The amount of measurements of space determines its dimension. Measurement Any of the coordinates of the point or point event. In physics: Measurement (physics) Determining the value of physical ... ... Wikipedia

Representing the properties of real objects in the form of a numerical value, one of the most important methods of empirical knowledge. In the most general case, the magnitude is called everything that may be greater or less, which can be inherent in the object in more or ... ... Philosophical encyclopedia

Contents 1 Methods of obtaining 1.1 Evaporation of liquids ... Wikipedia

Examples of various physical phenomena physics (from other Greek. ΦύΣςς ... Wikipedia

This term has other values, see Measurement (Values). Quantum mechanics ... Wikipedia

The study of the effects rendered on the substance is very high pressures, as well as the creation of methods for obtaining and measuring such pressures. The history of the development of high pressure physics is an amazing example of extremely rapid progress in science, ... ... Encyclopedia Color

Weak measurements are the type of mechanical measurement quantum, where the measured system is poorly related to the measuring instrument. After weak measurement, the measuring instrument pointer turns out to be shifted to the so-called "weak value". In ... Wikipedia

Neutron physics section of the physics of elementary particles involved in the study of neutrons, their properties and structures (lifetime, magnetic moment, etc.), methods of obtaining, as well as use capabilities in applied and scientifically ... ... Wikipedia

Cybernetic physics Science area at the junction of cybernetics and physics, studying physical systems by cybernetic methods. Under cybernetic methods are meant methods for solving management problems, assessing variables and parameters ... ... Wikipedia

This term has other values, see the operator. Quantum mechanics ... Wikipedia

Books

• Physics: oscillations and waves. Laboratory workshop. Tutorial for Applied Bachelor, Gorlach V.V. The textbook presents laboratory work on the topics: forced oscillations, cargo fluctuations on the spring, waves in an elastic medium, measuring the length of the sound wave and sound speed, standing ...

The role and value of measurements in science and technology. Prospects for the development of electrical equipment

Measurements are one of the main means of knowledge of nature, its phenomena and laws.

Electrical measurements play a particularly important role, since the theoretical and applied electrical engineering is dealing with various electrical and magnetic values \u200b\u200band phenomena that are not perceived directly by the senses directly. Therefore, the detection of the presence of these values \u200b\u200bquantitative, as well as the study of electrical and magnetic phenomena is possible only with the help of electrical meters.

The rapidly developing area of \u200b\u200bmeasuring equipment is to measure electrical magnitudes with electrical devices and methods. This is explained by the possibility of continuous measurement and recording its results at a distance, high accuracy, sensitivity and other positive properties of electrical methods and measuring instruments. In modern production, compliance with any technological process and control automation is provided by the use of measuring equipment and the automation closely associated with it.

Thus, electrical measurements ensure the rational maintenance of any technological processes, the uninterrupted operation of electrical installations, etc., and therefore, improve the technical and economic indicators of the enterprise.

Draw a structural circuit of an electron-beam oscilloscope and describe the appointment of its main nodes.

The vertical deviation channel of the electron beam oscilloscope is designed to transmit the input voltage to vertical deviating plates. It includes an attenuator that reduces the input signal to the level of retardation on the screen of the required size, the delay line and amplifier. From the output of the amplifier, the signal comes to vertical deviating plates.

Fig. 1 Structural diagram of electron-beam oscilloscope

The horizontal deviation channel (sweep channel) is used to create and transmit to horizontally deflecting voltage plates, which causes the horizontal movement of the beam proportionally time.

The image is formed using an electron beam tube using electrostatic beam deviation. In it, using an electronic spotlight, the flow of electrons is formed as a thin beam, which, reaching the phosphor on the inner surface of the screen, causes its glow. The rejection of the beam vertically and horizontal is carried out using two pairs of plates to which deflecting voltages are supplied. The test voltage is a function of time, and therefore it is necessary for its observation so that the beam moves along the screen in the horizontal direction proportionally time, and its vertical movement was determined by the input stress. To move the ray horizontally to horizontal deviating plates, the voltage of a sawdust shape is applied, which ensures the movement of the beam from left to right at a constant speed, quick return to the start of the screen and the next movement with a constant speed from left to right. The test voltage is supplied to the vertical deflecting plates, as a result, the position of the beam at the time of time uniquely corresponds to the value of the signal under study at the moment.

The oscilloscope has two channels - a channel of vertical (y) and horizontal (x) deviations. The vertical deviation channel is designed to transmit the input voltage to vertical deflecting plates. It includes an attenuator that reduces the input signal to the level of retardation on the screen of the required size, the delay line and amplifier. From the output of the amplifier, the signal enters vertical deflecting plates. The horizontal deviation channel (sweep channel) is used to create and transmit to horizontal deflecting voltage plates of causing horizontal movement of the beam proportionally time.

In oscilloscopes, several types of sweep are used, the main of which is formed using a sawtooth voltage. So that the scan line does not flicker when observing, the beam must read the same trajectory of at least 25 ... 30 times per second due to the inertial ability of human vision.

Give the scheme and describe how the place of damage to the insulation of the cable by the Murree loop method

The loop method from the cable lived - the Murrey method is the use of a single bridge circuit.

To determine the site of the breakdown between residential and armor or land, the ends of the B-B'serviceable and damaged cable cable are short. To two other ends of Aa'a plug in the resist stores R and R A and the galvanometer. The clip in which the resistor stores are connected, through the battery of elements is connected to the ground.

Fig. 1 Loop Method Scheme Cable Core - Murreya Method

As a result, we have a bridge circuit, the equilibrium of which is determined by the condition:

By defining R x, knowing the specific resistance of the material of the cable vehicle and their cross section S, according to the formula L x \u003d R x S / ρ, determine the distance from the end of the cable A 'to the place of damage to the insulation.

With a constant section, the cable cable R x and R can be replaced by their expression:

where does the distance prior to the place of damage

To verify the measurement result, the second similar measurement is made, changing the ends of the cable A and A'. At the same time, the distance to the place of damage is determined by the formula:

where R'and R'A is the resistance values \u200b\u200bof the bridge shoulders during the second dimension. The correct measurement results are confirmed by the equality l x + l y \u003d 2l

Determine the stress on the resistance and the largest possible relative error in its definition if the voltage on the clips of the network is 220 V, and the voltage at the resistance R. 1 \u003d 180 V. For measurement, voltmeters of the 1.0 per 250 accuracy class are used

From electrical engineering we know:

U 2 \u003d U - U 1 \u003d 220 - 180 \u003d 40 V

The greatest possible relative error

where - the relative error of the device, in our case for the accuracy class 1.0 \u003d 1.0%;

U H is the rated voltmeter voltage;

U - voltmeter reading.

Answer: U 2 \u003d 40 V ,.

Measuring device without shunt resistanceR A. \u003d 28 ohms has a scale of 50 divisions. The division of 0.01 A / cases. Determine the price of dividing this device and the limit value of the measured current when connecting the shunt resistance R. Sh \u003d 0.02 ohms.

Find the Shunting Multiplier "P"

where R and is the resistance of the device; R w - Shunt resistance.

Find the limit value of the measured current

where W is the number of fission of the device; N - division price

We find the limit value of the measured current when connecting the shunt

where i max is the limit value of the current measured by the current;

p - Shunting Multiplier

We will find the price of fissioning the device when connecting the shunt

where i 'max is the limit value of the measured by the current cowage; W - the number of fission divisions

Answer: A, a / affairs.

The counter of the meter is written: 220V, 5a, 1kW · 2000 revolutions. Calculate the nominal constant counter, valid constant, relative error, correction coefficient, if when checking the meter for constant voltage U. \u003d 220 V and unchanged currentI. \u003d 5 and disc madeN. \u003d 37 revolutions for 60 s.

Determine the nominal constant counter

where W H is the nominal number of the registered energy meter for N H revoles

Determine the actual constant counter

where W is the calculated amount of registered energy for N revolutions of the disk when checking the meter, with: w \u003d u ∙ i ∙ T (U - the unchanged voltage supplied during the time - t with a constant value of current - i).

Determine the relative error of the meter

where k n is the nominal constant counter; k is the actual constant counter defined when checking.

Correction coefficient will be equal

Answer: W · h / o, W · h / o,

The rated current of the ammeter 5a, the accuracy class of its 1.5. Determine the greatest possible absolute error.

The greatest possible absolute error:

where Γ d is the relative error of the ammeter, in our case, for the accuracy class of 1.5 γ d \u003d 1.5%; I n is the rated current of the ammeter.

Literature

1. "Electrical dimensions" V.S. Popov (M. 1974)
2. "Electrical and electronics" ed. prof. B.I. Petlenko M. 2003
3. Electrical measurements edited by Malinovsky 1983

Metrology - Science of measurements

Metrology - science of measurements, methods and means of ensuring their unity and how to achieve the required accuracy.
This is a science that is engaged in establishing units of measurements of various physical quantities and reproducing their standards, the development of measurement methods of physical quantities, as well as analysis of measurement accuracy and research and elimination of the reasons that cause errors in measurements.

In a practical life, a person has been dealing with measurements everywhere. At each step, there are and known from time immemorial measurement times of such values \u200b\u200bas the length, volume, weight, time, etc. Of course, the methods and means of measurement of these values \u200b\u200bin antiquity were primitive and imperfect, however, without them it is impossible to imagine the evolution of a person reasonable .

Great meaning of measurements in modern society. They are not only the basis for scientific and technical knowledge, but are of paramount importance for taking into account material resources and planning, for internal and foreign trade, to ensure product quality, interchangeability of components and parts and improving technology, to ensure the safety of labor and other types of human activity.

Metrology is of great importance for the progress of natural and technical sciences, since the increase in measurement accuracy is one of the means of improving ways to the knowledge of nature by man, discoveries and practical use of accurate knowledge.
To ensure scientific and technological progress, metrology should be discovered in its development other areas of science and technology, for for each of them, accurate measurements are one of the main ways to improve their improvement.

Tasks of science metrology

Since the metrology studies the methods and means of measuring physical quantities with the maximum degree of accuracy, its tasks and goals are measured from the very definition of science. However, given the colossal importance of metrology as science, for scientific and technological progress and the evolution of human society, all terms and definitions of metrology, including its goals and objectives, are standardized through regulatory documents - GOSTs.
So, the main objectives of metrology (according to GOST 16263-70) are:

• establishment of units of physical quantities, state standards and exemplary measuring instruments;
• development of theory, methods and means of measurement and control;
• ensuring the unity of measurements and uniform measuring instruments;
• development of methods for evaluating errors, states of measurement and control;
• development of methods for transmitting units from standards or exemplary measuring instruments to the measurement tools.

Brief history of the development of metrology

The need for measurements arose in time immemorial. For this, primarily used primary means.
For example, the weight of the weight of precious stones - carats, which is translated from the languages \u200b\u200bof the Ancient South-East, "Seed Bob", "Peas"; A unit of pharmaceutical weight - Gran that translated from Latin, French, English, Spanish means "grain".

Many measures had anthropometric origin or were associated with the specific personnel of man.
Thus, in Kievan Rus, they were used in everyday life - the length of the phalange of the index finger; The span is the distance between the ends of the elongated large and index fingers; elbow - the distance from the elbow to the end of the middle finger; Sashen - from "sniff", "achieve", i.e. you can get; Syazhen - a limit of what can be reached: the distance from the sole of the left leg until the end of the middle finger stretched up the right hand; Musto - from "Verti", "turning" the plow back, the length of the furrow.

Ancient Babylonians set the year, month, hour. Subsequently, the 1/86400 part of the middle period of the Earth's appeal around its axis was called a second.
In Babylon in II century. BC e. Time was measured in mines. Mina equal to the time interval (equal, approximately two astronomical clock)For which from the waters taken in the Babylon, the "mine" of water, the mass of which was about 500 G. Then Mina declined and turned into a minute familiar to us.
Over time, the water watches gave way to sandy, and then more complex pendulum mechanisms.

The most important metrological document in Russia is the Dvina diploma of Ivan the Terrible (1550). It regulates the rules for the storage and transmission of the size of a new measure of bulk substances - amms. Its copper copies were sent by cities to store elected people - old builders, Sotsky, Corolovals. With these measures, it was necessary to make brave wooden copies for urban mothers, and with those, in turn, wooden copies for use in everyday life.

The metrological reform of Peter I to appeal to Russia was admitted to English measures that were particularly widely distributed on the fleet and in shipbuilding - feet, inches.
In 1736, by decision of the Senate, the Space Commission was formed and measures under the chairmanship of the chief director of the Mint Count M.G. Golovkin. The Commission included an outstanding scientist of the XVIII century, the contemporary of M. V. Lomonosov, - Leonard Euler, who made an invaluable contribution to the development of many sciences.
As the initial measures, the Commission made a copper Arshin and a wooden soot, a bucket of the Moscow Kamennorova Pety Court was adopted for the measure of substances. The most important step, summed up the work of the Commission, was the creation of a Russian reference pound.

The idea of \u200b\u200bbuilding a measurement system on a decimal basis belongs to the French Astronoma Muton, who lived in the XVII century. Later it was proposed to take one forty millionth part of the earth meridian as a unit of length. Based on the only unit - meter - the whole system was built, called the metric.

In Russia, the decree "On the Russian measures and scales" system (1835), the standards of length and mass were approved - platinum soil and platinum pound.
In accordance with the International Metrological Convention, signed in 1875, Russia received platinumiridia odds of mass units № 12 and 26 and standards units of length № 11 and 28 who were delivered to the new building of the depot of exemplary measures and scales.
In 1892, the Depot Managing was appointed D.I. Mendeleev, which he in 1893 converts measures to the main chamber of measures and scales is one of the first in the world of metrological profile research institutions.

The metric system in Russia was introduced in 1918 by the decree of the Council of People's Commissars "On the introduction of an international metric system of measures and scales". The further development of metrology in Russia is associated with the creation of a system and standardization service bodies.

The development of natural sciences led to the emergence of new and new measuring instruments, and they, in turn, stimulated the development of sciences, becoming an increasingly powerful means of their promotion.

Questions and tasks for exam tickets
According to academic discipline (Download in Word format).

Download Work Programs

"Metrology, Standardization and Certification"
for specialty SPO "Maintenance and repair of road transport"

for specialty SPO "Mechanization of agriculture"

Download calendar and thematic plans According to academic disciplines (in Word format):

"Metrology, Standardization and Certification"
For specialty SPO "Maintenance and repair of road transport"

"Metrology, standardization and quality confirmation"
For specialty SPO "Mechanization of agriculture"

Science begins since
how to measure ...
D. I. Mendeleev

Think about the words of the famous scientist. Of these, the role of measurements in any science is clear, and especially in physics. But, in addition, measurements are important in practical life. Can you present your life without measurements of time, mass, length, vehicle speed, electricity consumption, etc.?

How to measure physical size? Measuring instruments are used for this purpose. Some of them are already known to you. It is a different type of line, clock, thermometers, scales, transportation (Fig. 20), etc.

Fig. twenty

Measuring instruments are there digital and savages. In digital devices, the measurement result is determined by the figures. This is an electronic clock (Fig. 21), the thermometer (Fig. 22), the electricity meter (Fig. 23) and others.

Fig. 21.

Fig. 22.

Fig. 23.

Rule, arrogress hours, household thermometer, scales, transport (see Fig. 20) - these are the scale instruments. They have a scale. It defines the measurement result. The whole scale is drawn by strokes for divisions (Fig. 24). One division is not one touch (how sometimes it is mistaken to consider students). This is the gap between the two nearest strokes. Figure 25 between the numbers 10 and 20 is two divisions, and the stroke - 3. The instruments that we will use in laboratory works are mostly varnishing.

Fig. 24.

Fig. 25.

Measure physical quantity - it means to compare it with a homogeneous value adopted by one.

For example, to measure the length of the length of the line between the points A and B, it is necessary to attach a ruler and on the scale (Fig. 26) to determine how many millimeters fit between points A and V. The homogeneous value with which a comparison of the length of the segment AB was compared 1 mm.

Fig. 26.

If the physical value is measured directly by removing data from the instrument scale, then such a measurement is called direct.

For example, by applying a ruler to a bar in different places, we will define its length A (Fig. 27, a), width B and height with. The value of length, widths, heights we defined directly, removing the countdown from the ruler's scale. From Figure 27, B follows: a \u003d 28 mm. This is a direct dimension.

Fig. 27.

And how to determine the volume of the bar?

It is necessary to carry out direct measurements of its length A, width B and height C, and then by the formula

V \u003d a. b. C.

calculate the volume of the bar.

In this case, we say that the volume of BROs was determined by the formula, i.e. indirectly, and the measurement of volume is called indirect measurement.

Fig. 28.

Think and answer

1. Figure 28 shows several measuring instruments.
   1. What are these measuring instruments?
   2. Which of them are digital?
   3. What physical value does each device measure?
   4. What represents a homogeneous value on the scale of each instrument presented in Figure 28, from which the measured value is compared?
2. Allow the dispute.

   Tanya and Peter decide the task: "Identify a line of one sheet of a book containing 300 pages. The thickness of all sheets is 3 cm. " Petya claims that this can be made direct measurement of the sheet thickness line. Tanya believes that the determination of the sheet thickness is an indirect measurement.

   What do you think you think? Justify your answer.

Interesting to know!

Studying the structure of the human body and the work of its bodies, scientists also conduct many measurements. It turns out that a person whose mass is about 70 kg, has about 6 liters of blood. The heart of a person in a calm state is shrinking 60-80 times per minute. For one reduction, it throws an average of 60 cm 3 of blood, per minute - about 4 l, per day - about 6-7 tons, per year - more than 2000 tons. So our heart is a big worker!

The blood of a person 360 times during the day passes through the kidneys, cleansing there from harmful substances. The overall length of the renal blood vessels is 18 km. Leading a healthy lifestyle, we help our body work without failures!

Homework

Fig. 29.

1. List in the notebook measuring instruments that are in your apartment (home). Speake them by groups:

   1) digital; 2) Savages.

2. Check the justice of Leonardo da Vinci rules (Fig. 29) - a brilliant Italian artist, mathematics, astronoma, engineer. For this:
   1. measure your height: Ask someone with a triangle (Fig. 30) put a small pencil dash on the door jammer; Measure the distance from the floor to the marked dash;
   2. measure the distance along the horizontal direct between the ends of the fingers (Fig. 31);
   3. compare the value obtained in paragraph b) with your height; Most people have these values \u200b\u200bthat Leonardo da Vinci was noticed for the first time.

Fig. thirty

Fig. 31.

Why a person needs measurements

Measurements are one of the most important affairs in modern life. But not always

it was like this. When a primitive man killed a bear in an unequal duel, he, of course, was happy if he turned out to be quite large. It promised a fed life to him and all the tribe for a long time. But he did not drag a bear carcass on the scales: at that time there were no weights. There was no special need for measurements and when a person did a stone ax: technical conditions did not exist on such axes and everything was determined the size of a suitable stone that was able to find. Everything was done on the eye, as the wizard was prompted.

Later, people began to live in large groups. The exchange of goods, the first states began to go to trade, the first states arose. Then there was a need for measurements. Tsarist songs had to know what the field area had each peasant. This was determined how much grain he should give the king. It was necessary to measure the harvest from each field, and during the sale of flaxseed meat, wine and other liquids - the volume of sold goods. When the ships began to build, it was necessary to schedule the right dimensions in advance: otherwise the ship would be sank. And, of course, they could not do without measurements ancient builders of pyramids, palaces and temples, still amazing us with their proportionality and beauty.

Vintage Russian measures.

The Russian people created their own system of measures. Monuments of the X century speak not only about the existence of a system of measures in Kievan Rus, but also by the state supervision for their correctness. This supervision was assigned to the clergy. In one of the charters of Prince Vladimir Svyatoslavovich says:

"... hedgehog invalid is established and entrusted to eat the bishops of the town and everywhere all sorts of measure and swords and scales ... obvious obviousness, nor multiply, nor saming ..." (... has long been established and entrusted to the bishops to observe the correctness of the measures. . Do not allow no diminution or an increase in their ...). It was caused by this need for supervision by trade needs both within the country and with the countries of the West (Byzantium, Rome, later German cities) and the East (Central Asia, Persia, India). In the church area there were bazaars, the churches were lari for storing contracts for trade transactions, under the churches there were faithful scales and measures, the goods were kept in the basements of the churches. Weighing were carried out in the presence of representatives of the clergy who received a duty in favor of the church

Measures of length

The oldest of them are elbow and soot. The exact initial length of that and other measures we do not know; A certain Englishman traveled in Russia in 1554, testifies that the Russian elbow was equal to half the English yard. According to the "trading book", compiled for Russian merchants at the turn of the XVI and XVII centuries, three elbows were equal to the two Arshinam. The name "Arshin" comes from the Persian word "ARSH", which means elbow.

The first mention of the soot is found in the chronicles of the XI century, compiled by the Kiev Monk Nestor.

At a later times, a measure of the distance of the versta equal to 500 seats was established. In the ancient monuments of the versta called the field and equalizes sometimes to 750 seats. This can be explained by the existence in antiquity of shorter soot. Finally, the verst to 500 seeds was established only in the XVIII century.

In the era of the fragmentation of Russia, there was no single system of measures. In the XV and XVI centuries, the Russian lands are associated around Moscow. With the emergence and growth of nationwide trade and with the establishment of fees for the treasury from the entire population of the United Country, the question of a unified system of measures for the entire state. Mera Arshin, arising from trade with the eastern peoples, is used.

In the XVIII century, measures were specified. Peter 1 Decree set the equality of the three-hour phase of seven English feet. The former Russian system of length measures, supplemented with new measures, was finalized:

Mile \u003d 7 versts (\u003d 7.47 kilometers);

Versta \u003d 500 seedlines (\u003d 1.07 kilometers);

Soot \u003d 3 ARSHINAM \u003d 7 feet (\u003d 2.13 meters);

Arshin \u003d 16 tops \u003d 28 inches (\u003d 71,12 centimeter);

Foot \u003d 12 inches (\u003d 30.48 centimeters);

Inch \u003d 10 lines (2.54 centimeters);

Line \u003d 10 points (2.54 millimeters).

When they talked about the growth of a person, they indicated only how many cameras he exceeds 2 ARSHIN. Therefore, the words "man of 12 heights of growth" meant that its growth is equal to 2 Arshinam 12 tops, that is, 196 cm.

Measures square

In the "Russian truth" - the legislative monument, which refers to the XI - XIII centuries, the land measure of the plow is used. It was a measure of the Earth with which the tribute was paid. There are some reason to consider a plow equal to 8-9 hectares. As in many countries, the amount of rye often received the amount of rye needed to sowing this area. In the XIII - XV centuries, the main unit of the square was the range of the area, for sowing each it was necessary to approximately 24 pones (that is, 400 kg.) Rye. Half of this area, called tithons became the main measure of the square in pre-revolutionary Russia. It was leveling about 1.1 hectares. The tithing was sometimes called boxes.

Another unit for measuring areas equal to half of the tithing was called (quarter). In the future, the size of the decade was aligned not with measurements of volume and mass, but with lengths of length. In the "book of a sleepy letter" as a guide to account for taxes from the Earth, a decrease in a level 80 * 30 \u003d 2400 square seats is established.

The tax unit of the Earth was C O X A (this is the amount of arable land, which was able to process one plower).

Weight Measures (Mass) and Volume

The ancient Russian weight unit was hryvnia. It is mentioned in the Treaties of the X century between the Kiev princes and the Byzantine emperors. By complicated calculations, scientists learned that Grivna weighed 68.22 g. Hryvnaya was peeled by the Arab US unit rotle. Then the main units when weighing steel pound and Poud. The pound was leveling 6 hryvnias, and PUD - 40 pounds. For the weighing of gold, spools were used, which were 1,96 share of the pound (from here there is a proverb "Mal Spool YES"). The words "pound" and "PUD" come from the same Latin word "pondus" meaning the severity. Officials that told scales were called "punching" or "Vesseli". In one of the stories of Maxim Gorky in the description of the barn of a fist, we read: "On one dash, two castles are one of the other pudding (heavier)."

By the end of the XVII century, a system of Russian weight measures was formed in the following form:

Last \u003d 72 plows (\u003d 1.18 tons);

Berkchets \u003d 10 plowing (\u003d 1.64 c);

PUD \u003d 40 large humerens (or pounds), or 80 small humeren, or 16 impressions (\u003d 16.38 kg.);

Initial ancient fluid measures - barrel and bucket - remain unidentified exactly. There is reason to believe that the bucket contained 33 pounds of water, and the barrel is 10 buckets. The bucket was divided by 10 tons.

Money system of Russian people

Many nations have served in monetary units of silver or gold slices. In Kiev Rus, such units were hryvnia silver. In the "Russian Pravda" - the ancient arch of Russian laws it says that the murder or theft of the horse is denied by a penalty of 2 hryvnias, and for the ox - 1 hryvnia. The hryvnia was divided into 20 holes or 25 kuns, and Kuhnu - 2 risen. The name "Kuna" (Cuckit) is reminded of times when there were no metal money in Russia, and fur was used instead, and later - leather money - quadrangular skin pieces with stamps. Although hryvnia as a monetary unit has long come out of use, but the word "hryvnia" has been preserved. Coin dignity 10 kopecks called jvette. But this, of course, is not the same as the old hryvnia.

The chased Russian coins are known since the time of Prince Vladimir Svyatoslavovich. In the times of the Orda Iea, the Russian princes were obliged to indicate the name of the Hana rules in the Golden Orda. But after the Kulikov battle, brought victory by the troops of Dmitry Donskoy over Hallerances of Khan Mamia, the liberation of Russian coins from the Khan names begins. At first, these names began to be replaced by an inseminious knage from oriental letters, and then completely disappeared with coins.

In the chronicles belonging to 1381, the word "money" is found for the first time. The word is coming from the Hindu name of the silver coin tankwhich the Greeks called Danaka, Tatars - Tenga.

The first use of the word "ruble" refers to the XIV century. The word is derived from the verb to "chop." In the XIV century, the hryvnia began to cut down in half, and the silver ingot of half of the hryvnia (\u003d 204.76 g) was called rubleor ruble hryvniki.

In 1535, coins were released - Novgorod, a rider drawing with a spear in the hands of the name kopey money. The chronicle from here produces the word "penny".

Further supervision of measures in Russia.

In 1892, the brilliant Russian chemist Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleev was at the head of the main chamber of measures and scales.

Guiding the work of the main chamber of measures and scales, fully transformed the case of measurements in Russia, established research work and decided all questions about measures that were caused by the growth of science and technology in Russia. In 1899, a new law on measures and scales was published.

In the first years after the revolution, the main chamber of measures and scales, continued the traditions of Mendeleev, conducted a tremendous work on the preparation of the introduction of the metric system in the USSR. After some renaming and renaming the former major chamber of measures and scales currently exists in the form of the All-Union Scientific Research Institute of Metrology named.

French measures

Initially in France, and in all cultural Europe, we used Latin weights of weight and length. But feudal fragmentation made its adjustments. Let's say, a different Senor came fantasy slightly increase the pound. None of his subjects will objected, do not rebel due to such trifles. But if you count, in general, all the rural grain, then what is the benefit! Also with urban shops of artisans. Someone was beneficial to reduce the soot, to increase someone. Depending on whether they are sold cloth or buy. By slightly, in a little bit, and here you are already the Rhine Pound, and Amsterdam, and Nuremberg and Paris, etc., etc.

And with the seedlings, it was worse, only in the south of France turned more than a dozen different lengths of the length.

True, in the glorious city of Paris in the fortress, Le Grandfather, since the time of Julius Caesar, a standard of length was done to the fortress wall. It was an iron curved circulation, the legs of which ended with two protrusions with parallel faces, between which should accurately include all in the use of soy. Salegin of a charter stayed by the official measure of length until 1776.

At first glance, the length of the length looked like this:

Lingerie Marine - 5, 556 km.

Lingerie land \u003d 2 miles \u003d 3,3898 km

Mile (from Lat. One thousand) \u003d 1000 TUAZ.

TUAZ (soot) \u003d 1.949 meters.

Foot (feet) \u003d 1/6 TUAZ \u003d 12 inches \u003d 32.484 cm.

Inch (finger) \u003d 12 lines \u003d 2,256 mm.

Line \u003d 12 points \u003d 2,256 mm.

Point \u003d 0.188 mm.

In fact, no one has canceled feudal privileges, all this concerned the city of Paris, well, dofine, as a last resort. Somewhere in the outback of foot it could easily be determined as the size of the feet of the senior, or as the average length of the feet of 16 people leaving the utmost on Sunday.

Paris pound \u003d Livr \u003d 16 oz \u003d 289.41 gr.

Oz (1/12 pound) \u003d 30,588 gr.

Gran (grain) \u003d 0.053 gr.

But the artillery pound was still equal to 491,4144 gr., That is, simply corresponded to the Nyrenbeg pound, which was still in the 16th century Mr. Gartman, one of theoretics - masters of the artillery shop. Accordingly, the magnitude of the pound in the provinces was walked with traditions.

Measures of liquid and bulk bodies, also did not differ in slim monotony, because France was still a country where the population mainly grown bread and wine.

Muge wines \u003d about 268 liters

Network - about 156 liters

Mine \u003d 0.5 network \u003d about 78 liters

Mine \u003d 0.5 mines \u003d about 39 liters

Buasso \u003d about 13 liters

English measures

British measures used in the UK, USA. Canada and other countries. Some of these measures in a number of countries are somewhat different in their size, therefore below are presented, mainly rounded metric equivalents of English measures, convenient for practical calculations.

Measures of length

Mile Sea (United Kingdom) \u003d 10 cable \u003d 1,8532 km

Even before him, the Polish scientist Stanislav Pudlovsky proposed to take a unit of measurement of the last pendulum itself.

Birth metric system measures.

Bourgeoisie "href \u003d" / text / category / "Burzhuaziya /" Rel \u003d "Bookmark"\u003e bourgeois revolution. A national meeting was convened, which created a commission at the Academy of Sciences, compiled from the largest French scientists of the time. Commissions had to do work on creating a new system measures.

One of the members of the Commission was the famous mathematician and astronomer Pierre Simon Laplace. For his scientific research it was very important to know the exact length of the earth meridian. Someone from the members of the Commission remembered the proposal of the Muton astronomer to take a part of the length of the meridian equal to one 21600 part of the meridian. Laplace immediately supported this proposal (and maybe he himself came across this thought of the remaining members of the Commission). Made only one dimension. For convenience, one forty-millionth part of the earth meridian was decided for convenience. This proposal was submitted to the National Assembly and accepted by them.

All other units were agreed with a new unit called meters. Per unit area was accepted square metervolume - cubic meter, masses - mass cubic centimeter Waters under certain conditions.

In 1790, the National Assembly adopted a decree on reform of measures of measures. The report submitted by the National Assembly was noted that there is nothing arbitrary in the draft reform, and there is nothing local. "If the memory of these works has been lost and only some results have been preserved, there would be no sign in them, according to which it was possible to know what nation had a plan for these works, and carried out them," said the report. As you can see, the Academy Commission, it strives to ensure that the new system of measures does not give rise to some kind of nation to reject the system as French. She sought to justify the slogan: "At all times, for all nations," which was proclaimed later.

Already in April 17956, a law on new measures was approved, a single standard was introduced for the entire republic: the platinum line at which the meter was drawn.

The Commission of the Paris Academy of Sciences from the very beginning of work on the development of the H6O system found that the relations of neighboring units should be 10. For each value (length, weight, area, volume) from the main unit of this value are formed by other, large and smaller measures in the same way (for The exception, the names "Micron", the "centner", "ton"). For the formation of the names of measures, a large basic unit, Greek words are added to the name: "Dec" - "ten", "Hekto" - "Hundred", "Kilo" - "Thousand", "Miria" - "ten thousand" ; To form the name of measures smaller than the main unit, also in front of the particle: "Dezi" - "ten", "Santi" - "hundred", "Milli" - "Thousand".

Archive meter.

International exhibitions "HREF \u003d" / TEXT / CATEGORY / MEZHDUNARODNIE_VISTAVKI / "REL \u003d" BOOKMARK "\u003e International exhibitions that showed all the convenience of existing various national measures. Especially fruitful in this direction was the activities of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences and its member of Boris Semenovich Jacobi. In This activity was crowned with the actual transformation of the metric system to the international.

Metric system of measures in Russia.

In Russia, scientists since the beginning of the XIX century realized the appointment of the metric system and tried to implement it widely into practice.

In the years from 1860 to 1870, after energetic speeches, the company in favor of the metric system lead academician, Professor of Mathematics Author common in its time school textbooks of mathematics, and academician. Russian manufacturers and breeders joined scientists. Russian Technical Society entrusted a special commission chaired by academician to develop this question. This commission received many proposals from scientific and technical organizations unanimously supporting proposals on the transition to the metric system.

Published in 1899 the law on measures and scales developed included paragraph number 11:

"The international method and kilogram, their units, and equally and other metric measures, allowed to apply in Russia, for sure with the main Russian measures, in trade and other transactions, contracts, estimates, contracts, and the like - mutual agreement of the Contracting Parties, as well as in The limits of the activities of individual government officials ... with the arrangement or by order of those subject to the ministerial ... ".

The final solution to the issue of the metric system in Russia received after the Great October Socialist Revolution. In 1918, the Council of People's Commissars under the chairmanship was published a decree in which it was proposed:

"To put in the foundation of all measurements an international metric system of measures and weights with decimal units and derivatives.

To take the length of the length - the meter, and as the basis of the weight unit (mass) - kilogram. For samples of the units of the metric system, take a copy of an international meter, wearing a sign number 28, and a copy of an international kilogram, wearing a sign No. 12, made from iridial platinum, transmitted by Russia in the first international conference of measures and scales in Paris in 1889 and stored in the main chamber of measures and scales in Petrograd. "

From January 1, 1927, when the transition of industry and transport on the metric system was prepared, the metric system of measures was the only method of measures and scales permitted in the USSR.

Vintage Russian measures

in proverbs and sayings.

Arshyn da caftan, yes two on patches.
Beard with a heap, and words with a bag.
Lit - seven miles to heaven and all the forest.
Seven mosquito mosquito was looking for a mosquer on the nose.
On Arshan beard, yes the mind on the span.
On three ARSHIN in the land sees!
Neither the inches will not give up.
From thought to the thought of five thousand versts.
The hunter for seven miles walks the cheerlee.
To write (speak) about other people's sins of Arsh, and about their own listeners.
You are from the truth (from service) to the span, and she is from you to the soot.
Pulling vests, but do not be simple.
For this, it is possible to put a pudding (ruble) candle.
Grains powder coats.
It's not bad that the boob with a halfway.
One grain pound brings.
Your spool is more expensive.
Ate a halfway - Owl.
We will find out how much Pouda Lich.
He has a creep (mind) in his head.
Thin pounds, and good spools.

Comparison table Mer.

n. Measures of length

1 verst \u003d 1,06679 kilometers
1 sage \u003d 2,1335808 meters
1 ARSHIN \u003d 0.7111936 meters
1 cub \u003d 0,0444496 meters
1 foot \u003d 0, meter
1 inch \u003d 0, meter

1 kilometer \u003d 0,9373912 versts
1 meter \u003d 0,4686956 soy
1 meter \u003d 1.40609 ARSHINA
1 meter \u003d 22,4974 top
1 meter \u003d 3,2808693 foot
1 meter \u003d 39,3704320 inches

n 1 sage \u003d 7 feet
1 sage \u003d 3 ARSHINA
1 soot \u003d 48 tops
1 mile \u003d 7 miles
1 verst \u003d 1,06679 kilometers

n. Volume and Square Measures

1 chimeter \u003d 26,2384491 liters
1 quarter \u003d 209,90759 liters
1 bucket \u003d 12,299273 liters
1 tenth \u003d 1, hectare

1 liter \u003d 0, four
1 liter \u003d 0, quarter
1 liter \u003d 0, buckets
1 hectare \u003d 0, tithing

n 1 barrel \u003d 40 buckets
1 barrel \u003d 400 ton
1 barrel \u003d 4000 chapters

1 quarter \u003d 8 chops
1 quarter \u003d 64 Garnitsa

n. Measures Weight

1 PUD \u003d 16,3811229 kilogram

1 pound \u003d 0.409528 kilogram
1 spool \u003d 4,2659174 grams
1 share \u003d 44,436640 milligram

n 1 kilogram \u003d 0,9373912 versts
1 kilogram \u003d 2, pound
1 gram \u003d 0, spool
1 milligram \u003d 0, shares

n 1 PUD \u003d 40 pounds
1 PUD \u003d 1280 lots
1 Berekov \u003d 10 pounds
1 last \u003d 2025 and 4/9 kilogram

n. Monetary measures

n ruble \u003d 2 half m
Poltina \u003d 50 kopecks
five-tag \u003d 15 kopecks
altyn \u003d 3 kopecks
GRerannik \u003d 10 kopecks

n 2 Money \u003d 1Qooker
penny \u003d 0.5 kopeck
Rush \u003d 0.25 kopeck