"The woman is created for a man, not a man for a woman" - such a postulate ...
The general theory of relativity created by Einstein gives a generally accepted explanation of gravity. However, from all the problems that make the alternative gravity theories. In fact, the situation was that in the field of gravity theory, science was divided into two clans, which practically do not interact with each other. The relativistic theory of gravity, modulating laws of the general theory of relativity, is structles the world of the general theory of relativity, - Academician of Ran Anatoly Logunov. 01/21/2003 (XP.00: 46: 00)
Working materials
Topic Review:
Alternative gravity theories. The classical theory of gravity, expressed by the law of Newton, was not completely accurate in the case of severe gravitational fields. This, however, does not interfere with it in cases where its accuracy is enough.
Established in 1915 by Albert Einstein, the general theory of relativity (from) is today a generally accepted theory of agony. However, she has a number of problems that cause to look for alternative gravity theories.
One of the main problems is that in the classic form of the OTO incompatible with the quantum field theories, which describe the other three fundamental physical interactions. (True, recently began to receive reports that certain successes were achieved in this direction.)
Another problem is that, describing gravity as curvature of space-time, separated by the properties of the space-time uniformity, and it is precisely on this property that the laws of conservation of energy and pulse are based.
The third problem is OTO, also associated with energy, this time with the energy of the gravitational field itself. To deal, what's the matter, consider first the electromagnetic field. Being a physical field, it in itself carries energy and impulse. Moreover, the energy of the field, stored in each elementary volume of space, is proportional to the square of the field strength. The selection of the reference system, you can change the values \u200b\u200bof the electrical and magnetic fields in the selected point of space. For example, choosing a reference system moving along with the charge, it is possible to zero its magnetic field. However, no choice of a reference system cannot be completely destroyed by an electromagnetic field at a point, where it is not zero from the point of view of another reference system. Let's return to the gravitational field. At the bases, the opposing experiment with an elevator falling in the gravitational field. It is argued that the observer located in the elevator will not be able to distinguish the fall in the gravitational field from staying outside of any fields. That is, in the reference system, a freely incident observer, the gravitational field is completely canceled. It follows that the gravitational field of OTO is not an ordinary physical field having a certain energy density in space. The selection of the reference system can change the spatial distribution of its energy. In this sense, they are talking about the nonlocality of the energy of the gravitational field in OTO. Many specialists in the field of astrophysics consider it a significant disadvantage of OTO. At the same time, many specialists in OTO generally reject this complaint.
Finally, it may be, the biggest complaints to what it admits the appearance of black holes, in the center of which is physical singularity. Most physicists are convinced that the appearance of infinities in physical theory means going beyond the boundaries of its applicability.
The fact that listed problems requires a solution obviously to everyone. Different groups of specialists are trying to go in this matter in various ways. However, all of them can be divided into two groups - those who continue to search for the geometric approach, which is based on, and those who refuse to linet the gravitational field with space-time geometry.
Since the first direction is more widely represented in the modern scientific community, the theories created on the second path are collectively referred to as alternative theories of gravity. The most famous alternative theories of gravity include relativistic theory of gravity (RTG) A. A. Logunova. In St. Petersburg University, Yu. V. Baryshev is developing a field theory of gravity (PTH).
Unfortunately, in the sphere of the theory of gravity in recent years there is a rather unhealthy situation. Researchers who continue to work in line with OTO practically ignore work in the field of alternative theories of gravity, motivating this by the fact that while all observed facts can be explained on the basis of the OTO. In the meantime, their work is increasingly leaving the scope of clean mathematics and are becoming less and less available for experimental verification.
It is probably due to the fact that until the very recent observation time did not allow the choice between various versions of the theories of gravity. Classic relativistic effects, such as curvature of light rays in the field of sun, or displacement of Mercury's perihelium all these theories are described in the same way and in the first approximation as well as from. Differences occur in stronger fields. And the observation of their manifestations becomes possible only in our day.
One of the most promising objects for checking a new generation of gravity theories is the famous PSR1913 + 30 pulsar. In this close pair consisting of two neutron stars, there must be very significant energy losses on the radiation of gravitational waves. Moreover, different theories of gravity predict a different pace of energy loss. Over the next few years, some theories will have to get away from the test results on this object.
Gradually, all the problems and the cosmological front appear. Data on the age of ball star clusters with difficulty fit into the framework of the deadlines allocated to the theory of a large explosion based on from. The theory of a large explosion predicts that the large-scale distribution of the substance in the universe must be uniform. Recent years, the scale, starting from which uniformity should be observed, continuously increased under pressure from observational data.
Alternatives also not everything goes smoothly. But their problems lie in a slightly different plane. The fact is that in addition to quite serious researchers developing alternative theories of gravity, in the world there is a much larger number of amateurs, which, unable to deal with the very nontrivial mathematical apparatus, begins to create their own theories, calling them alternative. Often, these figures have scientific degrees (obtained mainly in areas of distant from the theory of gravity) and thanks to this, in the scientific circles. They send articles into scientific journals, perform at conferences, publish books about their home-grown theories, whose shortcomings (if there can be no deficiencies in general) are incommensurable with the above complaints to ATO.
Unfortunately, for many supporters, these theories look at one person with quite serious studies in the field of alternative gravity theories. In fact, the situation in which the dogma of infallibility is valid (at least put in its framework of a geometric approach). It turns out that in the sphere of the theory of gravity, science is divided into two clans, which practically do not interact with each other. This situation, of course, looks sad. It remains only to hope that the explosive accumulation of new astronomical data in the most discovered future will make these two clan in contact.
Materials for the program:
From Articles A. A. Logunova on the relativistic theory of gravity.
The relativistic theory of gravity makes it possible to overcome the difficulties faced with the general theory of relativity. The new theory is based on the fundamental laws of conservation of matter and the concept of gravitational field as a physical field of the type of Faraday-Maxwell. She explains all the well-known observational and experimental data on gravity and gives new ideas about the development of the universe, gravitational collapse, space and time.
Everyone is well known that the geometry of the Euclidean environment around us. It was opened by observing, and then over 2 thousand years ago, it was formulated by Euclide in the form of postulates and axioms. Postulates and axioms underlying Euclidean geometry are obvious statements taken without proof. They are so natural that almost absolute belief in the uniqueness of this geometry was created. The geometers were spent a lot of strength to reduce the number of postulates and axioms, to minimize them. It was possible when some of them were outlined from the rest. Mathematics spent a lot of forces in order to free themselves from the fifth postulate (through the point outside this line you can spend only one straight, it is parallel), but it was not possible to do this, although the geometers were engaged in this problem for more than 2 thousand years.
The beginning of the rapid development of mechanics as the science of the movement of bodies belongs to the middle of the XVII century. Mechanics of that period was an experienced science. As a result of the generalization of the most experienced data by I. Newton, three of its famous laws of dynamics and the law of gravity were formulated. This made it possible to solve the extensive range of tasks about the movement of tel. Geometry Euclida found an embodiment in Newton's laws. Essentially, from this point on, the study of mechanical phenomena has become not only the verification of Newton's laws, but also the Euclidean geometry. However, at that time, this was not yet realized, because in the geometry of Euclid, in its uniqueness as a logical scheme, there was no doubt. And only in the XIX century. N. I. Lobachevsky, studying the problem of the fifth postulate in the geometry of Euclidea, came to the conclusion about the need for its replacement by the new postulate: after a point outside the direct plane take place at least two straight, non-crossing this.
Its purpose was to build a geometry based on a new postulate system and axioms. The implementation of this program led Lobachevsky to the opening of non-child geometry. Lobachevsky made the greatest discovery, but contemporaries, even major scientists, not only did not understand, but took a hostile position. Later, the study of Lobachevsky was the impetus to the construction of other geometries. It became clear that the geometry as logical systems can be built an infinite set, and only experience is able to decide which one is being implemented in the world around us. On a modern mathematical language, the geometry structure is fully defined by the expression of the square of the distance between the adjacent infinitely close points. In the Cartesian coordinates of the Euclidean space, the square of such distance is: dll \u003d DXX + DYY + DZZ.
Here dx, dy, dz - coordinate differentials. In fact, it is nothing more than the Pythagora theorem for the case of three-dimensional space if we proceeded from the postulates and Axiom Euclid. This equality can be based on the definition of Euclidean geometry. If we were used in it are not the Cartesian coordinates, but any other - curvilinear (for example, spherical, cylindrical, etc.), then the square of the distance between adjacent points in these coordinates (we would make the view: DLL \u003d ? Ik (x) dxidxi. This form of recording on the mathematical language means summation by the same indexes I and K (I, K \u003d 1, 2. 3). The magnitude? IK determines the structure of the geometry and is called the metric tensor of the Euclidean space. Euclidean geometry has the most important property: it can always be introduced in the entire space global decartal coordinates in the entire space, in which only the diagonal components of a metric tensor are different from zero equal to a single unit. This means that the Euclidean space is "flat", or, in other words, the curvature at each of its point is zero.
B. Riman, developing the idea of \u200b\u200bN. I. Lobachevsky and K. F. Gauss, introduced a special geometric class, called the name of Riemannians, which only in an infinitely small area coincide with Euclidean. He also summarized the fundamental concept of curvature of space. In Riemannian geometry, the square of the distance between two adjacent points is also written in the form of DLL \u003d? IK (X) DXIDXK, with the only principal difference that it does not exist in the entire space of uniform Cartesian coordinates in which the metric tensor would be constant and had would be a diagonal form. This means that the curvature in the Riemannian space is always different from zero, and its value depends on the point of space.
What geometry takes place in nature? The answer to this question can be obtained only on the basis of experience, i.e. by studying nature phenomena. So far, in physics we dealt with relatively low speeds, the experience confirmed that the geometry of our Euclidean space, and such concepts as "length" and "time", absolutely and independent of the reference system. The study of electromagnetic phenomena, as well as the movements of particles with speeds close to the speed of light, led to an amazing discovery: space and time form a single continuum; The role of the distance between two close points (events) plays the value called interval. The square of the interval in the Cartesian coordinates is determined by the equality: DSS \u003d CCDTT - DXX - DYY - DZZ. Here C is the speed of light; T - Time. The geometry, determined by this interval, is called pseudo-chilide, and four-dimensional space with such geometry - Minkovsky space (Minkowski). The square of the DSS interval may be positive, negative or equal to zero. This separation is absolute. Time and coordinates come to the interval almost equally (in a square) with the only principal difference that they have different signs. This results in a reflection of the deep difference in such physical concepts as "Length" and "Time". The magnitude of the interval does not depend on the reference system, whereas the time and length are no longer absolute concepts, they relatively and depend on the selection of the reference system.
The DSS interval has the same species in an infinite class of reference systems moving one relative to the other with a constant speed, lower speed. Such reference systems are inertial, for they are performed in the law of inertia. Transformations from one inertial system to another, preserving the view of the interval, are called Lorentz transformations. The theory formulated in the class of inertial reference systems based on the DSS interval, A. Einstein called the special theory of relativity. Such a limited understanding of the special theory of relativity was widely spread and penetrated almost into all textbooks. However, the representations underlying the special theory of relativity are accurately valid for accelerated reference systems.
Since the space of Minkowski is uniformly and isotropically, in the language of mathematics, it has a maximum decademetric group of movement (a four-parameter group of broadcasts and a six-parameter group of rotations), and therefore, there are respectively the laws of conservation of energy - pulse and the moment of movement. This means that you can always find new variables X *, which are such functions of old variables X, which when switching to them the interval completely saves its kind: DSS \u003d? IK (X *) DX * IDX * K. Here in new variables x * all components of the metric tensor? Ik (x *) are the same as before. Thus, the invariance of the form of the interval in the Minkowski space occurs not only for the class of inertial reference systems, but also for an arbitrarily selected class of accelerated reference systems. This property of the Minkowski space is formulated as a generalized principle of relativity: "Whatever physical reference system, we can always indicate an infinite set of other systems - such in which all physical phenomena (including gravitational) flow equally The source reference system, so that we do not have and cannot have any experimental features to distinguish with which exactly the reference system from this endless totality we are "means that, dealing with accelerated reference systems, we do not go beyond the special theory of relativity . This principle will continually be the basis of the relativistic theory of gravity, which will be discussed later. In the meantime, we turn to the theory of gravity created by Einstein. Let us discuss its basic principles and difficulties.
Acceleration that is experiencing a free material point in the non-inertial reference system is expressed through the first derivatives of the metric tensor? IK coordinates and time. This results in a reflection of the universality of inertia forces, which cause acceleration, independent of body weight. In accuracy, gravity forces also possess the same property, since, as experience shows, the gravitational mass of the body is equal to its inert mass. Considering the equality of the inert and gravitational masses as a fundamental fact, Einstein came to the conclusion that the gravitational field, like the inertia forces, should be described by the metric tensor. This means that the gravitational field is characterized by a non-one scalar potential, and ten functions that are components of the metric tensor. It was the most important step in the understanding of the gravity forces, which allowed Einstein after many years of attempts to build the theory of gravity, put forward the idea that the space-time is not pseudoevklidovo, and Pseudorimanovo (in the future we will say just Rimanovo).
Einstein's gravitational field has identified with a metric tensor of Riemannian space. This idea allowed D. Hilbert and A. Einstein to obtain equations for the gravitational field, i.e. for the metric tensor of Riemannian space. In this way, the general theory of relativity (OTO) was built.
Einstein's prediction about the deviation of the beam of light in the sun field, and then experimental confirmation of this effect, as well as the explanation of the displacement of the perieghia of Mercury became a genuine triumph of the general theory of Einstein's relativity. However, despite the progress, from almost his birth with difficulties.
E. Schrödinger in 1918 showed that the corresponding selection of the coordinate system all components characterizing the energy-pulse of the gravitational field, outside the spherically symmetric body, you can turn to zero at first it seemed to Einstein amazing, but then after the analysis he answered as follows: "What It concerns the considerations of Schrödinger, their persuasiveness is analogy with electrodynamics, in which the voltages and the energy density of any field are different from zero. However, I can not find the reason why it should also be the case for gravitational fields. Gravitational fields can be set, not introducing stresses and energy density. " Or more: "... For an infinitely small area, the coordinates can always be chosen in such a way that the gravitational field will be absent in it."
We see that Einstein deliberately moved away from the classic concept of the field as a material substance, which even locally can never be destroyed by the choice of the reference system, and he did it in the name of the local equivalence of the equivalence of the forces of inertia and gravity, which was erected by the rank of fundamental principle, although physical There were no reason for this. All this led to the idea of \u200b\u200bthe impossibility of localizing gravitational energy in space.
Another difficulty associated with the previous one belonged to the wording of the laws of conservation of energy and impulse. For the first time, D. Hilbert. In 1917, he wrote: "I argue ... that for the general theory of relativity, i.e., in the case of the general invariance of the Hamiltonian function, the energy equations that ... correspond to the energy equations in orthogonal-invariant theories (meaning the field theory in the Minkowski space ), does not exist at all. I could even celebrate this circumstance as a characteristic feature of the general theory of relativity. " Unfortunately, this statement of Hilbert was not understood by contemporaries, because neither Einstein himself nor other physicists realized that in principle the laws of conservation of energy-impulse and the moment of the amount of movement were impossible.
But Einstein clearly understood the fundamental importance of the laws of conservation of energy-pulse of the substance and the gravitational field, combined, and therefore was not going to refuse from them. In 1918, he conducted within the framework of his study, in which, as he wrote, "the concepts of energy and impulses are established as clear as in classical mechanics." In the same year, F. Klein confirmed the results of Einstein. Since then, when presenting this issue, Einstein is literally followed. It would seem that the problem was completely solved, and Einstein was no longer returned to her. However, attentive analysis shows that Einstein and Klein's arguments are simple, but its essence is that the magnitude of J, which was operated on Einstein in his arguments, identifying its components with energy and pulse, simply equal to zero. Einstein was not destined to see that the adoption of from the need to refuse the fundamental conservation laws, and the latter, as shown by us, directly leads to the conclusion that the inert body weight (as defined in OTO) is not equal to its active gravitational mass. But this means that OTO cannot explain the experimental fact of the equality of these masses, and Einstein considered it that he was the result of his theory. However, it turned out that it was not. The main reason for the lack of conservation laws lies in the fact that in Riemannian geometry in the general case there is no group of movement of space, and consequently, the symmetry of space-time leading to the laws of preservation. And although the last mathematicians were extremely obvious, and physicists, apparently, knew about it, nevertheless, the absence of a deep understanding of the mathematical sources of conservation laws did not allow to make the only correct conclusion that the conservation laws could not be. The work of Einstein and Klein, about which we wrote above created the illusory confidence in the preservation laws in OTO. This confidence is also today. The apparatus of Riemannian geometry due to its grace and beauty to such a degree of physicists engaged in gravity, which almost completely broke them away from physical reality.
Pressing the physical meaning of mathematical buildings without physical ideas - the occupation is very dubious, but widespread and in our time. Thus, the adoption of the concept of OTO leads to a rejection of a number of fundamental principles underlying physics. Firstly, this is a refusal of the laws of conservation of energy-pulse and the moment of the amount of motion of the substance and the gravitational field combined. Secondly, the refusal to represent the gravitational field as a classic Faraday-Maxwell type field, which has a pulse energy density. For many physicists dealing with from, it is unclear still, others are inclined to consider the refusal of the laws of preservation as the greatest achievement of the theory, which launched such a thing as "energy". However, neither in the macro, nor in the micromera there is not a single experimental fact, directly or indirectly questioned the justice of the laws of conservation of matter. Therefore, we would be too frivolous if we deliberately refused these laws without proper experimental foundations. Without conservation laws, the theory cannot be satisfactory. Refusal from OTO is dictated by both the logic of physical representations and experimental facts.
By paying tribute to a certain important stage in the study of gravity, it is possible to state the essence of the principles of the relativistic theory of gravity, built on the basis of fundamental conservation laws.
The basis of the relativistic theory of gravity (RTG) the following physical requirements are laid. In theory, the laws of preservation of energy-pulse and the moment of the amount of movement for the substance and the gravitational field, combined, should be strictly implemented. Substity is understood by all forms of matter (including the electromagnetic field) with the exception of gravitational. Conservation laws reflect the general dynamic properties of matter and allow you to introduce uniform characteristics for the various shapes. The general dynamic properties of matter are embodied in the structure of space-time geometry. It is necessary with the need for pseudo-chilide (in other words, the theory is built in the space of Minkowski). Thus, the geometry is defined by an agreement, as Poincare considered, but is uniquely determined by the laws of preservation. The Minkowski space, as already mentioned, has a four-parameter broadcast group and a six-parameter group of rotations. This position is radically distinguished by RTH from the general theory of relativity and completely derives us from Riemannian geometry. The gravitational field is described by a symmetric tensor and is a real physical field with a density of energy and momentum. If this field compare particles (field quanta), then they must have a zero mass of rest, since gravitational interaction is long-range. In this case, in real and virtual quanta, the gravitational field may be the states with spins 2 and 0.
Such a definition of the gravitational field returns to it physical reality, since it is already even locally to destroy the selection of the reference system, and therefore there is no (even local) equivalence between the gravitational field and inertia forces. This physical requirement is radically distinguished by RTG from from from. Einstein in OTO identified gravity with the metric tensor of Riemannian space, but this path led to the loss of the concept of a gravitational field as a physical field, as well as to the loss of conservation laws. The refusal of this provision is dictated primarily to the desire to preserve these fundamental physical concepts in the theory of gravity.
The system of Maxwell equations for the electromagnetic field and the RTG equations. Their similarity is a reflection of one of the main regulations of the RTH, according to which the gravitational field is considered as a physical field with the density of energy and impulse instead of it in the theory introduced the principle of geometry, the essence of which is as follows: the interaction of the gravitational field with a substance by virtue of its universality is described by connecting the tensor. Fik gravitational field for metric tensor? IK Minkowski space. This can always be carried out, because whatever the form of matter is chosen, the metric tensor of the Minkowski space will enter its initial physical equations. Otherwise, it can not be, since physical processes proceed over time and space.
According to Einstein, the movement of the substance occurs in the Riemannian space-time, and the spaces of Minkowski in OTO. According to the principle of geometry, the substance moves in the space of Minkowski under the action of the gravitational field. Such a movement is indeed equivalent to the movement in some "efficient" Riemannian space. The gravitational field seems to change the geometry of the rest of the fields. The presence of the Minkowski space in the RTG allows us to consider the gravitational field as a common physical field in the spirit of Faraday-Maxwell with its usual properties of the pulse energy carrier.
So, not private physical manifestations of motion of matter, and its most common dynamic properties determine the structure of the geometry, which should undermine the physical theory. In the relativistic theory of gravity (RTG), the geometry is determined not on the basis of the study of the movement of light and test bodies, and on the basis of the general dynamic properties of matter - its conservation laws that are not only fundamental value, but also experimentally checked. In this case, the movement of light and test bodies is due to the simple effect of the gravitational field on the substance in the Minkowski space. Thus, the Minkowski's space and the gravitational field are the initial, primary concepts, and the "effective" Riemannovo space is the concept of secondary, obligated by its origin, the gravitational field and its universal action on the substance. In the very essence of the principle of geometry, the separation of the forces of inertia and the gravitational field is laid. But this separation only can be physically implemented when the metric tensor of the Minkowski space will be included in the equation for the gravitational field. In one, how to easily be convinced directly from the Hilbert - Einstein equations, such a separation is impossible, since in the Riemannian geometry on which he was founded, there is no concept of the Minkowski space. Therefore, it is erroneous, for example, allegations that can be obtained based on the concepts of the Minkowski space. In principle, the idea of \u200b\u200bEinstein on identifying gravity with the metric tensor of Riemannian space is completely excluded, and on the other, the idea of \u200b\u200bEinstein on Riemannian geometry is developed. If the space-time is fully determined by the metric tensor, then the matter is characterized by its pulse energy tensor. For each form of matter, it has its own species. The total tensor of the energy-pulse of the substance and the gravitational field in the Minkowski space is the continuing tensor. In view of the universal character of gravity, it should serve in the RTG equations by the source of the gravitational field. The total system of equations of relativistic theory of gravity can be formally obtained from the Maxwell equations for electrodynamics, if instead of a vector electromagnetic field in the left part of the equations we put the tensor gravitational field, and the saving electromagnetic current by replacing the energy-pulse energy tensor.
Of course, such a conclusion is simply a heuristic reception, and he cannot qualify for a rigor. But the exact consideration on the basis of the previously stated RTG principles in a compound with local calibration invariance unambiguously lead to such a system of 14 gravitational equations. Four additional field equations of the RTG determine the physical structure of the gravitational field and fundamentally separate everything that relates to inertia forces from everything that is related to the gravitational field.
The remaining ten equations coincide with the Hilbert Einstein equations with the only principal difference that the field variables in them are the functions of the Minkovsky coordinate. This completely changes their physical content and distinguishes from the equations from OTO. All equations are generalized, i.e. they have the same view in all system of reference of the Minkowski space, and they clearly include a metric tensor of this space. This means that the Minkowski space is reflected not only in the laws of conservation, but also in the description of physical phenomena. All components of the field (electromagnetic, gravitational, etc.) in our theory are the functions of the coordinates of the Minkowski space. This is of fundamental importance. Solving a system of field equations, we establish the dependence of the metric tensor of the "effective" Riemannian space both from the coordinates of the space of Minkowski and from the gravitational constant G. Own time (measured by hours moving together with the substance) turns out to be dependent on the coordinates of the Minkowski and gravitational space coordinates. Thus, the course of own time is due to the nature of the gravitational field.
The presence of a metric tensor of the Minkowski space in the field equations allows to separate the inertia forces from gravitational and in all cases to find their influence on certain physical processes. Therefore, the space of Minkovsky is physical, and therefore observed.
Its characteristics, if necessary, can always be checked by appropriate processing of experimental data on the movement of light signals and test bodies in the "efficient" rimean space. "With regard to the considerations, which is direct, as a ray of light, more directly observed, wrote in his time V. A. Fock, then it does not matter: in definitions, it is not direct observation, but in nature, at least this Compliance and installed by indirect conclusions ".. Thus, the observability should not be understood in a primitive, but in a more general and deep sense as an adequacy of nature.
Of course, RTG in no case excludes the possibility of describing the matter in the "effective" Riemannian space. The RTH equations contain a metric tensor of the Minkowski space, and therefore all functions describing physical fields are expressed in unified coordinates for the entire space-time of Minkowski, for example in Galilean (decartular) coordinates. The Hilbert Einstein equations in the compound with the equations that determine the structure of the gravitational field, acquire a new physical meaning, while they change and are significantly simplified. The laws of conservation of the energy-pulse and gravitational field, combined, are the consequences of the RTG equations and reflect the pseudo-child structure of the space-time. In principle, the list of Minkowski's space does not exist in Riemannian geometry.
Now - about some physical consequences of RTG. At the beginning of the 20s, A. A. Fridman, solving the Hilbert - Einstein equations under the assumption that the density of the substance at each point of space is the same and depends only on time (Friedmann homogeneous and isotropic universe), found that three models of the nonstationary universe are possible ( Friedman universe models). Each type of the universe is determined by the relationship between the density of the substance at the moment and the so-called critical density determined on the basis of the measurement of the Hubble constant. If the density of the substance is more critical, the universe is closed and has a finite volume, but does not have borders. If the density of the substance is less than or equal to the critical, then the universe is infinite.
On the question of which of these models is implemented in nature, in principle can not give a certain answer. According to RTH, Friedmannian homogeneous and isotropic universe is infinite, and it can only be flat - its three-dimensional Euclidean geometry. In this case, the density of the substance in the universe is exactly equal to the critical density. Thus, RTH predicts that the "hidden mass" must exist in the universe, the density of which almost 40 times the density of the substance observed today is.
Another important consequence of the RTH is the assertion that the total energy density of the substance and the gravitational field in the universe should be zero.
The prediction of the RTG for the development of the Friedmann homogeneous and isotropic universe is significantly different from the conclusions from OTO. Further, it follows that objects with a mass exceeding three masses of the Sun, due to the final gap of their own time should be unlimitedly compressed by gravitational forces (collapsy), achieving infinite density. Objects of this type were named black holes. They do not have a material surface, and therefore the body falling into a black hole, when crossing its border will not meet anything except empty space. From the inner region of the black hole through its border can not break out even light. In other words, everything that happens inside the black hole is in principle not known for the external observer.
J. Wheeler considered the gravitational collapse and the singularity arising (endless density) as one of the greatest crises of all times for fundamental physics. The relativistic theory of gravity in the root changes the ideas about the nature of the gravitational collapse. It leads to the phenomenon of gravitational slowdown in time, due to which the compression of a massive body in the associated reference system occurs for the final one. At the same time, most importantly, the density of the substance remains the final and does not exceed 1016 g / cm in Cuba, the brightness of the body exponentially decreases, the object "black", but in contrast to the black holes always has a material surface. Such objects, if they occur, have a complex structure, with no gravitational "self-simulting", and therefore the substance does not disappear from our space. In the RTH, one's own time for the falling test body depends on both the coordinates of the Minkowski's space and from the gravitational constant G, and therefore, the course of its own time is determined by the nature of the gravitational field. It is this circumstance that leads to the fact that his own time for the falling test body is unlimited slowly slows down as the so-called Schwarzschild radius approached.
Thus, according to RTG, there are no black holes - objects in which a catastrophically strong compression of the substance is occurring to infinite density and which do not have a material surface - in principle there can be no nature. All this fundamentally distinguishes the prediction of the RTG from the predictions from OTO. Compression of massive objects, when the pressure is not zero, will, of course, weaker, since the internal pressure prevents gravitational attraction. The evolution of real objects requires a more detailed study using the equation of the state of the substance and is a very interesting problem.
RTH explains the entire existing combination of observational and experimental data for gravitational effects in the solar system. The detailed analysis shows that the predictions of from the gravitational effects in the solar system are ambiguous, and for some effects, the arbitrariness occurs in the first-order members according to the gravitational constant G, and for others - in second-order members. What is the reason for such ambiguity? In order to determine the component of the metric tensor, the Riemannian space in any coordinates it is necessary to set the so-called coordinate conditions, which are very arbitrary and always non-participating (refer to only a certain selected coordinate system). Depending on the type of these conditions, we in the same coordinates in the general case we will definitely obtain different metric tensors. But different metric tensors in the same coordinates will also give different geodesic, it means that there will be different and predictions from the movement of light and test bodies.
So, the relativistic theory of gravity, built on the basis of the laws of conservation and ideas about the gravitational field as a physical field, which has an energy-pulse density, in connection with the principles of geometry and local calibration invariance explains all known observational and experimental data on gravity and gives new development predictions. Friedman Universe and Gravitational Collapse.
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Topic number 201.
Ether 21.01.03
Timber 46:00.
As quantum physics develops, scientists will learn more about black holes, dark matter, dark energy and other space phenomena. New discoveries are increasingly fit into the concept of gravity.
Below are alternative views on the gravity of nine scientists.
1. Thomas Townsend Brown and a challenge of gravity
Physicist Thomas Townsend Brown (1905-1985) conducted studies for the US Navy and the Ministry of Defense. Later he worked as a consultant in the aviation industry.
He created a device that was patented under the name "Gravitator". According to him, his invention has refuted gravity, and some scientists agree with this statement. Under the influence of high-voltage charge, it moved in such a way that it is impossible to explain, based on the modern understanding of gravity.
In a patent application, Brown wrote that the gravel acts at rest in relation to the universe. This is contrary to the special theory of the relativity of Albert Einstein, according to which the force should act equally towards any reporting system. The gravitator also refuted the third law of Newton, which stacches that any action is equal and the opposite opposition.
In 1930, Colonel Edward Dids wrote: "Part of the scientists saw the gravitator, and they were amazed by his action, honestly saying that the movement of the gravitator is absolutely impossible to explain to the well-known laws of physics."
Some said that the movements of the gravitator are controlled by ion wind, that is, ionized particles create force. Paul A. Laviolet was among those who did not agree with such an explanation.
"The measurements of the force of thrust showed that the force raising an electrified brown disk, almost 100 million times more than the ion wind could create," the lavaist wrote in his book "The Secrets of the Antigravitational Movement".
2. Paul A. Laviolet: Government secretly builds an anti-gravity ship?
Lavoliolet received a doctoral degree at the University of Portland, he is currently President Starburst Foundation, Research Institute in interdisciplinary areas. He writes in his book: "For several past decades, overlaunted aerospace programs in the United States and other countries, they were engaged in creating an aircraft capable of overcoming gravity. These exotic technologies relate to a relatively little well-known area of \u200b\u200bresearch called Electricvita. "
Lavololet traced the development of this industry, starting with the Tesla's era and ending with Brown in the first half of the 20th century. According to Brown's theories, the electrostatic and gravitational fields are combined, explains the lava.
The electronvitational effect is ignored, because "such a phenomenon is not assumed to be a classic electrostatics or a common theory of relativity, lavairet writes.
3. NASA about Dark Matter
In this image, the distribution of dark matter, galaxies and hot gas in the center of the accumulation of ABELL 520 galaxies, formed as a result of a massive collision of galaxies. Photo: NASA, ESA, CFHT, CXO, M.J. Jee At The University of California, And A. Mahdavi At San Francisco State University
Scientists know that the universe is expanding with increasing speed. They believe that the cause of this expansion is the dark matter, but do not know exactly what it is. It is assumed that it may refute the theory of Einstein's gravity.
The NASA report about the dark matter states that there is a chance that "Einstein's theory about gravity is incorrect."
"It not only affects the expansion of the universe, but also determines the behavior of ordinary matter in galaxies and galaxies, - the report says. - Perhaps a new theory of gravity could be a solution to the problem of black matter. We can observe how the galaxies form clusters. But if it turns out that a new theory of gravity is needed, it is not known what kind of it will accept. "
4. Tom Bath Flander about the problem of gravity speed
Tom Van Flander (1940-2009) received a doctorate of astronomy in Yale University in 1969. He did not completely reject the general theory of relativity, but it believed that there were problems in it. Einstein's theory, rather, was "incomplete than erroneous," he wrote in the article "The speed of gravity. What do the experiments say? ", Published in Physics Letter A in 1998
He touched upon the issue of gravity rate. In the classic theory of Newton, the gravity rate is not defined. And in the general theory of relativity, gravity has the speed of light, explains Van Flander. He says that in academic circles, it is preferred to bypass this contradiction.
"Exactly the same dilemma arises in many matters," he writes. - Why do photons from the sun moving in the direction, which is not parallel to the direction of gravitational acceleration of the Earth relative to the sun? Why is the complete eclipse of the sun of the moon reaching the peak until the alignment of the gravitational forces of the sun and the moon? How do double pulsars predict their future position, speed and acceleration faster than the light time between them? Why do black holes possess gravity, despite the fact that nothing can overcome them, because it would take the speed above the speed of light? "
5. Wilian H. Cantrell: Einstein theory does not go beyond the logical circle
Dr.. William H. Cantrell is a member of the technical personnel in the Lincoln Labolnia Massachusetts Institute. In the past, he held the post of Adjunct Professor at the Faculty of Electronic Engineering of the University of Texas.
He outlined an unconventional look at the theory of relativity in Infinite Energy magazine, published by the non-profit organization New Energy Foundation (NEF).
Crantelle writes: "The theory of relativity has had a huge impact on the physics of the 20th century, this is an indisputable fact. Einstein's theory admire all over the world for the shiny discoveries to which it led. Nevertheless, there are groups of dissidents who openly reject it, and more large groups of researchers who are experiencing dislike, although not aware of alternative approaches. "
"The reason for this hostility is that Einstein borrowed Mathematics Lorentz and Poincaré, and this allowed him to modify the system of measuring length and time, forcing the speed of light to be constant for all observers."
"In such a situation, rational thinkers would have to rush in search of alternative ideas. But why try to disprove so successful theory? Well, first, in order to understand and describe how nature actually works. And secondly, to make a new breakthrough, after the unforeseen barrier is removed. "
Cantrell and scientists like him believe that Einstein's theory does not go beyond the logical circle. He explained this with the following example: "Someone can put forward the hypothesis that the earth has a second moon made of special green cheese, which is transparent to lighting."
"Of course, it sounds like nonsense, but this statement is impossible to refute the experienced way. With the theory of Einstein's relativity, the same problem. "
6. Rujsero Maria Santilli: Theory of relativity contradicts quantum electrodynamics
Rujsero Maria Santillili was studied at Naples and Turin universities, he worked as an invited teacher at Harvard, then founded the Institute for Theoretical Studies. Santilli leads nine inconsistencies between the overall theory of Einstein's relativity and present scientific knowledge. Some of them create problems for a classic understanding of gravity.
One of the main contradictions is that Einstein's explanation of gravity is inconsistent with quantum electrodynamics, writes Santilli in its 2006 report "Nine theorems on the inconsistency of the general theory of relativity."
"It should be remembered that quantum electrodynamics is one of the most significant and experimentally proven scientific theories in history. Obviously, the widespread point of view, considering Einstein's view for gravity as final is an unscientific approach, "he writes.
The journal publishes articles that question the overall and special theory of Einstein's relativity. The editorial policy of the journal is formulated as follows: "The journal pays attention to reports that confirm that Einstein's theories are excessively complicated, confirmed only in narrow regions of physics and lead to logical contradictions."
Tom Bathell
Tom Bathall is not a scientist, but he explored alternative theories, being a senior editor of American Spectator magazine. In the article "Refinement of relativity", he writes: "When choosing acceptable theories, often the main criterion is simplicity. Ptolemeeva The world system in the complicated version can accurately predict the position of the planets. However, the heliocentric system of the world is much easier, so we prefer it. "
He quoted Clifford M. Villa from the University of Washington, a leading supporter of relativity. "It is difficult to imagine life without a special theory of relativity ... Just imagine all the phenomena in our world in which it occupies a great place. Atomic energy, the famous equation E \u003d Mc2, showing how the mass is converted into a colossal amount of energy. "
Bathall says that the limitations "play their role". Bathal writes: "If a new theory looks like" indispensable ", it will immediately surround the erroneous."
7. Joseph Polchinsky: Doubts and Questions
Joseph Polchinsky. Photo: Lubos Motl
Joseph Polchinsky, the physicist theoretics of the Institute of Theoretical Physics of Kavli California University in Santa Barbara, discusses the idea of \u200b\u200bgravity and in connection with black holes. According to Eintein theory, black holes should have a huge force of attraction.
The famous scientist Stephen Hawking stated in the 70s that the matter may leak out of black holes, which is a paradox.
As mentioned in the first part of the article, Van Fryander asked: "How do black holes possess gravity, despite the fact that nothing can overcome them, because it would take the speed above the speed of light?".
Polchinsky said PBS after Hawking discussed some new theories about black holes: "It is possible that some of our views on quantum mechanics and gravity are erroneous, and we are trying to figure out which".
"This is a difficulty, but we hope that this difficulty will allow us to move forward," he said.
8.Arik Verbind: Theory "Day of Wrong Hair"
Professor Eric Verinde is a physicist theorist in the theory of string and professor at the Institute of Theoretical Physics at Amsterdam University.
It considers gravity as a consequence of the laws of thermodynamics and the influence of factors such as temperature, pressure and structure. The perception of gravity, for example, an apple falling from the tree is associated with the nature of nature to maximize the mess.
The article New York Times 2010 describes its idea as the theory of the Day of Wrong Hair. Hair becomes curly with heat and humidity, there are more opportunities for hair more opportunities to make her hair curly than making them straight, and nature loves variations. Similar principles operate and when distributing objects in space, considers Verbade.
"We have long we know that gravity does not exist," Verbidda said in an interview with New York Times. "It's time to declare this in all."
9. Juan Moldasna: "Einstein theory should be replaced by something quantomechanic"
Juan Maldasen. Photo: Wikimedia Commons
In 1997, the Physico theorist Juan Moldasna, who currently holds the position of professor at Princeton Institute of Advanced Research, developed the theory that considers the Universe as a set of very thin vibrating strings. It is these strings and create gravity. Strings are a kind of hologram projected from a lower-time-sized space system, which is easier, more flat and has no gravity.
In an interview posted on the Learner.org educational resource, Maldasena said: "We believe that the general theory of Einstein's relativity should be replaced by something quantomecanic, when such topics are affected as the beginning of a large explosion, or the structure of black holes, where the disintegration of matter occurs in A very small area of \u200b\u200btime-space, and things that occur there cannot be described using classical theories. In such cases, the quantum mechanics should be used. The theory of strings are in the process of development, it was created to describe the quantomomechanical time-space. "
* Photo Man Jumping Rope from Shutterstock
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→Gravity appeared as a science of attraction of tel. Until the first half of the 20th century, all the theory of gravity relied only on Newton's laws. Sometimes it is called it - Newtonian gravity. At the time of the beginning of the 20th century, not few experimental and theoretical facts have accumulated, testifying to the inaccuracy of the Gravity Newton.
Experimental Facts include a shift of the overheating of the orbit of Mercury. It is known that the Orbit of Rotation of Mercury around the Sun is an ellipse, the point of which is called the overwriter. This ellipse does not stand still, and slowly turns, thereby changing the position of overheat. As discovered at the beginning of the 20th century, experiments - overheat moves faster than Newton's laws predict.
Theoretical inaccuracies include the following fact. As you know, a good inertial reference system is a free drop-down elevator. All processes in all free falling elevators are equally. However, we will imagine two incident elevators. One, for example in Africa, p from South America. The forehead elevator will be inertial reference systems, but relative to each other they will move with acceleration. This fact contradicts Newton's first law.
In addition, the theory of Newton's gravity is based on the concept of strength, which is a long-range force: it acts instantly at any distance. This instantaneous nature of the action is incompatible with the special theory of relativity. In this theory, no information can spread faster than the speed of light in vacuum.
In the 1920s, Einstei proposed a completely new theory of gravity. As part of this theory, the gravitational effects are due to the non-power interaction of bodies and fields in space-time, but deformation of the very space-timewhich is associated, in particular, with the presence of mass-energy.
We will make a slight retreat. According to Einsna theory mass and energyrepresent the same body parameter. The relationship between mass and energy gives the simple formula E \u003d M C ^ 2. As is known from a hundred (herein here) the body weight increases if the kinetic energy is reported. The effect becomes noticeable if the body speed approaches the speed of light. A similar effect will be, for example, when heating the body. However, due to the large parameter, C \u003d 300000 km / s note this effect is quite difficult. With a further description, we will try to avoid similar mathematical formulations.
So, the description of the gravitational interaction between the bodies can be reduced to the description of the space-time in which the bodies are moving. It is natural to assume that the bodies move along inertia, that is, so that their acceleration in its own reference system is zero. Tel trajectories then there will be so-called geodesic lines. The exact definition of the geodesic line is quite complicated. Let's just say that for flat space, the geodesic line is just straight. The geodesic line, for example, for the land in the solar system is an ellipse - this is an earthly orbit.
We will try to visually describe the mechanism of interaction of two massive bodies. It is easiest to do this in a two-dimensional case (and not in 4 dimensional, as in fact). As massive bodies, we will be heavy balls, and as a space that is twisted if there are massive bodies in it, you can take a soft rubber rug. Recall that this is only a model for the visual representation of Einstein gravity. Press the ball on the rug, under the weight of this ball, the rug will break a little. The resulting fume is a model of curved space. If you're next to put the second ball, then it would begin to take effect to the first due to the fact that the first is like in the yammer. 
A similar effect can be observed directly if you run two balls parallel to each other on the rubber membrane, which is included in the center of the massive item. The balls will disperse: the one that was closer to the subject of the membrane, will strive for the center stronger than the more remote ball. This discrepancy is due to the curvature membrane.
Einstein's theory does not respond to why massive bodies twist space. And why the bodies move according to the geodesic lines. All this is only an assumption, and as they say in the theory itself all these properties of the very space in which we live. However, the Einstein gravity theory equations give, at the moment, the most accurate picture of the movement of objects in the universe.
It is useful to bring the Einstein gravity equation. 
On the right in this equation is the so-called energy-pulse tensor. It is he who describe the mass and energy of the substance at this point of space. On the left there are two terms, the first is Einstein's tensor - the value describing the curvature of space. Thus, this equation and gives a relationship between, weighing bodies in the space and curvature of this very space.
In the left part of the equation there is another member - this is the so-called Lamd member. It is this member that causes the greatest disputes of scientists. Historical facts suggest that Einstein attributed this member to the equation at the last moment - when all the calculations have already been produced, and the reasons why this member should be added to the equation are completely unknown. The fact is that this member, in meaning, is responsible for the property of the space itself. Namely, the spaces, regardless of the bodies placed in it, will accelerately expand. Acceleration with which the space expands very little, and it is extremely difficult to measure it.
The system of two neutron stars generates a medium - ripple space-time
Gravitis (World Compact) - Fundamental Interaction in Nature, which is subject to all bodies that have a lot. Mostly, gravity acts on the scale of space.
Term gravitis It is also used as a name of the section in physics that studies the gravitational field and gravitational interaction.
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Gravitational interaction
The most important property of gravity is that the acceleration of small test bodies caused by it almost does not depend on the mass of these bodies. This is due to the fact that gravity as power in nature is directly proportional to the mass of interacting bodies. In the sizes of bodies reaching the dimensions of the planets and stars, the gravitational force becomes defining and forms a spherical form of these objects. With a further increase in the size of the accumulations of galaxies and ultrasound, the effect of limited is manifested. This leads to the fact that ultrasounds have no longer rounded shape, but resemble the elongated cigar-like fibers, adjacent to nodes with the most massive accumulations of galaxies. Gravitational interaction is one of the four fundamental interactions in our world. As part of classical mechanics, gravitational interaction is described the law of global gravity Newton, according to which the force of gravitational attraction between two body bodies and, separated by the distance is
.
Here - equal 
m 3 / (kg from 2). The minus sign means that the force acting on the trial body is always directed along the radius-vector from the trial body to the source of the gravitational field, i.e. Gravitational interaction always leads to tel.
Gravity field potentially. This means that it is possible to introduce the potential energy of the gravitational attraction of a pair of bodies, and this energy will not change after moving the bodies along a closed contour. The potentiality of the gravity field will attract the law of preserving the amount of kinetic and potential energy, which, when studying the movement of bodies in the gravity field, often simplifies the solution.
As part of Newtonian mechanics, gravitational interaction is long-range. This means that, as it were, the massive body moves, at any point of space, gravitational potential and strength depend only on the position of the body at the moment. However, accounting lorenz invariance The gravitational force and the delay of the propagation of gravitational impacts by solving solutions for the potentials of flaryar and the VIKERT leads to the fact that an additional component of force occurs in a constant speed of reference speeds due to the gravitational. The situation is completely equivalent to the situation with electrical power, when when the observer moves, it detects a magnetic field and magnetic power proportional to the speed of its Movement. This makes it necessary to account for the limitations of the speed of propagation of gravity leading to the property nearby and delaying gravitational interaction. In the late 19th and early 20th century, the efforts of a number of physicists - O. Hevisayda, A. Poancare, Minkowski, A. Zommerfeld, H. Lorenz, and others - were laid bases (litg) describing gravity in inertial reference systems during relativistic speeds.
As a result, the law of universal gravity of Isaac Newton (1687) was included in the Lorenz-invariant theory of gravity, which predicted quite well to the overall behavior of gravity. In 1915, Albert Einstein was created (OTO), describing the phenomena in the gravitational field in terms of the geometry of space-time and taking into account the effect of gravity on the results of spatial-time measurements.
Heavenly mechanics and some of her tasks
The section of mechanics studying the movement of bodies in an empty space only under the action of gravity is called heavenly mechanics.
The easiest task of heavenly mechanics is the gravitational interaction of two bodies in an empty space. This task is solved analytically to the end; The result of its solutions is often formulated in the form of three laws of Kepler.
With an increase in the number of interacting bodies, the problem is sharply complicated. Thus, the famous task of three bodies (i.e., the movement of three bodies with non-zero masses) cannot be solved analytically in general. In the numerical solution, the instability of solutions regarding the initial conditions occurs quite quickly. In applied to the solar system, this instability does not allow to predict the movement of the planets on a scale exceeding a hundred million years.
In some particular cases, it is possible to find an approximate solution. The most important is the case when the mass of one body is significantly more than the mass of other bodies (examples: Solar system and dynamics of Saturn rings). In this case, in the first approximation, we can assume that light bodies do not interact with each other and move through the Kepler trajectories around the massive body. The interaction between them can be taken into account within the framework of the theory of perturbations, and averaged the time. At the same time, non-trivial phenomena may occur, such as resonances, attractors, chaoticism, etc. The visual example of such phenomena is the nontrivial structure of Saturn rings.
Despite the attempts to describe the long-term behavior of the system from a large number of attractive bodies of approximately the same mass, this is not possible due to the phenomenon of dynamic chaos.
Strong gravitational fields
In strong gravitational fields or when moving with relativistic speeds, the effects of the general theory of relativity begin to appear:
- deviation of the law from Newtonian;
- the delay of potentials associated with the final rate of propagation of gravitational perturbations; the appearance of gravitational waves;
- effects of nonlinearity: gravitational waves have the property to interact with each other, so the principle of the superposition of waves in the strengths is no longer performed;
- change of geometry of visible space-time;
- the development of singularities and occurrence is allowed. True, it is possible only in the case of a potentially infinitely high gravity force, which is not proven. In reality, only such very dense space objects are detected as neutron stars.
Gravitational radiation
One of the predictions of OTO is gravitational radiation, the presence of which has not yet been confirmed by direct observations. However, there are indirect observation certificates in favor of its existence, namely: energy loss in a double system with PSR B1913 + 16 pulsar (Khalsa-Taylor Pulsar) is well consistent with the model in which this energy is carried out by gravitational radiation.
According to OTO, gravitational radiation can generate only systems with variable quadrupole or higher multipole moments. Power gravitational i.-poly source is proportional if the multipol has an electric type, and - if the Multipol of the magnetic type, where v. - the characteristic speed of the sources in the radiating system, and c. - The speed of light. Thus, the dominant moment is obtained by a quadrupole moment of electric type, and the power of the corresponding radiation is:
where is the tensor of the quadrupole moment of the mass distribution of the emitting system. Constant
W Allows you to estimate the order of the radiation power.
Attempts to directly detect gravitational radiation are made since 1969 (Weber Experiments). In the US, Europe and Japan, there are currently several acting ground detectors (Ligo, Virgo, Tama, Geo 600), as well as the Lisa Space Gravitational Detector project (Laser Interferometer Space Antenna - Laser Interferometric Space Antenna). The ground detector in Russia is being developed at the Scientific Center for Gravitational Wave Research "Dulkyn" Republic of Tatarstan.
Thin effects of gravity
In addition to the classic effects of gravitational attraction and slowing down, the overall theory of relativity predicts the existence of other manifestations of gravity, which on earthly conditions are very weak and their detection and experimental testing is therefore very difficult. Until recently, overcoming these difficulties was presented outside the possibilities of experimenters.
Among them, in particular, you can call the passion for inertial reference systems (or the Lense-Tyrading effect) and. In 2005, the automatic apparatus of NASA GRAVITY PROBE B conducted an experiment to measure these effects near the Earth, but the results presented in 2007 were ambiguous due to large measurement errors.
Quantum theory of gravity
Despite the half-century history of attempts, gravity is the only fundamental interaction for which the consistent has not yet been built. renormalized quantum theory. At low energies, in the spirit of quantum field theory, gravitational interaction can be represented as a graviton exchange - calibration bosons CO 2 (if proceeding from the concept of OTO), or with spin 1 for the Lorentz-invariant gravity theory (LITG).
The problem here is that at high energies, the description for OTO ceases to work. Therefore, currently quantum gravity is the subject of intensive theoretical studies.
Modern gravity theories
Due to the fact that the internal structure of a single fundamental field is still not opened, the parameters of the field carriers are not measured, the possibility of descriptions Gravitational field with several competing theories. All these theories give similar results within the framework of the approach in which experimental tests are currently being carried out (see Article). The following describes several basic, most well-designed or known gravity theories.
General theory of relativity
In the international system of units of the Equation of the gravitational field, Lortg have the form:
,
The twist field is an analogue of the magnetic component of the field in electromagnetism. The expression for gravitational force has the following form:
- m. - the mass of the particles to which the power is acting
- v. M. - particle speed.
For twisting outside the rotating body, from the above field equations, the formula can be output:
,
where L.there is a moment of body rotation impulse.
As a consequence of a field of twisting in gravitational phenomena, an effect is possible.
For energy density and vector density vector of the energy of the gravitational field () it turns out:
Since the gravitational field is a vector having two components (gravitational acceleration and tapping), then becomes permissible dipole gravitational radiation from accelerated massive tel. Such radiation may appear, for example, with accelerated body movement under the action of the robe. However, in bodies, the total dipole gravitational radiation tends to zero due to the mutual compensation of the radiation of individual bodies, and quadrupole radiation becomes dominant, as in from from.
In weak fields, space-time is described by a single metric tensor of the Minkowski space, and the field equation lorenz-invariant. At high speeds of particle movement or in sufficiently strong fields, it is necessary to take into account the influence of the gravitational field on the results of spatial-time measurements. For example, gravity is able to deflect the rays of light from the initial direction and change their speed. For accounting of such phenomena, the transition from Litg to the CTG, by replacing in the formulas of the Minkowski's metric tensor on the metric tensor of the spontaneous pseudorimanova space. This allows you to present the KTG equations in covariant tensor and taking into account the modified metric tensor. The tensor equations of the gravitational field in the arbitrary reference system through covariant derivatives are:
,
where there is a 4-vector pulse density (mass density), generating gravitational field, is an antisymmetric consisting of component.
Using the tensor is built:
Thanks to this tensor in Litg and in the CTG, the problem of the Energy-pulse tensor of the gravitational field is automatically solved. This tensor is involved in solving all tasks while finding a metric. Together with boundary conditions (for example, on the surface of massive bodies), this sets the conditions necessary to correctly identify the reference systems, allowing you to avoid the corresponding problem from OTO.
CTG differs from from its own movement equations. If the same movement equation and for particles and the field of field quanta (as a result of the equivalence principle) are applied in OTO (as a result of the equivalence principle), then in KTG, the equation of motion for particles and quanta differ and are expanded by the application of the energy-pulse energy conservation law in the tensor form.
When solving problems in the CTG, it is necessary to solve the system of differential equations of three types - equations for the component of the gravitational field, equations for the metric, and the equation of motion. In this case, the movement of masses as sources of the field changes the pattern of the field, and the metric is changing not only due to changes in the configuration of the masses, but also due to changes in the tension of gravitational fields. The equation of motion of the substance in the CTG, in contrast to OTO, allows you to describe the reactive movement, turning into a weak field into the relativistic Meshchers' equation.
2. http://dulkyn.org.ru/ru/about.html.
3. Fedosin S.g. Mass, Momentum and Energy of Gravitational Field .journal of Vectorial Relativity, Vol. 3, No. 3, September 2008, P.30-35);article School language :.
4. Logunov A.A., Messyerishvili M.A. Basics of relativistic gravity theory. - Publishing House of Moscow State University, 1986, p. 308.
What we call progress -
It is a substitute for one trouble to another.
Henry Heyvlock Ellis
Theories of gravity alternative from
Nothing makes our life so
pleasant as her inevitable
alternative.
Folk wisdom
All flows, everything changes. It was time, it seemed that the best gravity theory than Newtonian, there was no need to desire. Throughout the book, we told how step by step the general theory of relativity "occupied his place under the sun." It remained only a few years before her 100-year anniversary. What is the status now? Without a doubt, OTO is the most sought-after theory of gravity, first of all, in astrophysics and cosmology, and we tried to show it. Theory of the structure and evolution of stars, especially at the final stages; effects on the surface of compact and superlit objects; Cosmological models in different epochs of evolution and the dedicious cannot be satisfactorily calculated without using. Based on the effects predicted by OTO, whole areas of research are created - the search for gravitational waves, the study of gravitational lenses, etc. As part of theoretical physics, is also used in many fundamental studies.
In fact, immediately after confirming the classic tests, unprecedented popularity has won. But, of course, the measurements of the rejection of the beam of the distant star in the gravitational field of the Sun, the transition of periheliev planets in the solar system, as well as the red gravitational displacement in the Earth's field, the case did not end and could not end. For the entire time after its completion in 1915, both the basic principles and equations are continuously checked and rechecked with ever-increasing accuracy. However, the results that would be contrary to from and was not received. Moreover, it has long been used for practical purposes, such as the calculation of satellite orbits, planets and trajectories of interplanetary devices.
It can be said that the effects of OTO are already used in everyday life: to improve the accuracy of GPS navigation and tracking systems. Constantly in orbits at an altitude of 20,000 km are from 24 to 27 satellites. To enhance accuracy, signals from several satellites are used, signal exchange with devices on Earth. This requires strict clock synchronization on all objects. It turns out the accuracy of atomic watches is not enough. It is necessary to take into account the slowdown of the clock, which occurs, according to OTO, in the gravitational field of the Earth. In other words, some and the same hourson Earth go slower than in orbit. For a height of 20,000 km, this difference is 38 μs per day and will error in determining the distance of up to 10 m. To compensate for this effect, the course of the "passport" clock in orbit is set slowly. If they are stern from the orbit and put next to the earth - they will be departed at 38 μs per day.
Until now, our presentation actually demonstrated the success of OTO, and it may seem that by virtue of this iris painting, besides, no other theories were considered, nothing else was offered, or all the "non-Einstein" note was noted. Not at all. The creation of the theories of gravity was and remains very violent. The development of theories and their active and comprehensive checks were promoted hand in hand in the entire XX century and further.
Most checks can be attributed to special classes proposed by American relativist Clifford Will in 2001:
The simplest grounds.
Einstein equivalence principle.
Parameterized post-Newtonian formalism.
On compliance with the two last grades, let's talk below, and now we will discuss what "the simplest foundations"?
In the early 1970s, a group of scientists from the California Institute of Technology under the leadership of the ideologist of the LIGO project of Professor Kipu Torn, as well as Clifford Will and Taiwan Physics Weez-Tue did not have a list of the theories of gravity XX century. For each theory, they were set as follows on the problem of the simplest grounds:
Is the theory self-consistent?
Is it complete?
Does it agree within several standard deviations, with all the experiments carried out by now?
Criterion "Coordination with all experiments conducted by now" was often replaced by the criterion of "coordination with most consequences of Newton's mechanics and a special theory of relativity."
Self-consistentnessnemetric theories include requirements, for example, the lack of tachyon solutions, hypothetical particles moving with speeds more light; lack of problems in behavior of fields on infinity, etc.
In order for the theory of gravity to be fullIt should be able to describe the results of any conceivable experiment, it must be joint with other physical theories confirmed by the experiment. For example, any theory that cannot be from the first principles to predict the movement of the planets or the behavior of atomic watches is incomplete.
An example of incomplete and non-consistent theory can serve as the theory of Newton in combination with Maxwell equations. In such a theory, the light (as photons) is deflected by the gravitational field (although twice as weaker than in OTO), and the light (as electromagnetic waves) is not.
If the theory did not go through these criteria, it, however, was not in a hurry to discard. If the theory was incomplete in its foundations, the group tried to add it using small changes, usually reducing the theory in the absence of gravity to the special theory of relativity. Only after that was the conclusion, whether she was worth further consideration. Theories that deserve attention, in the 70s numbered several dozen. It is difficult to say, but over the past two or three decades, their number may have reached hundreds and more. It all depends on the answer to the question, what to consider one theory, and that the class of theories. Therefore, the selection on various criteria is carried out now, and with even greater addiction. It is extremely important because there are prerequisites that in the coming decades or on small scales, or on large, or at the same time the OTO will be changed.
Verification from the scale of planetary systems
Now recall that the basis of the equivalence and postulate of the geodesic movement is the basis of from the metric theory. It is known that these basics, if installed with absolute accuracy, satisfy only "purely" metric theories (with small reservations), i.e. theories, where the gravitational field is presented onlymetric tensor. It turns out that this is only simpledvariant of metric theory. Not at all violating these foundations, it is possible to submit countless (without exaggeration) a plurality of metric theories. How then can you change the theory? Why caught in this case? Of course, only experiment and observations can put everything in place. But for the classification of alternative proposals, you need your own strategy.
Work hole standard formalismto verify alternative gravity models, Arthur Eddington (1882-1944) began in 1922 (1882-1944). The improvement of this formalism, one way or another, continued for decades, and finished the business of American physicists Clifford Will and Kenneth Nordeddot in 1972. They proposed the so-called parametric post-Newtonian (PPN) formalism. It is designed for theories or pure metric, or with an effective metric representing the curved space-time, where physical interactions occur. Only deviations from Newton's mechanics are considered, so formalism is applicable only in weak fields. In general, there are 10 PPN parameters. In the case of two of them, one is equal to one, and the remaining 8 is zero.
What is useful for PPN-formalism in checking out from? New technologies make it possible to accurately track the movements of the celestial bodies, and modern standard check occurs as follows. With the help of equations from exactlythe PPN form calculates the trajectories of the bodies in the solar system. This species turns out to be the most constructive. Then they are compared with observation data. The current result is that compliance theoreticalsPPN Parameters OTO observedit is confirmed with an accuracy of the tenths to the hundredths of the percentage - it is very high accuracy.
Other accurate tests are observations of double pulsars: systems consisting of two neutron stars, they are now known about a dozen. In addition, there are systems consisting of radioulsar and white dwarf, they are also suitable for tests. Based on these observations, the orbits parameters are calculated. It turns out that deviations from Kepler values \u200b\u200bcoincide with the deviations predicted by the OTO, also up to the tenths and hundredths of the percent. Specialists are experiencing great optimism in the prospects for increasing accuracy when studying precisely double pulsars. It is based on the fact that neutron stars are in tens of kilometers in systems with orbits in millions of kilometers. In such stars systems, actually are point objects. Their inner structure, internal movements, as well as deformations practically do not affect the trajectories. In contrast, in the solar system, all these factors, as well as the influence of numerous "neighbors" significantly limit the increase in accuracy. Summarizing, it can be said that on the scale of planetary systems, the OTO is confirmed with high accuracy and measurement accuracy will increase.
The need for modification from OTO
We must first remake life,
remembering - you can sing.
Vladimir Mayakovsky
However, research on the creation of theories of alternatives, in most part, just metric, do not stop. Why? It is well confirmed as soon as it was said, on the scale of the solar system. Check the theory on b aboutleather or smaller scales are much more complicated. From, like any other theory, just a model for describing real phenomena. Therefore, real nature may coincide with the predictions of the OTO scale on the scale of planetary systems, but differ on other scales.
At the same time, many modern theoretical and empirical evidence suggests that it should be and modifications are necessary. For example, in many decisions, it is necessary to consider strong gravitational fields, huge densities, etc. And this requires quantization of the gravitational field. Despite the considerable efforts, it failed to achieve a decisive success. This suggests that on small scales where quantization is required, the gravitational theory must be changed. On the other hand, the recent opening of the accelerated expansion of the Universe Many leading experts tend to interpret as a geometric effect that can be "obtained" by modifying the OTO on a cosmological scale. Regardless of this, the need for changes in large and small scales lead research results in physics of fundamental interactions.
If we talk about viable theories, there is no steady terminological difference for alternative, modified or new theories. All of them, one way or another, develop from them, because they should work no worse on the scales where it is confirmed. By developing modifications from out or new theories, the authors compare them with from the corresponding modes in the same way as the OTO is compared with Newton's gravitation. If you want, all the same principle of conformity must be satisfied, but on the new turn of knowledge.
Currently, in many conferences on the theory of gravity, entire sections are devoted to generalized (or alternative) theories, individual collections are published on this subject, some theories are becoming more and more independent. What are the main most popular and promising directions in these developments?
First, OTO is a pure metric (or purely tensor) theory. This means that the geometry of space-time and matter affects each other without intermediaries.Such theories can be built infinitely a lot (as we have already spoken), and they are actively being developed. As a rule, equations of these theories differ from the equations from the fact that they are complemented by quadratic and higher order according to curvature terms. Additional members are usually included with small coefficients that agree with observations, let's say, on the scale of planetary systems, but significantly change solutions on a cosmological scale.
Another class of alternative theories is characterized by the fact that the impact on each other geometry and matter is carried out through the additional field, most often it is a scalar or vector field. However, the contribution of these fields cannot be essential. The deviation of modern alternative theories from OTO should be expressed in the difference between the corresponding PPN parameters. To appreciate the viability other than the theory (check it), it is necessary to register deviations from PPN values \u200b\u200bof the parameters in from the level of 10 -6 -10 -8. This means that the accuracy of measurements, both in the solar system and in double pulsars, must be improved by 1-3 orders.
The theory of gravity of Khorzhawa
This theory is one of the variants of the vector information theories of gravity and, perhaps, the most popular current. That is why we are talking about her. The theory was proposed in 2009 by American-"Stringent" of Czech origin by Peter Khorzhava. It is somewhat different from ordinary vector-tensor theories, because in it, instead of a vector field, a gradient is used as a scalar gradient. On the one hand, the properties of vector theories are preserved, on the other - there are specific own beneficial properties.
Once again, we remember that a consistent quantum theory of gravity, in which there would be no divergence, it was not possible to create on the basis of it. Therefore, various modifications are offered, which on quantum scale significantly diverge with from all over and become "suitable" for quantization. To do this, when they are built, some principles underlying the OTO are changed, i.e. turn out to be disturbed. Of course, this violation should be so insignificant in order not to contradict the laboratory tests, and so that the theory is not changed on the scale of the planetary systems, where there is a good matching with observations. This is exactly the theory of Khorzhva. We will not tell as much as it is wonderful in the sense of quantization, it is somewhat away from the topic of the book, but we will tell about its properties as a gravitational theory - in what and how different they are from similar properties from.
Lorenz invariance.We have already discussed the fact that from the "rose" from the special theory of relativity - the mechanics of high speeds comparable at the speed of light. Recall that in a hundred all inertial reference systems moving relative to each other evenly and straightly, equivalent.It is important to recall the time measurements in a hundred. In each inertial reference system, the clock goes at its own pace, different from the rate of other systems if you compare them. However, it is impossible to choose a "best", nor the "worst" pace if the clock is structurally identical. That is, one's own time of each inertial system is equal in relation to others. This means that in a hundred there is no dedicated time.
We also said that in the geometric language, the invariance of a hundred in the transition from one inertial reference system to another equivalent invariance of relatively Lorentz rotations in everythingflat space-time. In from the "inclusion" of gravity and, accordingly, the curvature of space of Lorenz invariance in everythingspace-time is no longer possible. However, from Lorentz-invariant local, that is, in the low neighborhood of each observer. This invariance is one of the principles underlying the OTO, and is associated with the principle of compliance of the OTO and STR.
Chronometric theory.In a number of modifications, the local Lorenz invariance is broken. Among them and theory of Khorzhava. Recently, one of its implementations is especially popular, the so-called "viable" ("Healthy") is an intersective version, developed by American physicists Diego Blazer and Oriol by Puolas and our compatriot Sergey Sibiryakov. The effects discussed below are mainly related to this modification.
So, what the theory of Khorzhava differs from from from? In addition to all ordinary fields, the scalar field is added, but not in the usual way. Direction his changesin space-time determines specially selected time direction.That is why the scalar field is called the field chronon.Then the surface of the constant values \u200b\u200bof the scalar field is the surface of the constant time, or "simultaneity". In the equation, the scalar field enters onlythrough derivatives, so do not fear the endless values \u200b\u200bof the chronon field. It is essential only its change, and not meaning. Since there is a dedicated direction in space-time, then there are highlighted reference systems. This is not a hundred or a hundred nor, but characteristic of vector-tensor theories. For clarity, we give the simplest "Toy" example. One of the solutions of the new theory is a flat space-time (such as a hundred) plus a chronon field, which is simply time, φ \u003d t.. In a hundred we can go using Lorentz transformations from one coordinate system x, T.in another x ", t",where time flows differently. In the new theory - we cannot, since the value of the scalar field in the coordinate transformations do not change, and this is the time. Thus, here, in contrast to a hundred, there are clocks that count allocated time.
Since in from the gravitational field is the field of space-time metric, it is clear why the new theory is called chronometric. Permissible limitations on the parameters of the chronometric theory make it possible to avoid divergence during quantization. Once again repeat: u that was the main purpose of its construction.But this is a theoretical success, and check the quantum effects of this level is now hardly possible.
However, the new theory should change in classical (non-quantum) manifestations. And this makes it possible to prove or refute her right to exist. Next, we show, in which classical phenomena and how much chronometric theory differs from from from, whether the effects of a new theory can be identified in observations, illustrate the difference for some theoretical models. To do this, discuss the most bright, in our opinion, examples.
Gravitational wave radiation.Recall that the gravitational wave in the transverse, tensor, has two polarizations (see Fig. 10.2) and spreads at the speed of light. Gravitational waves in theory of Khorzhava also exist. However, in addition to the two already mentioned tensor polarizations, there is a scalar degree of freedom. This means that under the action of such a wave to the movement of test particles, longitudinal (in the direction of the wave propagation) of the displacement is added. It is important that tensor and scalar components have different distribution rates. In addition, both speeds, having a dependency on the parameters of the carrier model, should exceed(!) The speed of light, albeit slightly. These differences from from all are interesting, but unfortunately so far only theoretically. There is still no direct detection of gravitational waves, so the fixation of the marked differences is represented by the case of a remote future.
Nevertheless, there is an indirect confirmation of the existence of gravitational radiation. These are observations of double pulsars, a decrease in the size of the orbits of which indicates the loss of energy on the gravitational wave radiation. This effect is in accordance with from the relative accuracy of 10 -2, which we have already spoken. But the predictions of OTO and the theory of Khorzhava are different. Therefore, if the last is viable, that is, the chance that the further increase in accuracy will reveal these differences and clarify the parameters of the new theory.
Particle interaction. Instant action.Now for a chronometric theory, we consider the interaction of the gravitational field with a substance. Let us discuss only the first (linear) approximation that can be available for observations. In this order, the effects associated with the impaired Lorenz invariance are suppressed by virtue of various reasons, but the chronon field is present, it is included in the Lorenz invariant manner into the so-called effective metric. That is, the metric is modified, and matter is not distributed in the source space-time, but in some effective space-time, and a universal way. Perhaps in the future, this interaction will allow to detect the classical phenomena represented by a chronometric theory.
In the approximation of weak fields and low speeds the gravitational theory is the gravity of Newton. In the latter, the interaction of two particles is represented by the well-known law of Newton, where the force is proportional to the masses, gravitational constant, inversely proportional to the square square, but not dependent on speedsthese particles. The presence of the chronon field changes and complements this law as follows. Negative changes gravitational constant, now it is called efficient, and appears validity dependence. The possibility of detecting these effects is determined by the constant of communication of the chronometric theory.
The effect of the chronon field is also manifested in the fact that some interactions can spread instantly(!), i.e. with infinite speed. How is this conclusion made? Typically, indignation equations contain a wave operator, which consists of two parts: spatial and temporary. Magnitude inversethe coefficient at the second part is the square of the velocity of perturbations. The complete absence of the second part means that this speed is infinite. It is such a structure that is part of the equations of the theory of theorva. It is appropriate to make an analogy with Newton's theory. In it, in the same way as in the chronometric theory, the flow of time ("absolute time") and gravitational interaction applies instantly.
How to imagine instant distribution? Imagine the surface of the constant time, then the signal, spreading on it (that is, without a change in time), any distances will instantly pass. It is unacceptable in relativistic theories as a hundred or from all. Turn to the chart in Fig. 12.1. Consider three points in space: A, B and C. In the moment t \u003d.0 These points correspond to events A. 0 , B. 0 , C. 0, which, within one hundred permanent is not connected. Only at the moment t. 1 event A. 0 becomes causally associated with an event B. 1 at point B.and at the moment t. 2 and with an event C. 2 at point C.. As it should be in a hundred (or OTO), the spread of signals is rigidly connected and limited to light cones. In the theory of Khorzhava for some interactions, it may well be wrong. Instant distribution means all three events A. 0 , B. 0 , C. 0 at time t \u003d.0, occurred as a result of one instantlythe spreading signal, that is, they can be causally connected. However, such a "fantastic" possibility does not limit the chronometric theory with a decisive way. The selection of the time direction means that the concept of simultaneity is defined unequivocally, therefore there are no problems with causality, at least such an exotic.
Solar system.To verify any gravitational theory when measuring movements in the planetary system, PPN-formalism is used. As in any vector theory, in theory of Khorzhava must be present effects of the privileged reference system. It leads to the fact that there are non-zero PPN parameters of the groupα. Indeed, besides two PPN parameters inherent in OTO, the chronometric theory has two more: α 1 and α 2. So that there are no contradictions with observations, they must be small enough: α 1 ≤ 10 -4 and α 2 ≤ 10 -7. We will wait to increase the accuracy of measurements, then the existence of α 1 and α 2 (and therefore theories of the burrows) will be confirmed or refuted.
Black holes.In an object, a black hole represents an object where the central part, usually singular, is surrounded by a spherical surface called the horizon of events. Its presence is due to the fact that in OTO there is a limit speed - this is the speed of light. The main property of the black hole is that there is no particle, no field and even the light signal can leave it, that is, go beyond the horizon of events.
In the chronometric theory there are also solutions that describe objects of the type of black holes. However, we remember that in this theory there is no limiting speed, it is possible to distribute interactions at a speed greater than the speed of light and even instantly. If this opportunity was in accordance with, the very concept of the event horizon would lose sense, because it appears to leave the object, being on the horizon of events, and under it. In this case, contradictions associated with the thermodynamics of the system appear, such as the decrease in entropy. Now all solutions for black holes are not known in theory of Khorzhava due to its youth, however, there are those that make it possible to avoid these complications. It turns out that in a black hole in the framework of a chronometric theory there may be the so-called universal horizon. It is under the horizon of events ("closer" to singularity) and is remarkable in that the surface of the constant time under it, do not intersecthis. This means that the signal even infinite speed (instant) cannot exit from this intermediate horizon. And for such objects, the aforementioned contradictions are removed.
In fig. 12.2 Presented the so-called Ferroise chart of Black hole Schwarzshild. Points i. - I. i. + represent all temporary infinity of the past and all temporary infinity of the future, point i. 0 combines all spatial infinity. Straight BI + It is a horizon of events Schwarzschild black hole - it can be seen from the location of light cones. Indeed, square BI + i. 0 i. - - this is all the external space-time out ofevent horizon while triangle i. + BI + is space-time underthe horizon of events, from where the signal cannot go into the outer area, and where the broken line is a singularity r \u003d.0. The black hole chart of the chronometric theory is imposed on the Schwarzschild Hole diagram. All curves connecting i. 0 I. i. + - These are the cross-section of the Dental Field of Chronon J \u003d const, the same, constant time (simultaneity). Fat arc is the same universal horizonζ \u003d ζ +, under it, closer to singularity, arc i. + i. +, connecting the ends of the broken line - is also a cross section of constant time (simultaneity). It is clear that if the signal in the chronometric theory applies even instantly, that is, along the sections of simultaneity, he will not be able to cross the universal horizon and leave the chronometric black hole.
Cosmology.On the scale of the Universe, the theory of Khorzhava also has a chance to declare its viability. Let's discuss cosmological solutions in the new theory. They will be approximately the same as in OTO, with the difference that instead of the usual gravitational constant G.will appear effective gravitational constant G E.. Now remember the modified Newton law, which was mentioned above. There appears its effective gravitational constant, different from G., Denote it G I.. Evaluation for difference: | G i - g e| ≤ 0,1.
There is no ban on the fact that in the future there will be a significant amount for this difference, but it is also possible that it will be excluded.
On the basis of the OTO developed well-coordinated with observations the theory of cosmological perturbations. It allows, for example, to explain structureThat is, the distribution of galaxies and their clusters in the available observations of the region of the Universe. However, if, with an increase in the accuracy of observations, it will be discovered, say, anisotropy, not predicted by OTO, then this is a reason to refer to theory of theoria. The theory of Khorzhava is so young that it is unlikely to be the very conclusions made on its basis, can be considered established and all recognized. Despite this, both the theory, as well as conclusions, are very intriguing and important.
Multidimensional models
Hello, multi-meter!
Victor Bokhinyuk
Throughout the last century, various theories of gravity were designed, one way or another, as independent theories, that is, "bottom". In recent decades, the situation has changed: the construction of the theories of gravity is stimulated by the development of fundamental theories, various gravity models are part of them and "crystallized" in the boundaries of these theories. That is, their creation goes from above. Being challengers on the "Theory of Total", fundamental theories include gravity.
"Theory of Total" should work under the most fantastic conditions, including planck energies. Then all interactions act as a single one. Therefore, the construction of such theories to a certain extent is extrapolation. And the transition from the theory working under the general conditions, to the terms of our world will be its approach, which is called low Energy. At a minimum, the observation effects in the "approximate of the total" should take place in the world observed. The "gravitational part of the theory of all" in the low-energy limit acquires the usual appearance for us, and it should withstand all the tests that have passed from. Note that some options for the "theory of the total" in the low-energy limit as a gravitational part contain precisely.
The important property of fundamental theories is that, as a rule, both on a cosmological scale and on the scale of the microworld, the dimension of space-time is more than 4. The concept of multidimensional space is necessary, for example, for the theory of superstrun, which, with general recognition, It is the most promising theory of high energies that combines quantum gravity and the theory of so-called calibration fields. The low-energy consequences of this theory require, for example, (9 + 1)--dimensional fundamental space-time (sometimes (10 + 1)-dimensional), while other dimensions are prohibited.
But how to be, we only feel 3 spatial and one time aboute measurement? On microscale, additional measurements are compactified (as if rolled into the "tube"), and this is the reason why they should not be perceived by us. Such space has symmetries on additional dimensions that are responsible for the conservation laws for different charges, just as the symmetries of the Minkowski space are responsible for the laws of preservation for energy characteristics.
Already at the modern level of technology, experiments on accelerators may be important to confirm the fundamental theories. For example, if the so-called supersymmetric partners of famous particles will be opened on a large hadron collider in CERN - it will mean that the idea of \u200b\u200bsupersymmetry works, and therefore a more advanced theory of gravity, indeed, can be built within the string theory.
But can the world have extended (uncontamified) measurements? The first statements on this occasion were made in 1983 by Valery Shubakov and Mikhail Shaposhnikov, continuing to work actively in this area. They showed that in the 5-dimensional space-time (with 4-dimensional space), all matter can be concentrated only on a 3-dimensional spatial section. The concept of models with branes, where the world in which we live, effectively focusedin 3-dimensional space, and therefore we do not feel additional extended spatial dimensions.
For some time, the model of type Rubakova-Shaposhnikov did not attract much attention. Interest in them began to be stimulated, first of all, the problem of the hierarchy of interactions to which the extraordinary weakness of gravitational interaction. Describing the interaction of elementary particles, the gravitational interaction can be forgotten as a completely insignificant amendment. But if we have undertake to explain the device of our world, we must answer the question why gravity is so weak.
It turned out that multidimensional models with extended additional measurements can be very useful for solving these problems. There are many such models. Perhaps the most famous is the model proposed in 1999 by American cosmologists Liza Randall and Raman Sundruum. In fact, they suggested one for another two models.
In the first of these, the 5-dimensional world on both sides is limited to two 4-dimensional pre-temporal sections, one of which is our universe (three spatial dimensions plus one time buti coordinate). The space between the two brands is strongly twisted due to their "mechanical" voltage. This stress leads to the fact that all physical particles and fields are concentrated only on one of the Bran and do not leave it, with the exception of gravitational interaction and radiation. Gravity on this brane is, but very weak, and this is the worldin which we live. On the other border of the 5-dimensional world, inaccessible to us, gravity, on the contrary, is very strong, and all matter is much easier and interaction between particles of matter weaker.
In the second embodiment, the Randall and Sundrum model cost without the second border. This model of theorists love more. It allows you to turn the strings' favorite theory in five-dimensional space-time into a regular quantum theory on its four-dimensional border. The space in this model is also strongly twisted, and its radius of curvature determines the characteristic size of the additional fifth spatial dimension. There is no finally recognized model with breasts, they are in the active phase of developments, problems are detected, they are solved, new, they are resolved again, and so on.
In fig. 12.3 (left) The world is schematically represented on the brow, where the light (photons) applies inside it, but can not leave the brain itself. In fig. 12.3 (right) It is shown that if our world was on bean, he could "swim" in a great space of additional measurements remaining inaccessible to us, because we visible light (and no other fields, except gravitational) can not leave our Bhan. There could be other worlds on Branahs floating next to us.
Another idea leading to consideration of multidimensional models is the so-called ADS / CFT compliance that occurs as one of the specific implementations of the theory of superstrun. Geometrically, this means the following. It is considered multidimensional (more often, 5-dimensional) antidexitter (ADS) space-time. No details, ADS-space is space-time constant negative curvature. Although it is curved, but has the same amount of symmetry as the flat space-time of the same dimension, that is, the most symmetrically . Further, the spatial infinitely remote boundary of the ADS-space is considered, the dimension of which, respectively, per unit is less. So, for 5-dimensional ADS-space, the boundary will be 4-dimensional, that is, somewhere similar space-time in which we live. The same compliance means a certain mathematical connection of this border with the so-called conformal (large-scale invariant) field theories that can "live" at this border. Initially, this compliance was studied only in a purely mathematical plan, but about 10 years ago realized that this idea could be used and to study the theory of strong interactions in a strong communication mode, where ordinary methods do not work. Since then, research in which ADS / CFT is attracted (or is studied) is only gaining momentum.
From what is said in the previous paragraph, it is important for our consideration that the curved space is studied - the ADS space and its border. In working models, there are not ideal ADS-spaces, but more complex decisions that behave as ADS with the asymptotic approximation to the border. Such space-time can be a solution to one or another multidimensional theory of gravity. That is, the idea of \u200b\u200bADS / CFT compliance is another of the incentives for developing multidimensional theories.
One of the main problems of models with brains (and other multidimensional models) is to understand how close they are close to reality. We describe one of the possible tests. Recall the effect of quantum evaporation of black holes of Hawking. The characteristic time of evaporation for black holes, which arise in the explosions of massive stars, for many orders of magnitude exceeding the lifetime of the universe; For super-massive black holes it is even more. But the situation changes in the case of 5-dimensional space - Randall and Sundraum. Black holes on our brane (she is our universe) should evaporate much faster. It turns out that from the point of view of the 5-dimensional space-time, the black holes of our universe move with acceleration. Therefore, they must effectively lose energy (evaporate in addition to the usual Hawking effect) until the dimensions of the decreasing black holes remain more than the size of the additional measurement (something like friction about this measurement). For example, if the characteristic size of the additional measurement was 50 microns, completely measured in the laboratory, then black holes in one solar would not be able to live more than 50 thousand years. If such an event had happened in our eyes, we would see how the X-ray sources suddenly go out, in which the substance falling onto a black hole.
Black holes in multidimensional
So, step by step multidimensional spaces become an integral part of various physical models. At the same time, the generalization of OTO is also attracted to more than four dimensions (without other modifications and additions), since such an entirely in some embodiments itself is part of new theories. And this is one of the essential incentives for searching and studying possible solutions to multidimensional from. In particular, the solutions for black holes are interesting and important. Why?
1) These solutions may be a theoretical basis for analyzing microscopic black holes in strings, where they inevitably occur.
2) ADS / SFT compliance binds the properties of d-dimensional black holes with the properties of a quantum field theory on (D-1)--dimensional boundary, which we briefly spoke above.
3) Future experiments on colligers suggest the birth of multidimensional black holes. Their registration is impossible without presenting their properties.
4) Finally, the study of solutions of the classical 4-dimensional OTO began with the study of black holes - Schwarzschild decisions. It seems natural to follow the logic of historical development.
Intuitively clearly, the more measurements, the more diverse the properties of the theory solutions will be. What is this manifest in solutions for black holes? The variety of solutions in multidimensional OTO is obliged to two new features: non-trivial dynamics of rotational and the possibility of forming extended event horizons. Let's discuss them. In the usual OTO with 4-dimensional space-time independent rotationin 3-dimensional space may be only one. It is determined by its axis (or that the same, the plane of rotation perpendicular to it). In 5-dimensional, the space (without time) becomes 4-dimensional, but this property of the 3-dimensional space is to have a single independent rotation remains. But in the 6-dimensional one, where the space becomes 5-dimensional, two independent rotations are possible, Each with its own axis, etc. Another new property that takes place for solutions in the dimensions of more than 4 is the appearance of extended horizons. What is umplied under them? These are "black strings" (one-dimensional) and "black beans" of different dimensions.
The combination of these two new features in different variations has led to the fact that within the framework of the multidimensional OTO, a mass of solutions of the type of black holes having their complex hierarchy was built. In fig. 12.4 Some of these solutions are given. If in 4-dimensional, the horizon of events of famous black holes, as a rule, has a spherical form, then the situation changes significantly in a multi-dimension. The horizons are degenerated into the strings (as we have already mentioned), can be in the form of a torus, etc. It should be borne in mind that images of the horizons in Fig. 12.4 should be perceived to a certain extent symbolically, since in reality they are 3-dimensional surfaces in a 4-dimensional space.
These formations are no longer "black holes", but "black objects". They can be multiply connected, for example, a black hole, surrounded by the "black torus" called "black Saturn". Part of these objects is determined by unstable solutions, for another part it turns out to be impossible to correctly calculate the persistent values, but many do not have such defects. However, despite all the variety of properties (acceptable or doubts) and the cordial form of certain objects, their horizons of events have all the same basic property as the black hole horizon of Schwarzschild: the history of the material body after its intersection ceases to be an accessible to the external observer.
This picture looks very and very exotic and, it seems, has nothing to do with reality. But who knows - once solutions for black holes seemed distant from reality, and now there is no doubt that these objects everywhere inhabit the universe. It is possible that we live on the brane, and the external 5-dimensional world includes something like a "black Saturn", and its influence will be discovered.
Bimetric theories and theories with massive graveliton
Recall to describe weak gravitational waves, we broke the dynamic metric from the Flat Space-time metric and the perturbation of the metric. It turned out that perturbations in the form of waves can be distributed in the Minkowski space, which plays the role of background. The background can be curved, but must remain fixed, i.e. his metric should be a decision of OTO. In this picture, the metric of background space-time and metric perturbations are independent. Such an idea is one of the variants of bimetric theory of gravity, where one metric is known and represents the background space, and the second, dynamic, plays the role of the gravitational field spreading in it. In this case, such a description is induced by the right.
However, bimetric theories are built and without references to the existence of OTO, and as independent theories. Their characteristic features are that the background and dynamic metrics are combined into an efficient metric, which in turn determines the effective space-time, where all physical fields are distributed and interact. As a rule, in the limit of a weak field and low speeds of prediction of from and bimetric theories, and they satisfy all or most of the tests that correspond to and from. Because of what is paid to bimetric theories? Their device, for example, makes it easy and consistently determining the preserving values. They also have advantages at quantization.
Usually, for bimetric theories, there is at least a fundamental ability to determine the "litter" - the background space-time. But this may not happen. For example, without references to the weakness of the field (that is, exactly, without approaches), one can reformulate as a bimetric theory. In this case, it is fundamentally impossible to come up with an experiment or test to determine the background space-time, which is therefore plays the role of auxiliary. And the real and accessible to observations is only effective space-time - it is actually the space-time from all.
Such a bimetric representation is called its theoretical field wording, in the sense that the gravitational field is considered on equal rights with all other physical fields in the auxiliary (since unobservable) background space-time.
Now let's go back to the senior school classes and remember that the textbooks on physics are referred to the so-called corpuscular wave dualism. What does it mean? It turns out that the distribution of one or another field can be considered depending on the conditions or as a particle, or as a wave. Refer to electrodynamics again. The low-frequency signal with sufficient amplitude will be fixed, rather, like a wave using charge oscillations in its field. On the other hand, a high-frequency, but weak signal, rather, will be fixed as a particle that knocks out an electron in a photodetector. Photon particle is a massless (with a zero mass of rest). We turn to another known particle - an electron, it has a lot. But it turns out, the electron can also be compared to the wave, despite its "massiveness".
After that, let us recall the gravitational waves that are predicted by from. Within the framework of these waves, particles with zero mass of rest are gravitons. And is it possible to build such a theory of gravity in which graviton has nanuel Mass of People? Why not, if such a theory in a low-blood limit and the limit of low speeds will coincide with from all over and satisfy its tests. The history of these theories begins with massive gravity proposed by Swiss theorists by Marcus Firce (1912-2006) and Wolfgang Pauli in 1939.
Since then, options for such theories appear more or less regularly. Recently, interest in them has increased due to the fact that the variants of the massive theory of gravity arise in fundamental theories, such as superast theory. In some models, massive graviton is more preferable. The massive gravity theories are in a certain sense by a type of bimetric theories: their overall feature is that the dynamic tensor field is distributed in a fixed space-time, which, as a rule, basically observed. Usually in the limit, with the desire of graviton mass to zero, such theories are transmitted to from. If they coincide with OTO in the limit of the weak field and low speeds, then in the strengths and on a cosmological scale, they differ from OTO, offering other effects. For example, it may turn out that instead of solutions for black holes, solutions for singularities without horizons ("naked singularities") will appear, instead of the expanding universe, oscillating universes appear.
It is impossible to check the accuracy of these predictions directly, it remains the subject of further research. Until now, the theories of massive gravity had a common flaw, their solutions give some states with negative energy. These states are called "spirits", to explain them within the framework of reasonable representations does not work, and therefore they are undesirable. However, literally recently there have been options for massive gravity without the "perfumes".
Newton law
The law of world
discussions in the third reading was
sent on refinement ...
Folklore
Check Newton's Law. The understanding of the Newton law still plays a very important role to understand the ideas about gravity at all. How can I check in the laboratory, do we live on the brane (or what other multidimensional world), although we cannot "exit" into the additional dimension? Recall that gravity, in contrast to other interactions, is distributed in all five dimensions. To use this fact, puzzled by the geometrical meaning of Newton's law. As we remember, he claims that the strength of the gravitational interaction falls back proportional to the square of the distance ~ 1 / r. 2. Now remember the picture from the school textbook of physics, where the effect of force is described by the power lines. In this picture, force at a given distance r.determined by the density of power lines, "flashing" the sphere of radius r:the larger area of \u200b\u200bthe sphere, the lower the density of the lines and, accordingly, the force. And sphere area is proportional r. 2, where directly follows dependence on the distance in Newton's law. But it is in a 3-dimensional space where the area of \u200b\u200bthe sphere is proportional to r. 2! In 4-dimensional space, the area of \u200b\u200bthe surrounding area will be proportional to r. 3, and, accordingly, the Law of Newton will change - the strength of the gravitational interaction will fall back proportional to Cuba Distance ~ 1 / r. 3, etc.
If the law of the reverse cubes occurred on the scale of the solar system, it is clear that it would be formulated by Newton. So you need to look for a small scale. At the same time, the test of Newton's law is important for some promising multidimensional theories, where additional dimensions are compactificated (minimized) and their size, of course, less planetary. Nevertheless, they can reach tens of micrometers. When Randall and Sundraum only offered their theory, Newton's law was tested only to the scale of meters. Since then, scientists have made some of the most complicated (due to the weakness of gravity) experiments with crowded weights of tiny sizes, and now laboratory restrictions have decreased significantly and approaches compaction sizes.
Modern dimensions found that the amount of additional measurement is no more than 50 microns. On a smaller scale, the law of reverse squares can break. In fig. 12.5 shows a circuit of a twist scale to verify the law of reverse Newton squares. The device itself is placed in a vacuum flask, carefully insulated from noise and is equipped with a modern electronic detection system of displacements.
It is clear that this kind of experiments are conjugate with volatile technological difficulties, and further progress is associated with the experiment in space. The fact is that the small corrections of the Newton law also lead to the calculated displacement of the planetary perigelis (along with Einstein). Laser location of the moon confirmed Einstein offset with an accuracy of 10 -11 radian in a century. But in the following order can show itself the effect of some multidimensional models.
The first attempts of such a location were carried out at the beginning of the 60s, both American and Soviet researchers. But the laser beam was strongly scattered with the surface, and the measurement accuracy was low - up to several hundred meters. The situation has changed a lot after the American missions "Apollo" and the Soviet "moon" were delivered to the moon, corner reflectors were delivered, which still used (unfortunately, the Soviet program on the moon was minimized in 1983).
How does this happen? The laser sends a signal through a telescope directed to the reflector, while the time is exactly fixed when the signal was radiated. The beam area from the signal on the surface of the moon is 25 km 2 (area of \u200b\u200bcorner reflectors about 1 m 2). The light reflected from the device on the moon for about one second returns to the telescope, then comes from about 30 picoseconds. Travel time The photon allows you to determine the distance, and it is now done with an accuracy of about two centimeters, sometimes accuracy is up to a few millimeters. And this is the distance between the Earth and the Moon 384 500 km!
Modified Newtonian dynamics (MOND).But Newton's law may violated significantly more planetary systems. Anomalous movements and rotation in star systems "provoked" the search for "dark matter", into which the galaxies are immersed, accumulation of galaxies, etc.
And what if the Newton's law itself is broken on this scale? The original MOND theory was developed by the Israeli physicist Mordecham Milgrom in 1983 as an alternative to the "dark matter." The deviations from the Newtonian law of reverse squares on this theory should be observed at a certain acceleration, and not at a certain distance (remember the theory of Rozhorva, where Newton's law varies due to the effects of speeds).
MOND successfully explains the observed movements in galaxies. This theory also shows why deviations from the expected nature of rotation are the greatest in dwarf galaxies.
Disadvantages of the original theory:
1) does not include relativistic effects of the STO or OTO type;
2) the laws of conservation of energy, pulse and momentum of the pulse are violated;
3) internally contradictory, as it predicts various galactic orbits for gas and stars;
4) does not make it possible to calculate the gravitational leinzing by the accumulations of galaxies.
All this caused her further substantial improvement - with the inclusion of scalar fields, bringing to relativistic species, etc. Each change, removing one objection, caused another, no completed theory yet, but the researchers do not lose optimism.
Anomaly "Pioneers".Automatic interplanetary stations "Pioneer-10" and "Pioneer-11" were launched in 1972 and 1973 to explore Jupiter and Saturn. They completely coped with their mission to get close to these planets and convey the data about them, which is called first-hand. The last signal from Pioneer-10 was obtained in early 2003 after more than thirty years of continuous operation. At that moment, the spacecraft was already 12 billion kilometers from the Sun. In fig. 12.6 Presented photo of the "Pioneer-10" apparatus.
Surprise caused the fact that as soon as Pioneers passed the orbit of uranium (approximately in 1980), on Earth began to notice that the frequency of radio signals sent by the devices was shifted to the short-wave part of the spectrum, which should not be if their movement corresponds to Newton's dynamics (The influence of relativistic effects of OTO on such a distance from the Sun and planets is much weaker).
From everyday point of view, the effect, of course, seems to be trifle - it is 10 billion times less than the acceleration that we experience from the gravitational field of the Earth. But he significantly exceeds the relativistic effects of OTO! The most banal explanations of the mysterious phenomenon could be, for example, leakage of gaseous fuel from small traction engines, braking on cosmic dust, etc. But these effects are temporary, and an anomaly is stable for more than 20 years.
Some scientists wondered whether the "Pioneers" anomaly cannot be generated so far unknown by factors that act only outside the solar system (change in Newton's law). Even models are considered with the involvement of antimatter, a dark substance and dark energy.
Norwegian physicist Chielle Tangen comprehensively analyzed the situation created and came to the conclusion that none of the well-known modifications of the law of gravity could be described an anomaly. Indeed, these changes should not lead to a change in the description of the movement of the external planets of the solar system. So, changing Newton's law, the tangen inevitably received incorrect results to describe the movement of uranium and pluto.
The pioneer's mystery was permitted quite recently as a result of the 20-year work of the Vyacheslav Turyshev group, a graduate of Gaish Moscow State University, which is now in the Laboratory of Jet Movement (JPL) NASA in Pasaden. At various times, the group numbered from 20 to 80 employees. Relatively recently managed to sufficiently decipher the miracle, the preserved additional data from "Pioneers", which were previously unavailable due to the archaic formats of files and information carriers (tape tapes). Initially, more than 20 factors that could lead to the effect were analyzed. At the disposal of the group, a copy of the twin apparatuses - the third "pioneer", left on Earth after the pre-flight tests, which allowed to select the highest quality parts for space. This apparatus was studied thoroughly.
One after another, for various reasons, the candidates for the effect were deviated. Finally, only one possible reason remained, which was studied with addiction. The device is a parabolic antenna for communication with a diameter of about 3 meters, equipped with a device placed in a slightly smaller box. The equipment works for so long due to the energy of the atomic element, also placed in this box. As a result, the box is heated. Antenna is all the time oriented to Earth, so the box is behind it.
The Turyshev Group was a computer heat distribution card in the entire apparatus. It turned out that the opposite part of the apparatus (opposite from the Earth) is a bit warmer than the front. That is, in the opposite direction from the Earth, the device leaves more energetic photons than those that fly to the ground. In fact, the "photon engine" works, which in this case slows down the "fly" of the devices from the solar system. These calculations are very well consistent with the data of the observed effect. The power of this "engine" is comparable to the "return" light of the car headlight, which also slows it as a photon engine. This figurative comparison brought Turyshev himself.
Questions arise. Why did the effect discovered only after 8 years? The fact is that there is still a phenomenon like a sunny wind. As long as the devices have not reached the orbit of uranium, its influence was prevalent, and the "anomaly" simply tone in it. With greater removal, the effect of "anomaly" has become stronger than the effect of the wind and discovered it. Why is it believed that the abnormal force is directed towards the Sun, because the antenna is focused on earth? The fact is that already at the removal of the orbit of uranium, orbitEarth seems like a circle in a small corner of the solution. In this case, it is impossible to distinguish where the antenna looks at the Earth, on the other point of earth orbit) is approximately the same.
Summarize. Anomaly "Pioneers" is explained by ordinary simple phenomena and revising Newton's law and in general, gravitational theories are not required for its explanation.
What will give further increase in the accuracy of observations
Accuracy very often
racing inaccuracy.
Dmitry Likhachev
Very important is the verification constabilityfundamental constants. To do this, compare a variety of observations of the most remote objects in the Universe with observations in the solar system, and they are with the results of laboratory experiments on Earth and even with the data obtained in geology and paleontology. Analysis uses different time se-scale, on the one hand, due to cosmological and astrophysical evolution, on the other - based on modern nuclear standards. In addition, phenomena that substantially dependent on these constants are compared for different eras.
For gravity, the gravitational constant is primarily important. Its accurate value is necessary to determine the parameters of one or another alternative theory or even to determine its viability - remember the theory of Khorjava. The constancy of the parameters of planetary orbits depends on the stability of the gravitational constant. Studies in the solar system confirmed the immutability of the gravitational constant with relative accuracy of 10 -13 to 10 -14 per year. And the measurement accuracy is constantly increasing.
How important in the sense of constructing a new theory is the search for gravitational waves from astronomical sources? In this sense, the registration of gravitational waves is unlikely to immediately give a lot of information. But the registration fact will finally confirm the rightness of modern research and it will be possible to reject completely marginal theories. Only later, when it becomes possible to analyze the emission parts (for example, polarization), will be possible to use it to select or modify gravitational theories. The determination of the gravitational radiation rate will also be limited to alternative theories, for example, with a massive graviton; etc.
Does any experimental breakthrough need to create a new theory or choice from already built? Yes, of course, new and more accurate empirical data is needed. But it is worth calling not a breakthrough, but rather, the result of consistent effort. The state of affairs is: over the past 100 years, measurement accuracy increased by 3-4 orders. Modern technologies promise to significantly speed up the process. According to different estimates, it is expected that in the next 25-30 years, accuracy will increase by another 3-5 orders. And this in many forecasts gives full foundations (and we tried to show it), if not in the coming years, then in the next 10-20 years, expect amazing interesting and important discoveries. In addition, most researchers believe that such an increase in accuracy will be enough to determine the new theory.
