"The woman is created for a man, not a man for a woman" - such a postulate ...
Historical geography
Historical geography as scientific discipline
Determination of the object of historical geography
Historical geography - This is a science that studies the interaction of nature and society at different stages of historical development. Her main task It is the study of the interrelated process of human impact on the natural environment and the impact of these changes to the development of the human society itself. In addition, the task of the IG is the study of ways to adapt human teams to natural-geographical, socio-economic and ethnocultural surroundings, the characteristics of various ways of their economic, social, cultural adaptation.
Speaking about the interaction of IG and historical science as a whole, the need to allocate an IG into independent science, it should be noted that the IG object lies in a slightly different plane. Figuratively comparing these two sciences, it can be said that if the historian should delve into each detail of individual historical events, then the main tendency for the development of human society and its interaction with the environment. IG and the story brings the fact that they have common historical sources. But the main difference is that the methods of their study in each of these sciences are different. The main for the historian is the source-edge method, the historical and cartographic method is basic for the IG, i.e. Finding out how the data of this or that source is reflected in the geographic map. IH specifies our historical representations chronologically and binds them with geography. It is necessary to clearly imagine the difference between historical geography and geography history. The history of geography or history of geographical knowledge is studying the history of geographic thought, geographical representations of people in different historical epochs, the history of geographical discoveries, travels, expeditions. Object Historical geography is the problems that can be reflected in the history of geography, but no more.
2. Basic elements of historical geography:
1) historical physical geography It is engaged in the study of the physico-geographical environment of the past epochs and the changes in the historical period of change. Physico-geographical environment - This is a combination of natural conditions located in the historical practice of mankind (relief, climate, water resources, soil, minerals, vegetable and animal world, etc.). Geographic environment - This is the necessary and constant conditions of the material life of society that affects its development. The geographical environment can be favorable and adversely affected by the development of society. When studying the geographic environment, the following tasks are worth:
Reconstruct physico-geographical landscape of historical past
Analyze changes in the geographical conditions of the territory under study for the historical period of time, as well as to study the impact of natural conditions on economic and political geography in each of the historical periods.
Significant attention also requires changes in natural conditions under the influence of human activity. So, the allocation of a person from the world of animals occurred many thousands of years ago not around the globe, but in certain zones that are distinguished by a warm and humid climate. No less, the geographical environment has also in the process of historical folding of groups of people, united by the generality of origin, expressed in the community of hereditary signs of body structure. The geographical environment played and plays an important role at all stages of the development of human society. However, this role at every stage is ambiguous. The direct influence of the geographical environment on the human society weakens, changes as the productive forces. For example, a change in the nature of the development of agricultural techniques leads to the appearance of the possibility of introducing into the economic turnover of the land unusable for this purpose. Also, water spaces that served an obstacle on the way to new lands and communication of people with the emergence of the means of movement turned into the most important ways of communication. In general, a person is increasingly and diverse attracts a geographical environment to the Society Service. This is expressed not only in transferring activities to new territories, water spaces, but also in a deeper, comprehensive interaction with nature on the basis of the modern development of production and technology. Features of the geographical environment of individual continents, countries, districts have provided and affect the lives of people. Along with extensive regions characterized by certain common features (forests, steppes, mountains, deserts, etc.) there are smaller units, where under the influence of many historically established conditions there are their differences. Areas having the same geographical medium may differ in ways to produce material goods and the nature of the social system.
2) historical geography of the population (Historical demography) is intended to consider the process of forming a population of a particular territory, as well as the most important spatial demographic features (population density, literacy rate, the dynamics of the number, movement, population placement, ethnic composition, etc.). Some specialists allocate an independent industry - a historical ethnic geography, which specifically examines the issues of resettlement and migration of tribes and nationalities in various historical periods.
3) historical and economic geography (Geography of the economy) is studying the geography of production and economic relations with industry and rank characteristics: the geography of crafts and industry, agriculture, transport, communication, land tenure, trade ties, etc.
4) historical and political geography It is engaged in clarifying the boundaries of states, internal administrative and territorial division, the definition of territories and areas allocated in historical terms, the establishment of the location of cities, the establishment of hiking routes, the definition of battle points, etc.
5) geography of culture He is studying the range of religions, the distribution of objects with cultural and historical importance (temples, monasteries, etc.).
Sometimes other IH elements are distinguished. For example, the historical geography of settlements, historical topography, historical cartography, historical and geographical studies, etc.
3. Methods of historical geography
The Methodological base of the II includes most of the methods used in historical studies:
1) analytics-synthetic method . The IG is designed to find a historical and geographical expression of both individual facts and the sum of these facts (phenomena), as well as identify signs for the appropriate expression of processes and their relationships. And naturally, if the basis of each historical phenomenon is concrete historical facts, their selection, grouping and processing are essential for the study of the study. An analytical synthetic method just provides for the identification of facts, their systematization, generalization, determination of the essence of phenomena at clear localization in space and time. The use of this method is most appropriate when studying the territorial growth of the country, its administrative device, the study of spatially demographic problems, as well as economic geography.
2) comparative historical method Provides for the use of historical and genetic and historical and typological comparisons, which make it possible to carry out the reconstruction of the socio-geographical phenomena of past eras. Under the historical and genetic comparison, the method of establishing related phenomena generated by the generality of the development of different peoples included in the Unified Historical and Geographical Space (State, Landscaping Zones) is meant. The historical and typological comparison involves the establishment of the similarity of the phenomena of genetically unnecessied among themselves, but formed simultaneously from different peoples. Detection of the fixation of homogeneous genetic phenomena and the establishment of typological unity of phenomena makes it possible to reveal the roots of the multipleness of the peoples of Russia. On the other hand, this method is absolutely necessary to identify economic, political and cultural ties, bringing the peoples of Russia and generated the community of their historical destinies.
3) a significant place in research on IG is method of retrospective analysis which allows you to recreate individual socio-geographical phenomena not by establishing their genetic bonds, but on the basis of establishing their feedback. This method is often used to determine the internal administrative and territorial borders, as well as habitat, resettlement of tribes and peoples in cases of insufficient information in modern sources. In this case, based on these later sources, retrospective analysis and mapping are made. For example, printbooks do not contain many data that allow the binding of the main indicators to the area, which makes it difficult to determine the boundaries of the counties of the XVII century, the location of the settlements and the placement of the population in this territory. The necessary information can be led from the materials of a later time: bunk books, intertarous documents, the founding censuses of the end of the XVII - early XVIII centuries. Compiled on a similar basis of the table, containing lists of settlements and showing changes to their names and the composition of the population over a number of years allows you to perform retrospective analysis and mapping on its basis the data obtained and, accordingly, to establish administrative-territorial boundaries. Pretty successfully this method used M.V. Vitov (put on an ancient map more than 90% of the territory of the proceedings). A retrospective analysis allows not only to establish accurate data on settlements and link them to the terrain, but also identify the sustainability of the existence of these settlements in the conditions of the feudal period of Russia. This method is also the most fruitful in combination with archeology, aerial photography methods, field research. D.V. Sedov did work on a continuous examination of archaeological monuments of Smolensk region, gave accurate data on the population of certain territories and ringed it with payments recorded in the diplomas of the princes
4) statistical observation method It provides for registration of facts in the form of censuses, reports, sample surveys, compiling reports to identify qualitatively typical phenomena and patterns, the calculation of average values, etc. Especially widely, techniques of statistical observation are used in the study of the geography of the economy. Statistical analysis requires a number of conditions, the main thing is that the statistical data to have a clear localization, geographical binding. The latter will be more detailed, the easier it will be to localize the studied areas, areas, inhabited, industrial items, etc. The results of the generalization of statistical data and, important, not selective random, and solid Surveys may be based on historical and geographical studies reflecting the processes of economic development of individual areas, large regions or the whole country, as well as make appropriate card issues.
5) method of cartographic . The use of a cartographic method for solving historical and geographical problems led to the successful application of various types of historical cards for a more complete disclosure of the basic patterns of public life. The simplest form of mapping is drawings of cartograms that demonstrate historical phenomena in a specific area at a certain time. For example, the location of states and peoples at a certain time, the placement of agricultural crops, population density, etc. A more complex view of mapping is the preparation of historical cards and atlases disclosing the processes of social development (historical and economic cards, maps characterizing the administrative and territorial division in different periods, military historical maps, etc.).
3. Sources of historical geography:
1) for the historical, economic, political geography, the geography of population is the most complete information written sources . However, not every writing source is the source of the IG. Among the sources are allocated, first of all, such specific types of documents as cards and historical and geographical descriptions. The system of conditional signs, scales, illumination (coloring) allows you to concentrate in cartographic materials a large amount of information. According to its nature, the cards are divided into political, economic, physical and mixed species. For the game, the most valuable sources are different kind of design of the territory with comprehensive characteristics. In addition, the most important information is contained in the economic notes made up during the general intertarization in Russia in the second half of the XVIII - early XIX centuries. They contain a huge amount of information on the territory of the territory: the boundaries of land possessions and their accessories, information on the assessment of the quality of land, types of land, settlements and their location, economic and field development, occupations of the population, etc. A large number of information on the II is contained in various types of historical and geographical descriptions: hives, the compositions of foreigners about Russia, especially many similar information appears from the XVIII century in the descriptions of travel and expeditions V. Bering, P.S. Krashennikova, Peter Simon Powels, I.I. Lepokhina, pf Chelischeva et al. Descriptions of individual territories (for example, "Topography Orenburg" PI Richkov), geographical dictionaries appear ("Lexicon Geographic" V.N. Tatishchev, "Geographical Lexicon of the Russian State" F.A. Polunina, " The large geographical dictionary of the Russian state "A. Shchchatova). In addition, the information of the historical and geographic order gives the chronicle, writer, intertaries, customs, census books, materials of censuses and audits, assembly monuments (spiritual, contractual certificates, peace treaties, land tenure acts), etc.
2) real sources . They establish the existence of certain archaeological crops. The method of archaeological mapping helps to determine the geographical location of archaeological crops, the relationships and mutual influence of these cultures, the placement and distribution of certain types of production, agricultural crops, trading paths, economic ties, etc. In some cases, with the help of real archaeological materials, it is possible to accurately establish the place of the settlement, which is mentioned in the historical source, but not preserved to the present day, the boundaries of the settlement of ethnic groups, commodity sources of individual crafts and crafts, an ancient topography of cities.
3) ethnographic data allow you to detect the composition, origin and resettlement of individual ethnic groups, peoples, features of their economic, cultural life
4) linguistic sources Allowed to identify areas occupied by those or other peoples at a certain period of time, the direction of movement of the population, the processes of their mutual influence. For example, Siberian's old-timer counseling counseling treats Severorusskim \u003d\u003e Siberian settlement took place from Pyrona. Large importance for historical geography has data toponymics - special linguistic, geographical, historical discipline, which is engaged in the study of geographical names. "Toponymika is the language of the earth, and the Earth is a book." The need to establish permanent names of geographic objects appeared early. The numerousness of geographic objects, their repeatability caused the need to refer to the possibility of each object. In these names could be marked as signs, the properties of the designated geographical subject, its location in relation to other objects, historical events, etc. Historical geography uses toponymics data, proceeds from the position that geographical names in the overwhelming majority are motivated and stable. With all possible accuracy of the names of the names there are its patterns, historical conditionality, stability. The historian engaged in the IG should distinguish the actual basis of the name of the name from various kinds of speculation about individual geographical names. The use of materials in toponymics is complicated by the fact that it is not always the name can be explained. In some cases, the initial meaning of the word acquired another meaning, the same word can be used in different ways. Many names require a historical explanation. For example, one of the districts of the Russian state was called the name of the Volga region - this is the area of \u200b\u200bthe average flow of the Volga, lying north of the coal. Wriverer, this area was in relation to the center of the Russian state and the name was the historical folding of the territories, their development, the movement of the population. In the XVI - XVII centuries. The concept of "Zavolzhye" spread on the left bank of the average and lower flow of the r. Volga. Explaining the name of this area and similar areas, their territory should take into account the process of their historical folding and allocation to certain areas, as well as subsequent changes. Toponymics data in the establishment of the settlement of people, their movements, the development of new territories are very important. It is known that the names of the mountains, lakes, rivers are distinguished by older antiquity than the names of settlements, so they matter to identify the ancient population. Especially stable the name of large rivers. Also toponymics makes it possible to set the history of the message paths. Such titles like Volokolamsk, Vyshny Volochek, Ziporal testify that there were wipe paths here. Toponymic information can be used in the study of economic, political geography, geography of population.
5) these anthropology Important to study the origin of races and peoples. Modern historical science adheres to the hypothesis about the origin of all people from one type of fossil anthropoids. This means that there are no direct continuity between the former and new races that modern races arose inside the type of Homo Sapiens. Their settlement through the territory of the old world, and then the transition to other continents was long and complex and led to the emergence of three main races. The process of the ratio of races, their parts, connections between them, the mutual influence is far from being clear. The boundaries between races do not differ at all and do not always coincide with the boundaries of languages. Races may be different in the closest among themselves the peoples and, at the same time, one race can be among different nations. For example, Turkic peoples (Tatars, Bashkirs, Uzbeks, Kazakhs, Kyrgyz, Chuvashi, Turkmen, Yakuts, Azerbaijanis, etc.) have similar languages. However, they differ in anthropological type. The initial anthropological type is preserved more from the Kazakhs and Kyrgyz. Uzbeks are very mitigated, and the Azerbaijanis feature this type is difficult to detect. Consequently, anthropology data can confirm the mixture of peoples.
6) information Natural Sciences They are of particular importance in the reconstruction of historical physical geography. For example, when establishing in the past borders between the forest and the steppe, when clarifying the area, at one time, covered with forest and reduced by a person. For example, it is known that the landscape of the steppe has changed a lot. How this process took place the written sources will not be able to explain. A large role is played by soil analysis. Materials of natural sciences allow you to establish an ancient river beds, which is important for the historical geography of the economy, transport links, especially those areas where the large mobility of rivers (for example, Central Asia) is observed.
Development of historical geography of Russia as a scientific discipline
The origin of historical geography in Russia refers to the first half of the 18th century and is closely related to the development of historical science. Chronologically, the first development of the problems of historical and geographical nature in Russia began to engage Z. Bayer (1694-1738). In St. Petersburg, he actively begins to engage in the problems of Russian history and already in the I volume of "comments" of the Academy, he publishes his writings about Scythians and Scythia. In the first of them, Bayer makes an attempt to find out the origin of the Scythians and determine the places of their ancient settlements. In the second, he gives a description of Scythia of Herodota times. In it, he pointed out the latitude, the longitude of the Scythian territory, gave the characteristics of the rivers and the description of the Scythian tribes. Talking about their settlement, he tried to coincide the habitat of the Scythians to the modern geographic map. For example, the geodot of the Scythians-farmers mentioned, he placed one of the Voivodes of the Brazlavsky then Commonwealth. Later, Bayer publishes the work of the "Geography of Russia and neighboring countries around 948. According to Konstantin Bagryanorovnoe," where he analyzes the geographical data of the compositions of the Byzantine emperor "On the Management of the Empire". The continuation of this study was its "Geography of Russia and neighboring countries around 948 according to the Nordic Writers." The works of Bayer made a great contribution, and although they contain a large number of inaccuracies, but the introduction of a large number of historical and geographical information into scientific turnover was very important. Bayer's work served as the basis for further research of historians of the XVIII and XIX centuries., In particular, V.N. Tatishchev who paid a very significant place to the problems of historical and geographical nature.
In general, historians of the XVIII century understood the subject of historical geography extremely narrowly, seeing in it, first of all, auxiliary historical discipline, with which it was possible to determine the political borders of the past on the modern world, the location of the ancient cities, settlements, places of historical events. Such an understanding of the tasks of historical geography flowed out of those views on the most historical science, when its main task was to study the history, political events, and mainly a description of wars, a story about the activities of rulers, etc. In order for the story to be better understood by the reader, when describing the wars, a show of the movement of troops, places and stroke of battles was needed, the narrative of the activities of the rulers became more understandable when indicating the changes in the borders of the state, with the justification of the administrative and territorial device, etc. But along with this, researchers of the XVIII century realized that the tasks of historical geography are not limited to and should exist, a broader definition of the subject of historical geography. Its first wording in Russian science belongs to V.N. Tatishchev and is contained in published after the death of the scientist "Lexicon": "The geography of historical or political describes the limits and positions, name, borders, peoples, resettlement, buildings or settlements, reigns, strength, contentment and disadvantages and it is divided into ancient, middle and new or real". In the proposal of the composition of the history and geography of the Russian, it turns out that the study of history is unthinkable without knowledge of historical geography.
The XVIII century was the time of formation of historical geography.
End of the XVIII - the first half of the XIX centuries. Because of the accumulation of historical and geographical observations. Accordingly, generalizing work began to emerge. Separate minor notes and indications of localization of certain items of ancient Russia were kept in various works of that time. First of all, it is worth noting "Notes to the history of the Russian state" N.M. Karamzin, in various encyclopedic dictionaries (the dictionary Athanasius Schchatova, V.N. Tatishchev, etc.). However, all these observations by the middle of the XIX century were scattered in so different editions that soon many of them became already a bibliographic rarity, which ultimately made them inaccessible to most researchers. With this difficulty collided N.P. Bars who studied the geography of ancient Russia. According to the council academician St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences I.I. Szrevsky, he decided to bring together all the data on the geography of an ancient RUST until the middle of the XV century in a single whole. However, the result of the work of Barsova became its "essays of Russian historical geography. Geography of the initial chronicle, "as well as the" Geographical Dictionary of the Russian Earth IX - XV century. " In the Barza dictionary tried to give binding to the modern map of more than 1,200 objects (lakes, rivers, cities, villages, etc.), which were mentioned in the chronicles and other sources of that time. Mechanical combination of all previously made historical and geographical observations has not yet meant their qualitative transformation into science. This was aware of the Bars himself. In the preface to his work, he was forced to state with bitterness that "The historical geography of the Russian Earth is the subject not yet developed. All that is done for it is limited to mostly fragmentary notes and first attempts to group geographical facts in a particular system. "
Another direction in the understanding of the tasks of the II represented Leonid Nikolaevich Miket (1839 - 1900). In his review on the book of Barsova, he pointed out that for historical geography "There are many tasks of deep interest, through the decision of which it can make a significant contribution to the overall treasury of historical science. IGs inevitably have to go beyond the simple description and should show the effect of outside nature on the development of humanity or individual individuals - nations ". Thought L.N. Majkova reflected those changes in understanding the IG, who began to be realized from the middle of the XIX century. The impetus for this was the fact that researchers of that time paid attention to the role of the geographical factor in the historical process. Sergey Mikhailovich Soloviev (1820 - 1879) In the "History of Russia from ancient times", he put forward a thesis on the decisive meaning of Russia's geographical conditions for its historical development. In his opinion "The course of events is constantly subject to natural conditions". In the introduction to his course, he wrote: "The monotony of natural forms excludes regional attachments, leads population to monotonous classes; Singleness of classes leads to monotony in customs, nuts and beliefs; The sameness of morals, customs and beliefs excludes hostile clashes; The same needs indicate the same means to their satisfaction; And the plain, no matter how extensive, no matter how in the beginning of its sedentary population will sooner or later become the area of \u200b\u200bone state, from here it is clear the vastness of the Russian state field, the monotony of parts and a strong relationship between them. "Next Solovyov says that in history you can find a lot of cases when the state arose even larger than Russia, but immediately he claims that the Mongolian Empire existed for a long time and soon broke up into a number of small states. In his opinion, Russia is a more sustainable education, the cause of such sustainability, he calls again geographical features.
The ideas of Solovyov last developed Vasily Osipovich Klyuchevsky (1841 - 1911). In his opinion, geographical conditions have become decisive for all the further development of Russia. In historical and geographical introduction to the "course of Russian history", he wrote: "Russia's history is the history of the country that columminateThe colonization area expanded together with the state territory. Then falling, then rising, this age-old movement continues to this day ". In later sketches, Kuevyevsky developed the idea of \u200b\u200bthe role of a geographical factor in history: "The course and quality of people's life depend on the direction and nature of historical labor, the data of it is historical and geographical atmosphere. Russia is abandoned between Europe and Asia, away from the old and modern world. Two main affairs: primary development of non-dangling land and exhausting defense from predatory steppe neighbors. Scientific knowledge, technical means were intercepted by hastily and accidentally through the Russian merchant, and then through the Byzantine priest. "
Thus, we see that in the second half of the XIX century, the main task of historical geography is beginning to be formulated as a study of the mutual influence of society and the natural environment. Along with this, the IG continued to develop in the same direction, i.e. In the form of works on the history of individual principalities of ancient Russia, where, among other things, the issues of historical geography were raised. This activity received the greatest distribution in Kiev University, where in the 60-90s. The XIX century appeared a whole series of regional studies on the history of various land of ancient Russia. At about the same way, similar studies appeared in other places. In many ways, this was due to the fact that in Russian pre-revolutionary universities, the course of historical geography crossed from the course of Russian history. Schap, Solovyov, Klyuchevsky their courses on the history of Russia were preceded by historical and geographical introductions - certain reviews of the Russian plain, its geographical conditions.
An important stage in the design of the IG as an independent scientific and educational discipline was the beginning of the XX century. Following the course of Barcova, the first textbooks and lecture courses on historical geography appear in the University of Pvl's geography. IG stands out to an independent discipline when it becomes clear that its problems began to grow out their original frames of the so-called. Prerequisites for historical development and introduction to the history of the state. Almost at the same time, the IG courses appear in the highest educational institutions of St. Petersburg and Moscow. For example, in St. Petersburg Archaeological Institute, the course read Seredonin, A.A. Spitsyn, in Moscow - K.S. Kuznetsov and MK Lubavsky. MK Lubavsky (1860 - 1936; He taught at Moscow University and the Moscow Archaeological Institute; his course, based only on written sources, covered all periods of Russia's history from the Eastern Slavs until the XIX century) drew attention to the huge size of the territory of Russia and a relatively small population density. It was this circumstance that played, in his opinion, a crucial role in the historical development of the country was a factor that determined Russia's backlog from other European countries. "It is impossible not to recognize that the scattering of the population of Russia was and continues to be a strong brake in its historical, cultural and political development. When the residents are scattered, the process of exchanging products is hampered. Economic life in the dispersion of the population is always a slow paced. ... The scatterness was and is one of the delays of the civilian development of our country. ... History for too long divided Russian people with space ". Describing the influence of geographical conditions on the course of the historical development of Russia, it comes to the conclusion that the IS content is not exhausted by the framework of auxiliary historical discipline, but much wider. "If the scattering of the Russian population in extensive territory is such a strong brake in its cultural development, it is extremely important to understand how such a state of affairs was created, which forced the Russian people to spread so much, so to disperse the Retino on an immense territory. After all, it is, in essence, the cardinal question of our story ". It seems extremely important that "the clarification of the influence of the external nature on a person is the predominant task of the IG.
Course of prominent Russian archaeologist Alexandra Andreevich Spitsyn He was published in 1917 as a tutorial. An overview of the geographical conditions of Eastern Europe occupies a separate place in it, and chronologically reaches the XVII century.
All this allows you to state that by the beginning of the 20th century, domestic historical science approached the realization that the content of the IG as science is much wider than the understanding of it as a set of techniques and methods that can be localized on a map of certain objects. The familiar assessment of the game as one of the many V.I.D. Or the necessary introduction to the general course of history, abruptly limited the possibility of historical geography. By 1917, the domestic historical thought concluded that the main subject of this science should be the interaction of the natural environment and human society.
Unfortunately, the violent political and revolutionary events that followed soon did not have the best effect on the development of the IG. Traditions, who had just begun to develop the IG courses were lost due to the reorganization of the Higher School in 1918 in the 20s, among other historical disciplines, it was announced unnecessary. IG went into oblivion. Over two decades, only one work of a historical and geographical nature was published between the first and second world wars - the study of the Lubavsky "Education of the main state territory of the Great Russian Nature, the settlement and association of the Center" (Leningrad, 1929).
The first who tried to revive interest in the IG in Soviet historiography was Viktor Cornevich Yatsunsky (1893-1966) - Russian historian, specialist in the field of IG and the economic history of Russia. He graduated from the Economic Department of the Moscow Economic Institute in 1915. In 1916, the Historical and Philology Faculty of Moscow University. Doctor of Historical Sciences, Professor since 1950. From 1921 - he taught in the Communist University. Sverdlova, as well as in the Moscow State Pedagogical Institute. From 1947 and up to 1965, he was a professor at the Department of Auxiliary Historical Disciplines of the Moscow State Historical and Archival Institute. From 1946 - Senior Researcher of the Institute of History of the USSR Academy of Sciences, where he was then the head of the IG section. In his writings of the 40-50s. Yatsunsky made an attempt to define the subject and tasks of the IG, trace the course of its development as an independent science. In its article in 1941, the "subject and methods of the IG" Yatsunsky conducted an analysis, which led him to the conclusion that, although the IG is considered auxiliary discipline of historical science, it goes beyond these frameworks and develops into separate science. However, in 1950, the article "IG as Scientific Discipline" Yatsunsky was forced to abandon the definition of the IG as science, specifically specifying, "that, although the IG is an already defined system of knowledge representing an independent interest for the historian, its importance, as auxiliary historical discipline, This is not canceled. " 5 years later, in his monograph "IG. The history of its occurrence and development of 14-18 centuries. " Yatsunsky returned to the usual definition of the game as auxiliary historical discipline. As a result of ideological pressure in the conditions of domination of the ideology of one party, when a Marxist understanding of the story of history was the only right thing, the thought of Lyubavsky that "the clarification of the influence of the external nature on a person is the predominant task of IG," could not be developed. Therefore, Yatsinsky preferred, albeit with reservations, return to the usual definition of the game as auxiliary historical discipline. The merit of Yatsunsky is that he managed to return the IG from oblivion. The takeoff of interest in historical and geographical studies came to the 50th-beginning of the 60s. 20th century: Nosov A.N. "Russian Earth and the formation of the territory of the ancient-Russian state", M.N. Tikhomirov "Russia in the 16th century" M. 1962, Guryanova E.M. "Ethnic history of the Volga-Oksky Meternrachia." At the end of 1962, the IG Group was created at the Institute of History An. IG courses began to read at Moscow University, in the Moscow Historical and Archival Institute and others. But at the same time it should be noted that the development of historical and geographical research in our country after a long time of a forced break in many respects repeated the path of its preceding development. As one of the auxiliary historical disciplines, the IG developed in two directions. On the one hand, in the works we see the improvement of the methodology for the localization of the objects of the past on the modern card, on the other hand, the II has continued to be considered as the necessary historical and geographical introduction to the general historical course (Tikhomirov). Nevertheless, the logic of the development of scientific knowledge led scientists to the realization that the IG should not be closed within the framework of the view, and herself should answer those questions that neither history nor geography can give. A certain step in this understanding was given the creators of the theory of Eurasia. This concept was received in the late 80s, when the Russian intelligentsia comprehended the consequences of the crash, seemingly unshakable empire and asked questions about the further development of the country (Meller-Komelsky, Bromberg, etc.).
Development received the ideas of Solovyov : If Austria-Hungary consisted of several parts, which were separated by geographic barriers, Russia was a huge plain, between which there are practically no obstacles. And thereby, it would seem, the thought of Solovyov was confirmed that no matter how much the diversity of the population of these plains, no matter how extensive, sooner or later they should become an area of \u200b\u200bone state. At the same time, the creators of the Eurasianism noted that the Russian Empire, the Soviet Union was not the only of ever existing state formations in this space. The whole story of a huge region stretching from the borders of Poland to the Great Wall of China, represents nothing but the history of a special historical and geographical world over several thousand years. This approach is important for the II, which should not be closed within one of the species. Despite tough ideological prohibitions, by the beginning of the 1960s, such judgments begin to penetrate into the Wednesday of Soviet scientists. The idea that the main object of attention of the IG should be the study of the interaction of society and the nature more and more than its supporters, first of all, among representatives of historical disciplines, where the ideological pressure was not so strong. All this was the impetus for discussions K.60-X - N. 70s about the subject, tasks and essence of the IG. Its result was the actual separation of discipline under the unified name for 2 independent parts. One of them developed in the framework of historical science. The development of another - in the framework of geographic science. Here, the main task was the study of changes in the natural environment under the influence of human activity. The choice of the main subject of research was largely made under the influence of Vernadsky's views (1863-1945), which put forward the doctrine of the "noosphere" \u003d a new evolutionary state of the biosphere, in which human activity becomes a decisive factor in its development. The merit of Vernadsky became the fact that he developed the idea of \u200b\u200bthe noosphere in the materialist plane as a qualitatively new form of organization arising from the interaction of nature and society. At the same time, he drew attention to the close relationship between the laws of nature and the trends in the socio-economic and political life of a person.
The ideas of Vernadsky tried to develop L.N. Gumilev . He talked about the fact that she rubbed history, it should not be noticed that at a certain moment suddenly some state begins to expand at the expense of his neighbors. From the course of evolutionary theory, it is known that the diversity of biological species that exists on the planet is due to the fact that the changes in animal organisms over the entire period of organisms during the long period leads to mutation. And since each ethnicity is a totality of people, is obvious that Mutogenesis theory can be attached to human society. If so, it becomes clear that, like biological species, ethnic groups are experiencing periods of birth, development, flourishing, aging and decline. To explain the causes of such processes, Gumilev introduces the concept of "passionation". This appearance in a particular human environment of a certain mass of active people, which is the consequence of the elevation of a particular ethnos against the background of others. Gumilev did not take into account the fact that geographical, biological conditions could not be explained by changes in the political, socio-economic and other fields.
Currently, the interest in the IG is growing, but this is manifested in developing it as a training course among other auxiliary historical disciplines. The scientific component of the GI lacks specialists. There is a shortage of large-scale studies on this subject. From the specialists of the modern period, a great contribution to the development of IG Zagorovsky In a study on the history of dreadful traits by the Russian state of 16-17 centuries. and the development of the Russian people of the Central Black Earth. The work of Milova, Boris Nikolayevich Mironova deserve attention (his numerous works on social history). Monograph Maxakovsky "IG World" 1997.
Geographic determinism
Determinism is the doctrine of driving forces.
The problem of driving forces in history is one of the most fundamental theoretical problems. Without it, not yet a single option of common theoretical ideas about history. Some researchers believe that Russia's geographical features decisively influenced its historical development and formation of socio-political institutions. In their opinion, low agricultural culture, a small spare, low level of labor productivity in agriculture (Moscow and imperial periods) were caused by low natural soil fertility, and most importantly - disadvantage of working time, because The climate made it possible to perform agricultural lands only for 5 months (from the beginning of May until the end of October), while in Western European countries, there were only December and January in Western European countries. As the country was agrarian, then the low volume of the cumulative surplus product had the same source. To withdraw a small surge product from producers, with the aim of its redistribution in the interests of the whole society, as well as to regulate social and economic relations it was necessary to establish the mode of serfdom, and so that this regime should be maintained. Low yields led to constant malnutrition. Up until the beginning of the 20th century, the peasant consumed about 1500-2000 kcal per day at a rate of 3000.
With a minor, unstable and risky economy, it was possible to survive only in the case of the solidarity of the peasantry. As a result, community forms of life in the village were formed. Thus, the development of private ownership of land in our country was delayed. So, all the problems of Russia are in its climate and soil.
The role of the geographic environment in which Russia's development occurred is great, especially in the early stages. For example, the influence of climate on agriculture, animal husbandry and other types of agricultural activities directly related to the biosphere. Habitat has a certain impact on social processes. As scientists are already believed to sociobiologists on the population genetics of a person, on social behavior, social and ethnic psychology. But, this influence is not decisive . In addition, the influence of climate and geography in general on public and political institutions, social relations, politics, prices, etc. Indirectly and complicated by the impact of other factors, separating which from each other, to present quantitatively, is not statistically possible. By virtue of this, general considerations about the influence of the geographical environment for individual institutions, behavior models, social and economic processes and political phenomena in the life of society are speculative, and often just assumed, because This cannot be confirmed by empirical data. For example, the severity of the climate is a fact. Canadian meteorologists compared the climate in Russia and in Canada. In 1920, the average resident of Russia lived in the territory, where the average January temperature was -11 degrees, and in 1925 - at -11.9 degrees. In Canada - -10.1 and -8.9 degrees. But if the severity of the climate has decisive fatal significance for Russia, then how to explain that the peoples of a number of Western European countries (Finland, Norway, Iceland, etc.), living in the same or even more severe natural conditions did not experience their traumatic impact. How to explain that the peoples of Germany, Denmark, Canada, the Netherlands, Sweden, Northern England, Ireland, while in about the same conditions, knew the reformation, education, much earlier, they broke up with community relations, collective property, serfdom, previously arose private property on earth, democracy, intense labor, etc. In many cases, supporters of geographical determinism use insolvent prerequisites for their constructions. For example, take the thesis about chronic malnutrition, from which a tendency to solidarity and community forms of life was detected. According to biological laws, it is impossible for representatives of human society for several centuries chronically and steadily 30-50% consumed less than the physiological norm requires. In this case, he would simply be extinct, and not colonized Cola 21 million square meters. km. territory. According to foreign observers and travelers of the XVI-XVII centuries. In Russia, there was a healthy climate, food was made in excess, Russians differed endurance, physical strength, health and durability. Adam Aliary observations are confirmed by modern data. In the XV - XVI centuries. Agriculture, agricultural machinery, crops, livestock productivity of Russia and European countries with similar natural conditions (Poland, Germany, etc. ) were approximately at the same level and only subsequent, especially in the XVIII-XIX centuries. There was a lag. The peasantry of the northern part of the Russian state in the XV-XVI centuries. Provided bread and itself, and the urban population, and some volume even exported to other regions. Russian residents did not suffer from dystrophy and in the XVII century and had an increase of about the same as their neighbors in the countries of Central, Eastern and Western Europe. Contradicts the facts and the main thesis on the lack of working time for agricultural work as decisivefactor of economic backwardness. According to the data at the end of the XIX century, in the very northern provincial city of Russia, Arkhangelsk in the year was 185 days with a temperature above 0 degrees and 125 days with a temperature above +6 degrees, at which the growth of cereals occurs. In Moscow, respectively, 220 and 160 days, in Odessa - 285 and 225, in Yalta - 365 and 285. Therefore, agricultural work during the year in the non-black-earth band could produce 6-7 months a year, and in black earth - from 7 to 9 months . During the rest of the time, the peasants could engage in non-targeted fishery, because In Russia, in contrast to many other European countries, the law did not prohibit them trade, craft, handicraft industry. The thesis on the lack of working time is also in contradiction with the fact that Orthodox Russian people had a greater number of holidays than Protestants, Catholics and Muslims. So, at the beginning of the 20th century, along with Sundays, they were from 120 to 140 per year against 80 and 120 in other countries.
The advantage of the concept of geographical determinism is that it is looking for an explanation of the story in it itself, and not in some other world of transcendental entities, but in real natural conditions of people. The source of the vulnerability of this concept is, above all, the desire of its authors and supporters to see in the geographical factor of the root cause and even the basis of history as a whole. The desire to establish a direct link between historical events with a geographic medium was often unsuccessful in view of the fact that the direct connection between this environment and various parties to human activity is not direct, but indirect. This is determined not in the course of abstract theoretical thinking, but as a result of the search for specific reasons, equally specific phenomena or processes. A simple comparison of the logic of the development of history and the state of natural and geographical conditions indicates the insolvency of the concept of geographic determinism. Fundamental changes in the life and development of humanity are not related to natural-climatic conditions. It can be noted here that for rational solutions to the comparison of the conditions of the geographical environment and the development of human society, several factors can be distinguished:
1) It is unacceptable to interpret the natural and geographical conditions as the only root cause, the primary acquisition of people. These conditions are always one of the factors, along with which it is necessary to take into account the whole number of other causal relations
2) the role of this factor at different times was unequal. From the most pronounced dependence of a person from nature at the dawn of human history through a gradual weakening until the invasion of people in nature, which creates a threat to its existence today, and therefore human history.
3) The natural-geographical environment has provided various impact on different spheres of human activity. The difference is its direct or indirect impact on these areas. Such an understanding of the role of geographical factor in the general methodological plan creates the basis for a particular historical study, during which only one can identify the set of common sustainable, i.e. Whatever time, in which the difference between the geographical factor from the rest is: being one of the prerequisites for explaining something, he does not need some explanation. However, this is not the only part of nature in history. In all specific cases, the role of the natural geographic environment with the inevitability will be different. To explain the physiology of a person, the natural environment of the change in history is impossible, because for 35-40 thousand years in the main features they remained unchanged. This is not about separating the natural and social. Obviously, there is human physiology and there is an interference in the physiology, which can have large social consequences. But how to explain the physiology of man greed, the desire to get rich. Or how to explain that in the Middle Ages a measure of the values \u200b\u200bof man was the knowledge of origin? And with the transition to a new time, the human value has become wealth. Understanding the past of our Fatherland and thinking about his future cannot do without support on its natural geographical environment, both in particular cases and in a large-scale problem. For example, one of the reasons for the elevation of Moscow in the XIII-XIV centuries. - advantageous geographical position. Also, severe frosts in 1812 contributed to the collapse of the gripful plans of Napoleon. Unusually strong frost in winter 1941-1942. Also became our ally. In January, the air temperature reached -46 degrees, which was unusual for the Germans.
Accounting of the geographical factor did not lose its importance and today in connection with attempts to solve fundamental geographical problems:
2/3 of Russia and 90% of the population are in a cold climatic belt. This means that the yield of plant biomass with 1 hectares in Russia is 2 times or less than in Western Europe, 3 times and less than in the United States. Accordingly, the cost per unit of agricultural products is much higher than in the West. Hence the conclusion about the possible level alignment for the domestic manufacturer.
Russia occupies a territory of 17 million square meters. km, which is 3.5 times the territory of all Western Europe. The territory's extensity is a problem for the market for sales of any products. But it's not just the problems of economic property. Many researchers associate the fact that the immense expanses of Russia influenced and affect the psychology of people and the mental warehouse. Many character traits and behavior of a Russian person are, of course, are associated with natural conditions. But it's not just a psychology, and this is especially important today. Modern Russia is geographically close to Russia of the XVII century. The territorial disintegration of the country has become the problem of survival of all peoples, i.e. From the preservation of the integrity of the Russian state, too much depends on.
Libmonster ID: RU-7531
Historical geography as a branch of historical knowledge has been there for several centuries. The founder of historical geography in German geographers and historians (in the scientific literature of other countries, this issue until recently, one can say almost at all) has long been customer (Cluver), formerly a professor in the famous Leiden University in the Netherlands in the first quarter of the XVII century .
Already in 1785, Geergen (Heeren) spoke in this sense in the collective course of the historical geography of the ancient world 1. The keeper found the founder of historical geography in the 60s of the XIX century. Bursian 2, in the 1980s - Vimmer 3. This opinion was especially strengthened after the appearance in 1891 a small, but substantive monograph on Briver Prof. PARCH (PARTSCH) "Philipp Cluver Der Begrunder Historischer Landerkunde". So, with reference to the Parce about Kerver, as the founder of historical geography, the famous book is prof. Hettner (Hettner) "Die Geographie, Ihre Geschichte, Ihr Wessen und Ihre Methoden", published in 1927. In our literature, this opinion was repeated in 1927. Rudnitsky (C) a small compilation article "About becoming Іstorically" geographic "in the system of the short-term earthly earth" 5 and quite recently prof. Budanov in the "Geography Methodology" 6.
The Belgian Professor Van der Linden (Van der Linden) in opening speech at the opening of the first international congress on historical geography in 1930 spoke with another point of view: he pointed to the rudder, the famous Flemish geographer of the second half of the XVI century, the author of the world's first historical Atlasa, as on the "Forehouse of Historical Geography". A similar opinion was expressed in 1935 by prof. Almagia (Almagia), a major Italian specialist in the history of geographic science, which characterized the Orgelion as "one of the founders of historical geography." More recently, in 1938, American Barnes (Barnes) in the book "A History of Historical Writing" noted that the English historian and geographer XII century. Giraldus Cambrighs (Giraldus Cambranesis) "was also engaged in historical geography."
I have no opportunity under this article to expose
1 See "Handbuch Der Alten Erdbeschreibung Von D" Anville Zum Gebruch Seines Atlas Antiquus In 12 Landkarten ", Verfasst I Europa.
2 bursian "Geographie Von Griechenland".
3 Wimmer "Historische Landschaftskunde". Innsbruck. 1885.
4 There is a Russian translation.
5 Printed in the "Notes of the Estory-Fіlologic Viddil" of the Ukrainian Academy of Sciences. Kn. 13 - 14th, 1927.
6 was published in 1939 Gadu.
special scientific research The question of the time of the occurrence of historical geography 1. But, in any case, the most important statements of historians "and geographers suggest that historical geography in Western Baron has existed for more than three centuries, even if they began to start it from Claver. In our country, the history of its development is shorter, respectively, more younger age Russian Historical science, but still we have the earrings of historical geography already at Tatishchev, the AUs of the Net Dingen's work, our pre-revolutionary historians usually have the beginning of development in our historical geography as a special discipline 2. Thus, in our country, historical geography can not be considered particularly young science.
For a few centuries, the existence of historical geography has accumulated and very many works in this area. At international historical congresses, a special section is usually organized on historical geography. Such a section, as a rule, is also created on international geographical congresses. And in 1930, even a special international congress on historical geography was convened in Belgium, which was attended by scientists from Belgium, France, Germany, England, Italy, Spain, Holland and Poland. Judging by the reports in the scientific press 3, 55 reports were read at the Congress in 7 sections and the Congress passed very lively.
Thus, historical geography is an old scientific discipline with extensive literature, and moreover, the interest in which it grows.
If we turn, however, to historical and geographical literature, we will find there a very significant variety of opinions on the content of the concept of "historical geography". This variety of opinions was vividly expressed in that discussion about the subject of historical geography, which was organized in 1932 in London historical and geographical associations 4. To this, it is necessary to add that specific works on historical geography are often in contradiction with those definitions of the object of historical geography, which their authors themselves give themselves. Sometimes, to get out of the difficult position, the authors give two definitions - one is wider, and the other is narrower and corresponding to their presentation. So, for example, S. M. Sedonin arrived in his course of the historical geography of Russia. It should be noted that the content of his book is even its narrower definition.
As a result of this situation, historical geography before the First World War acquired a reputation as science with a very uncertain content. S. K. Kuznetsov His course of Russian historical geography at the Moscow Archaeological Institute in 1907 - 1908
1 Opinion Barnes, in any case, wrong: Girald Kebrysky wrote geographical work, but he has historical and geographical works. Elements of historical geography in work on general geography Previously are found at Biondo (Biondo) in "ITALIA Illustrata" in the XV century. (see him below); For the first time, he separated the historical geography from the general sodel in the XVI century. The lack of space does not allow to justify this position.
3 See "Journal des Savants", 1930, August-October. "Annales de Geographies, 1931, from January 15th.
5 This can be vitely - to see at the work of the Kretschmer "Historische Geographie Von Mitteleuropa") (see about it below).
he began in words: "I apologize to me if I say that the content of the science that I have to be exposed - Russian historical geography is extremely vaguely, the most concept of it is extremely vague" 1.
Nowadays, similar reviews are also distributed; eg in 1932 prof; Jshobert (Gilbert) wrote in the article "What is historical geography?": "The term" historical geography "does not have a completely defined value for the historian and for the geographer. The works indicated by this term include a wide variety of those that are significantly different between themselves in nature. and goals "2. Most recently, the well-known French mediwist Mark Block (MARC BLOCH) in his review on the collective work of English scientists edited by Darby (Darby) "Historical Geography of England Before AD 1800" wrote: "Our dictionary is still so imperfestation that call the book" Historical Geography " - It means that the risk does not give a predetermination of a good idea of \u200b\u200bits content "3. In our Soviet literature, an attempt was even made to deny the most appropriateness of the existence of historical geography 4.
It is hardly necessary to prove that the uncertainty described in understanding the object of historical geography is a brake for successful work in this area. But, on the other hand, simply adding another definition to previously expressed the case. Therefore, it seems to me more appropriate to go somewhat more difficult way. Leaving while at the side of the definition of the object of historical geography offered to various authors, we will try to find out what actually the content is invested and invested in this concept by the authors of historical and geographical work in the most work, and not in theory.
When systematizing the actual content of historical and geographic work, I will be in my presentation to have a brief characteristics of individual directions, if possible, in the chronological sequence of their appearance and try, as far as possible within the framework of a brief magazine article, to associate these areas with the development of historical and geographic science 5.
Such a review will help me better justify my own views on the subject and tasks of historical geography, as well as present and some interest due to the lack of an appropriate report as either and in foreign scientific literature. Naturally, with the abundance of accumulated literature, I will have a lot to touch at all and much only affect casual.
The most elementary task, which primarily gets up in front of the historic geographer, is localization on the map of the geographical names of the past. He seeks to identify places where the ancient peoples lived, the location of the ancient cities, points of battles and other items related to historical events. WO ES EIGENTLICH GEWESEN? (Where is it actually?) - So you can determine, paraphrasing the well-known expression of a wound, the task that is historically
1 Kuznetsov S. "Russian Historical Geography". M. 1910.
2 in "Scottisch Geographical Magazine" N 3 for 1932.
4 cm. Saar. "Sources and methods of historical research". Baku. 1930.
5 Despite the fact that historical geography There are more than three centuries and has accumulated a huge material, in scientific literature, nor in our, nor in foreign, there is not a single attempt to study the history of its development due to the development of historical science and the development of geographic science. The author of this article tries to replenish this gap in the monograph prepared for them "Historical geography, history of its development as a scientific discipline, its subject and method."
p. 5.
i got up before all others and with the first attempts of the decision of which there are historical geography as a science.
Already in the last quarter of the XVI century. Ortelius, working on the maps of its first in the world of historical satin, the main task has seen in to help its contemporaries read the ancient authors 1 . On the cover of his satin as a maiden, he set the words "Historiae Oculus Geographia". In cases where Ortali met the ancient authors of discrepancies in the names, he often gave the appropriate indications on the map itself.
In order to interpret the ancient geographical names and establishing their connection with modern names, the names of Ortalius was the historical and geographical dictionary under the title "Thesaurus Geographicus" 2.
The long series of follow-up researchers XVII, XVIII and the XJX centuries was the successors of the business started by the sodel in the two named after his works. In the XVII century On this, "the field was put forward by the beer, who studied the geography of ancient Italy, Sicily and Germany, and Valois (Valois), engaged in the geography of ancient Gaul. Their work by the experts of the historical geography of the ancient world were high in the XIX.
In the XVIII century The works of D "Anville (D" Anville), which NiBur (Niebuhr) - named "Great D" Anville, one of the greatest geniuses known to me "3. In the XIX century, a German scientist Henrich Kepert (Hemrrch Kiepert) received wide fame who was the Atlas of Ancient Greece, the Atlas of the ancient world of 4 and a number of cards to the ancient Roman inscriptions, published by the Prussian Academy of Sciences 5, as well as excellent training wall cards on ancient history, which had been widely distributed to the first imperialist war in our country. He also belongs And "Lehrbuch Der Alten Geographie", mainly devoted to the study of an ancient geographical nomenclature, besides these general works, a lot and private studies were written, which found out the location of a geographical point of the past or a place where something or another historical event occurred. In your country already Tatishchev put and tried to resolve (issues of such a character. In the first book of his "History of the Russian" he will There is a problem about the "name, incident and the abode of" various nations who have inveraged our country. When at the end of the XVIII century. Musin-Pushkin wrote a special study on the issue "On the location of the ancient Russian Tmuto-Kansky reign" 6, he was not the first researcher of the issue, which
1 Orteli - Flemish geographer of the second half of the XVI century. (1527 - 1598) - received European fame to publish a fundamental geographical satin called "Theatrum Orbis Terrarum", which was published in 1 - 570. Atlas, 21 editions in Latin, and several publications in French, German, Spanish, Flemish, Italian and English. Together with the Mercator, Ortali is considered an outstanding representative of the Flemish cartographic school. As a supplement to its geographical satin of Ortali, the first historical Atlas "Parergon Theatri Orbrus Terrarum" was the first in the world. About the rudder as a geographer There is quite significant literature (the main thing is indicated in the work of Bagrow (Bagrow) "Abrahami Ortelii Catajogus Geographorum". Gotha. 1928. Erganzttngsheft 199 Zu Petermanns Mitteilungen); On the contrary, the historical and geographical works of the sodel, which had the largest meaning at one time, in the literature of the XIX - XX centuries. Scientific analysis was not subjected.
2 was published in 1578 under the title "Synonimia Geographica". In the second edition, the title was changed to "Thesaurus Geographicus".
3 niubuhr. "VORTRAGE UBER ALTE LANDER-UUND VOLKERKUNDE"; D "Anvil was an honorary member of the Russian Academy of Sciences.
4 "Formae Orbis Antiqui". The work is over with his son Richard.
5 "Corpus Loscriptionum Latinarum".
6 Published in 1794.
p. 6.
those already studied by Tatishchev, Prokopovich, Bayer, Shcherbatov and Bolt.
In the XIX century We have already issues of this kind, we have already had a number of researchers, for example Lerberg 1, Brun 2, and in particular, the works of N. P. Barsov, which made the "Geographical Dictionary of the Russian Earth IX - XIV VZH." and "Essays of Russian historical geography. Geography of the initial chronicle." The first of these works in its structure is similar to "Thesaurus GeograpllTcus" Orel, in the second author subjected the geographical names, found in the initial chronicle, determines the location of the relevant items, examines the resettlement of the tribes, the boundaries of land and printed, sets the geographical horizon of the chronicler. There are no cards from Bars.
The modern Soviet historians 3 are also clarified by the questions of the ancient topography.
From determining the geographical location of places, wonderful in historical relations, it was natural to move to the definition of historical travel routes and hiking of famous commander. Geographical maps of sea routes existed with those who have gone. They were usually applied the shores of those countries along which the journey of the sea ran. These cards served as guidance for navigators. Special development they received in the XIV century. In Italy (so-called portolane). Then on the maps began to designate the line and the path of the sea. In the Geographical Atlas Anise (Agnese) of 1546, drawn on the parchment of the geographical satin. magellan's path and the route in which Spanish ships swam in Peru are deposited on the map. For historical cards, this reception was used for the first time in his satin of Orteli, drawing up the travel route of the Biblical Patriarch Abraham, Kraiver in his "Italia Antiqua" explored, "On what path Hannibal moved through the Alps" 5. This technique was widely applied in his historic atlas, French Geographic Du Val, depicting the swimming paths of Odyssey and Eney, the route of the retreat of ten thousand Greeks on the basis of the story of Xenophon and paths of Alexander Macedonsky 6.
Since then, the study of historical pathways, especially ways of movement of troops, has become common in historical geography. This issue is given to attention and in modern studies are not, only in European countries with their long-term military history, but Yves America, the story of which is much poorer of this kind of events. As an example, it is possible to bring out in 1926 in São Paulo in Brazil - "The Experience of the General Card of Powlists", compiled by Alphonse de Tona 7. There are works on this kind of topics and in the Soviet literature, for example published in 1937 in N 1
1 Lerberg "Studies that serve to explain the ancient Russian history." 1819.
2 Brun "Chernomoria. Collection of research on the geography of Southern Russia." 2 volumes.
3 See, for example, Kudryashov "Historical and geographical information about the Polovtsian land on the chronicles on the campaign of Igor Seversky in Polovtsy in 1185" In the "news of the State Geographical Society". T. 69. LED. 1st.
4 The instance of this atlas is stored in the Saltykov-Shchedrin Public Library manuscripts in Leningrad.
5 See Cluver "Italia Antiqua", p. 363.
6 du Val "Cartes Geographiques Dresses Pour Bien Entendre Les Historiens, Pour Connoistre Les Entendues Des Anciennes Monarchies Et Pour Lire Avec" Fruit Les Vies, Les Voyages, Tes Guerres et Les Conquestes Des Grands Caipitains. "A Paris. 1660.
7 Affonso de Taunay "Ensaio de Carta Geral Das Bandeiras Paulistas" (we are talking about the expeditions of planters of the Brazilian state of São Paulo to capture the natives in order to appeal them into slavery).
p. 7.
"Historical notes" Article V. N. Khudadova "The retreat of ten thousand Greeks from Euphrates to Trapezund through the Transcaucasia."
From localization on the map of the wonderful places in historical terms, it was natural to proceed to study the political borders of the states of the past "and the changes they have undergone during the historical process. Interest in this is clearly noticeable at Orel, which in his" Parergon "highlights the borders of states, And sometimes political divisions are also indicated inside individual countries. Special attention to the domestic political division was paid in the XVII century. in France Nikolai Sanson (Nicolas Sanson), from which French historians sometimes behave the beginning of historical geography in France 1. Sanson, however, like Orel, Considered the political borders of the past in statics, without trying to trace their dynamics.
The first attempt to give such a dynamics was made in the same, XVII century. In France, the above-mentioned du Valem, a nephew and a student of Sanson. Du Val has drawn three growth maps of the Roman Empire: Imperil Romani Infantia 2, Imperil Romani Adolescentia 3 and Imperii Romani Inventus 4. In the future, the study of the evolution of political borders has become hardly the most popular task of historical geography. Special attention was paid to this issue and is paid to France not only in scientific, but also in the educational literature. Since the July monarchy, there were distribution of historical geography textbooks there, which give the state of association and territorial growth in France and changes in its administrative division. In scientific relations in France, a lot made in this direction at the end of the XIX century. Longnon (Longnon) with its painstaking surveys 5. In 1881, the English scientist Freman published in the spirit of this area a course of historical geography of Europe. The work of Friman consisted of two volumes - atlas and text. It showed all the main changes in the political and partly of the church geography of Europe from antiquity until the XIX century. inclusive. Freeman's book got great fame: she asked three publications in England and was translated into French and Russian languages. The Russian publication was under the editorship of I. V. Lucitsky in 1892. According to non-European colonial countries, the classic work of German geographer Supana "Die Territories Entwicklung der Europaischen Kolonien Mit Einem Kolonialgeschichtlichen Atlas Von 12 Karten Und 40 Kartchen Im Text". The author consistently considers, from a geographical point of view, the history of the section of the world between European powers until 1900 and gives a number of colonies cards in connection with the most important points of this story. In opposite
1, for example, Julian (Jullian) in the preface to the Mirot book "Geographie Historique de La France". Paris. 1930.
2 In the satin under the title "Diverses Cartes et Tables Pour La Geographie Ancienne, Pour La Chronologie Et Pour Les Itineraires et Voyages Modernes." A Paris. 1665.
3 In the atlas called above, on page 7.
4 In the satin under the title "Diverses Cartes et Tables Pour La Geographie Ancienne, Pour La Chronologie Et Pour Les Itineraires et voyages modernes." A Paris. 1665.
5 Lotion is the author of Atlas Historique De La France Depuis Cesar Jusqu "A NOS JOURS" (brought to 1380); "La Formation de L" Unite Frangaise, Geographie De Ia Gaule Au VI SieCle "; Les Noms De Lieux De La France and other works.
6 After the publication of the Labor SUPAN "A Avenased a few more major works that had a goal to trace the history of political borders in colonies and affiliates. The most significant of them are two works: the three-volume work of Hertslet" The Map of Africa by Treaty ". London. 1909, in which the author studies under contracts between European powers in the selection of Africa, illustrating the cards established by the border agreements, and recently the work of Ireland Gordon "Bondaries Possessions and Conflicts in South America". 1938. In the last book, its author gives a detailed history of borders and conflicts related to With them, in South America.
p. 8.
book of Friman's book written by Weather of the reference book, SUPAN "A is a monographic historical study. This work highly appreciated V. I. Lenin, who used her in his work" Imperialism, as the highest stage of capitalism. "In our country, in 1793, it was published "The historical map of the Russian Empire," where the territorial growth of Russia from Peter I was presented to Catherine II inclusive.
In the XIX - XX centuries. A number of researchers were engaged in certain questions of the history of our external and internal borders. Here, it was especially necessary to note the work of the insignificant "about five, and the passages of Novgorod in the XVI century.". Moreover, however, such issues were not studied in special work, but were in the field of vision of scientists or engaged in the local history of any particular part of our country or those who studied the organization of local governance; So for example, M. K. Lubavsky in the work "Regional division and local department of the Lithuanian-Russian state by the time of publication of the first Lithuanian statute" The whole department of the book devoted to the political geography of the Lithuanian-Russian state in the XV - XVI centuries; Yu. V. Gauthier as an annex to his research on the seasacing region in the XVII century. Mid-XVII in the scoring edge of the middle of the XVII centuries amounted to the master and census book. and gave a list of mills and volosts as a comment to it, which were part of each of the seasacing counties; In another study, "the history of regional administration in Russia from Peter I to Catherine II" - Yu, V. Gauthier, a special chapter dedicated to the regional division of 1725-1775.
In modern Soviet historical literature, the study of the history of the borders is also paid to attention. As an example, the work of S. V. Yushkov "On the boundaries of Ancient Albania", published in N 1 of "historical notes" in 1937, can be given.
To determine the places to which the geographical names of the past, to study the boundaries of previous states and -prons, an extremely valuable source are vintage historical cards. Naturally, the study and publication of these cards became one of the tasks of historical geography hardly from the very moment of its occurrence. Already at the end of the XVI century. Mark Velzer, a member of the famous Augsburg coupe and at the same time a scientist Humanist, found an ancient Roman card in the library of Humanist Peteringer, who later in science called "Tabula Peutingeciana". Welzer moved the map of Ortel to Antwerp for studying and publication. Orteli did not have time to complete this work, and "Tabula Peutmgeria" Na "was published already after his death. 1. Since then, a huge literature has accumulated on this map. We have worked on the USSR recently acade. Ya-A. A. Manandyan, studying Trade essence of ancient Armenia 2.
1 map was printed Moretus, the owner of well-known publishing company Plantin "a, under the following headline:" Tabula Itineraria ex fllustri Peutingerorum bibliotheca quae Augustae Vindelicorum est beneficio Marci Velseri septemviri Augustiani in lucem edita ". Under the heading was placed next interesting appeal to the Welser" A noble husband Mark Velzera, Septevir of the Augsburg Republic, Hello Ivan Seretus, Antwerp Typographic. This card, noble husband, do not send to you, but return as water from your source. You sent her, found by your efforts of Paper Guards, Ortali (recently decent to the clutch of scientists) for publication; Consequently, she returns to you rightfully. Orteli himself shortly before death, I was instructed to me and my own desire and respect for you encouraged. So, accept, if you were the deceased dear, the last gift from him is this card, once belonged to you personally, and now thanks to you who is a common property. Antverpiae Typographeio Nostro, Kai. Decept. MCXCVIII. Thus, it is necessary to correct the error made in the newly published book O. L. Weinstein "Historiography of the Middle Ages", where the publication of this card is attributed to Peterning (p. 84), who deceased in fifty-one year (in 1547) Before publishing a map.
2 See his work "On the trade and cities of Armenia V - XV BB.". Yerevan. 1930.
page 9.
Edition and study of old maps in the XIX century, especially widely unfolded. In the middle of the century, the French 1 and the Portuguese Santarem 2 and the Portuguese of Santarem 2 at the end of the century are the famous Swedish explorer of polar countries and at the same time historian of Nordencheld 3. Currently, this case adopted a very significant scope abroad. In many countries, for example, Italy 4, in the Czech Republic 5, in Yugoslavia 6, "Monumenta Cartographies" of these countries were published. Especially luxurious on the design and exceptional material is a multi-volume edition "Monumenta Cartographica Africae et aegypti" 7 produced in Egypt Yusuf Kamal.
In our country, the work of V. A, the Cord of the "Materials on the History of Russian Cartography" in three releases, which came out consistently in 1899, 1906 and 1910 are well-known fame. The same author in 1931 was published "Mantili to the Istoria Cartographer Ukraine". To the same group of historical and geographical work, it is necessary to attribute both the "Book of Big Drawing" 8 and Remez cards,
The study of the geographical monuments of the past as a historical source, of course, was to push researchers to study the history of the development of geographical views. On the other hand, the scientific thought was to directly and expand the content of historical science and the development of geography, "oh needed a lot of time so that all these influences gave concrete results. Humanists considered an antique culture as a whole, without knowing how to distinguish It periods of development. They did not distinguish any periods of development and in the geographical thought of antiquity.
The content of historical works of the XVI - XVII centuries. It was reduced to the presentation of the political events of the past. The situation has changed only in the XVIII century. In the "century of enlightenment" in France, the bourgeoisie set wider tasks before historians. As the Spanish historian Altaamira notes, the XVIII century put forward the principle that "the story is" the history of the rulers, and the history of peoples. "The history of culture is born, Frere 10 at that time puts the beginning of the study" History of geographical view of antiquity. In the XIX century The subject of study is the development of geography in the Middle Ages. Polish historian Lelowel, who, according to Marx, "made much more to clarify the enslavement of his homeland, rather than a whole crowd of writers, who has all the luggage comes down simply to rugs on
1 Jomard "Les Monuments De La Geographic Ou Recueil d" Anciennes Cartes Europeennes Et Orientates Publiees en Faosimile De La Grandeur des Originaux ". Paris 1842 - 62.
2 Santarem "Atlas Compose de RNappemondes et de portulans et d" Autres Monuments Geographiques "Depuis Le VI Siede De Notre Ere Jusqu" AU XVII-ME ". Paris. 1842 - 53.
3 Nordenskiold "Atlas to the Early History of CAntgography". Stockholm, 1889; "Periplus, An Essay on the Early History of Charts and Sailings Direction", StockHelm. 1897.
4 "Almagia Monumenta Italiae Contographica". 1930.
5 "Monumenta Cartographica Bohemia".
6 SYNDIK "Star Map of Jygoslavny Zemala". Beograd.
7 is not received on sale, but is sent on the largest libraries in the world. In the USSR, there is in the Leningrad Public Library named after Saltykov-Shchedrin.
8 for the first time was published by Novikov in 1773, since then was reprinted several times.
9 Altamira "La Ensenanza de la Historia", p. 131.
10 Freret "Observations Generales Sur La Geographie Ancienne". The work was kept in the papers of the Academy of Inscriptions in Paris and published only in 1850 in the "Memoires De L" Institut National De France. Academic Des Inscriptions Et Belles Lettres. T. XVI.
p. 10.
russia's address "1," La Geographic Du Moyen Age "wrote in emigration, not lost its significance 2. In our country, I. D. Belyaev has already printed a study" On geographical information in ancient Russia " . Since then, in this "direction done a lot.
It is unlikely that it is necessary to prove that the history of geography is not a historical geography at all, although, of course, there are many points of contact between these branches of knowledge, and, in particular, the geographical work of the past, similar to the old maps, can often serve as a historical source. However, historical geography and geography history are very often mixed, and specialists are mixed, for example, S. M. Heartonin in his course of "historical geography" characterizes the above-mentioned article by I. D. Belyaeva as a job on the historical geography of our country.
So, the localization on the map of places, wonderful in historical terms, the definition of military hike routes, the study of the history of political borders and in connection with this - the study of old maps as one of the species of escript-geographical sources - here is a complex of related problems in its content of problems that have stuck before historical Geography from the very beginning of its occurrence. The content of this complex fully complies with the requirements that the so-called political history presents the so-called historical geography.
The next problem, which is usually also attributed to the area of \u200b\u200bhistorical geography, is the question of the population of this country in the past and its distribution but territory. This "question was not alien and scientists of the XVI - XVTI centuries. When they met with the ancient writers, the mention of any-sir, they sought to determine the place where it lived? Narad, then they tried, for example, give a picture of the distribution of tribes and peoples on the territory of the ancient Gaul, Germany to t. n.
In the XIX "B. Influenced by the national recovery in Germany and" National Renaissance in Chekhov, Croats and Slovenians, as well as due to the growth of historical knowledge and development of scientific linguistics, work on this site of historical geography has significantly expanded and deepened. A new source was introduced - toponymics data.
The desire to interpret the meanings of geographical names existed already in antiquity. In the era of Renaissance and later historians, it was also often - to explain geographical names, and the lack of linguistic training led to the most arbitrary conclusions. In the first half of the nineteenth century, with the growth of scientific linguistics, Toponymik found in it is a solid support for their research. In the second half of the century in the countries of Western Europe, a broad work was organized on collecting geographical names. This work continues and now. In England, there is a special scientific organization - English Place- Name Society, publishing systematic lists of geographic titles by counties. Similar "editions exist in Germany, France and some other countries, a special magazine on toponymics is published in Germany -" Zeitschrift Fur Ortsnamenforschung ", in Belgium -" Bulletin De La Commission De Toponymie et Dialactologie ".
1 K. Marx and F. Engels. Op. T. XI. Part 1, p. 508.
2 Almost simultaneously released his work but geography history in the Middle Ages mentioned above Publisher of medieval cards by Santar - "Essai Sur L" Histoire de Ia Eosmographie Et De La Geographic Pendant Le Rnoyen Age. "Paris, Ti 1849. T. II. 1850, T . Iii. 1852. This work was supposed to serve as a comment on the maps published.
p. 11.
Toponymika is, of course, not historical geography, but its data is widely used by historical geography. Studying geographical names, toponymics establishes not only their etymological structure and their meaning (when it is possible), but also their belonging to one or another language (without this, philological analysis is impossible). As a result, it turns out to be possible on the basis of the analysis of the geographical names of any locality, to determine which people gave these names and, therefore, settled this terrain in the past. On this feature at the end of the XVIII century. They drew attention to Germany - in Laura, - where in the magazine "Neuer LausitziSeher Magazin" a number of works of local pastors, who used the material of local toponymics to solve the issue were the initial inhabitants of Lauzian Slavs or Germans 1 .
In 1821, one of the founders of scientific linguistics, Wilhelm Gumboldt 2, published a job "Prufung der Untersuchungen Uber Die Urbewohner Hispaniens Vermittelst Der Vaskischen-Sprache", in which he tried with the help of the Basque language to be analyzed by the Geographical Nomenclature of Spain in order to determine the national composition of the initial population countries. The figures of the Slavic Renaissance early paid attention to this historical source: already collars 3 and Shafarik 4 attract it to the study. Since then in Western Europe in this direction, a lot has been done. Over a number of methodological difficulties 5, it turned out, produced methods for using toponymics data; there were scientific directions that accumulated significant literature; There are toponymic atlases, among which it should be noted the thorough "Atlas Nazw Geograficznych SlowianSzczyzny Zachodniej" of Costelsky 6, a tireless researcher of the Slavic toponymics of East Germany.
From the classics of Marxism, Engels was also interested in issues of historical geography, which also used toponymics data for some of his works. In the articles "German tribes" and "Franksky dialect", which remained in the manuscript after the death of Engels, I first published only in the USSR 7, Engels gave the workshop of the sketch of the geographical location of the ancient Germann tribes and the adverbs.
In our country, the value of the toponymics data for historical geography first pointed out more than one hundred years ago N. I. Nadezhdin. In his article "Experience of the historical geography of the Russian world", Nadezhdin wrote: "The first page of history should be a geographical Lankarta not only as a supporting agent to know where what happened, but as a rich archive of the most documents, sources" 8. It indicates, further that the historian is important not the meaning of the name, but the definition to which language it belongs to determine which people in the past in the past. He himself, on the basis of the analysis, named the rivers of Eastern Europe sketched the settlement scheme on it in the past Slavic and Finnish tribes. In his article N. I. Nadezhdin, by the way, mentions the above-mentioned work of Wilhelm Humboldt on the ancient population of Spain. The Nethackin article had a significant impact on Russian historical geo-
1 See EGLI "GESCHICHTE DER GEGRAPHISCHEN NAMENKUNDE", S. 37. Leipzig. 1886.
2 Senior Brother Alexander Humboldt, who is considered along with the Ritter founder of modern geography.
3 COOLR "ROZPRAWYO GMIENACH, POCATIKACH I STAROZJTNOSTECH NARODU SLAWSKIEGO A GEHO KMENU". 1830.
4 Safarik "Slovanske Staixritnosti". Ed. 1836 and 1837.
5 The characteristic of them see in the capital labor Egorova D. "Colonization of Meclenburg in the XIII century.". T. I. Ch. IX. Toponym material.
8 Poznan. 1934 - 1937.
7 See K. Marx and F. Engels. Op. T. XVI. Part 1, pp 376 and 412.
p. 12.
graphically both from the point of view of the method and on topics. The problem of the population took it a central place for a long time, for example, in the famous book of Barsov 1, a lot of attention is paid to the resettlement of Eastern Slavs according to the chronicles. The course of historical geography S. I. Serdonin is dedicated exclusively to the change and placement of peoples in the territory of European Russia from the times of Herodota to Mongolian conquest. From the problem of the ethnographic composition of the population, our historians moved to the study of the history of colonization of the territory of Eastern Europe and North Asia with Russian and Ukrainian peoples. On the meaning of colonization in the history of Roshche, another S. M. Solovyov was indicated. Colonization is studied by S. M. Solovyov from nationalist positions. This nationalist slope was characteristic of this issue and many subsequent historians of pre-revolutionary time. In our historiography, many special works are devoted to the colonization of individual parts of our country; In the same way much attention was paid to her in general courses. So for example, V. O. Klyuchevsky highlights the colonization "as the main fact" of Russian history 2. M. K. Lyubavsky built a course of historical geography of Russia as a history of colonization 3.
A further problem that is often associated with historical geography is to study the impact of natural conditions on the course of the historical process in any country.
Another antique writers argued about the influence of nature on a person and the course of history. The statements on this topic are available at Fukidid and Xenophon. Strabo The success of Roman conquests with the geographical position and nature of Italy 4. The influence of nature occupies a prominent place in the historical and SOCI "the ological theory of one of the largest Arab historians - Ibn-Haldun 5. In the era of Renaissance, the French state scientist and historian of Boden 6 were stopped. In the XVIII century the influence of nature on human society was given great importance to Montesquieu and A number of other mentors of the eyelid.
So, the question of the "role of a geographical factor in history" is a very old question. However, until the XIX century. This question was usually applied in general and was usually allowed in the sense of recognizing the decisive influence of one of the natural conditions - the climate of this country - to the psyche of a person, and through it and on society and the entire historical process.
In the XIX century, under the influence of the famous German geography of Ritter, who, according to the expression of the Spanish historian Altamira, "approved the study of geographical phenomena as an element of social history" 7, the problem was more specific. Natural conditions began to study as an external situation in which the historical process is developing. The student of the ritter historian Kursiius wrote in 1851 - 1852. a monograph on Peloponnese, where with the art of the artist described the comprehensive geography of Peloponnese and its influence on the
1 Bars "Essays of Russian historical geography. Geography of the initial chronicle." 1st ed. 1874; 2nd ed. 1885.
4 Straps "Geography", p.286 - 287. Translation of Mishchenko.
5 See Belyaev "Historical and Sociological theory of Ibn-Haldun". "Historian-Marxist" N 4 - 5 for 1940.
6 PDIN "Six Livres De La Republique". 1576.
7 Altamira "La Eosenanza de la Historia", p. 166.
p. 13.
this country in antiquity. However, as FUTER 1 indicates, the influence of the ritter captured only the few historians.
In the 80s of the XIX century, when modern geography was already formed as a branch of natural science, the German geographer Patzel acted as an attempt to build a new geographic science branch - Anthropogeography, which should have learned the influence of the geographical environment on the social life of mankind 2.
In France, a few later Ratzel with a similar system of ideas made Vidal De La Blyash 3. His ideas were then developed by his students 4. Anthropogeography, or a man's geography, as the French and the British are called it, received since then in Western Europe and America is very much more significantly developed. Within the framework of this article, there is no need, nor the ability to criticize the bourgeois antgoreography. It is enough to point out that its development entailed not only to increase the attention of historians, as well as geographers to the influence of nature on the course of the historical process, but also a number of attempts to trace this influence on specific examples of individual countries. Especially often such attempts were made in the United States 5 - a young country with exclusively rich natural resources. And there the most distinguished works by Turner 6, which built on a huge actual! The material is the original concept of North American history, in which a colonization movement to the West and the development of natural resources is presented as the main fact of the North American historical process.
In our scientific literature, the question of the influence of the geographical environment is also an old problem known to the historians of the XVIII century., For example, chatter and y. In the XIX century S. M. Solovyov, who listened to the lectures of Ritter 7 in Berlin, begins his "history of Russia" from the essay of natural conditions; It returns to their role and in the future, starting to study the era of Peter I. Student S. M. Solovyova V. O. Klyuchevsky, its course also begins, as is known, from an essay of the nature of the Eastern European Plain. It is interesting to note that at S. M. Solovyov and, in particular, at V. O. Klyuchevsky, these introductory essays are poorly connected with the subsequent presentation. Against this approach to natural conditions in 1864, A. P. Shchapov expressed. In the article "Ethnographic Organization of Russian Population" He is a letter: "We have a lot of book Russian stories only in the first chapter, we usually express a few words about Russian tribes and nations or simply list them, just as soon as in the first chapter will say a few words about Russian Geography or geographical influence on the story - as if the tribes and peoples suddenly disappear later without a trace of the face of the Russian land, without having any influence on the Russian people, in Russian history, and as if geography would not be accompanied by stories at every step, in each area. Where is the land
1 FUETER "GESCHICHTE DER NEUEREN HISTORIOGRAPHIE". S. 497. 1911.
2 The main works of Ratsel: "Anthrppogeographie", BD. I, Stuttgart. 1882; BD. II, 1891 and "POLITISCHE GEOGRAPHIE ODER DIE GEOGRAPHIE DER STAATEN, DES VERKEHRS UND DES KRIEGES". Munchen. 1903.
3 Main works Vidal de la Blyhe- "Principles de Geographie HTIAINE". Paris. 1918 and "Tableau de la Geographie De La France".
4 About school Vidal De La Blyasha in Soviet literature There is an article I. A. Withers in "Scientific Notes of the Moscow University". Vol. 35th.
6 Main works Turner "A" Rise of the New West 1819 - 1829 ". N. Y. 1906;" The Frontier in the American History ".
7 See "Notes S. M. Solovyov", p. 65.
p. 14.
and people (discharge of schupov. - V. I). Caught out somewhere, and one state left? "
Himself A, P. Ochapov -Inothet to trace the influence of the geographical environment in Russian history in the article "The historical and geographical distribution of Russian population", where he studies the dependence on the natural conditions of the population in Russia. A. P. Shampov considers the geographical environment with a decisive factor in historical development. It determines, in his opinion, not only a man's economic life, but also his psyche, while schups ignore the production relations and the state of productive forces. The geographical environment, according to Schuland, affects the farm and the nature of man. As a result, A. P. Shchapov "comes to idealism in understanding the story and belongs to the group of materialists who could not transfer the bridge from a materialistic look to nature in order to materialistly explain social phenomena" 1.
Nowadays, an interesting idea to trace a systematically influence of natural conditions on the historical process, I. I. Polosin A, who, which the task of historical geography is in developing this problem.
In close connection with the problem on the role of natural conditions in the historical process, the question of studying the state of these very conditions in the past, the question of the reconstruction of the fact that the German geographer Wimmer 3 successfully called "Die Historische Naturlandschaft". The question of what the nature of this country was in the past, as far as it changed in particular, for the one, from a geological point of view, a slight period of time during which the history of mankind developed was, this is a question that was always interested in scientists of natural studies. From the point of view of a specialist in physical geography, the task of historical geography is primarily in resolving this issue, and all other problems are, so to speak, exploring. The historian of Russian geographic science L. S. Berg 4 in "his work Paragraph, dedicated to the historical geography of our country, begins primarily with this problem. Specialists - natural women worked a lot on finding out the evolution of vegetation cover 5, hydrography, coastal" line and similar issues Like us and abroad. Sources of both natural-scientific and historical order were involved in the material.
To a lesser extent, these questions were engaged in historians, relied usually only on sources of historical, and sometimes we used the works of natural works. As examples, it is possible to indicate in the West dezhardena, which gave a detailed and thorough reconstruction of the physical geography of Gaul Gaul 6, we have the design 7, who tried to do the same for Moscow Rus XVI century. on the
1 Sidorov A. "Small-bourgeois theory of Russian historical, process (A. P. Schap)". In the collection "Russian historical literature in class lighting".
2 Add to course of lectures on the historical geography of the USSR, read by I. I. Polazin in 1939 in the Moscow Istariko-Archive Institute. The course is not published. For providing me with the opportunity to get acquainted with the transcript of lectures to privacy thanks to I. I. Polazin.
3 Wimmer "Historische Landschaftskunde". Innsbruck. 1885. After the Vimer, this term has been strengthened in German literature.
4 Berg L. "Sketch of the history of Russian geographic science." Leningrad. 1929.
3 We have studied the famous forest struggle with the stepma in the straight, and not in the portable "sense of the word, like historians.
6 desjardins "Geographie Hfstorique et Administrative De La Gaule Romaine".
7 Oblast "Herberstein and its historical and geographical news about Russia."
p. 15.
the basis of Gerberstein's data, as well as V. V. Bartold, who has studied the changes in the directions of the flow of AMU-Darya in the historical past 1.
Summarizing everything just said about studying in the historical geography of changes in the geographical environment in the historical past and its influence on the historical process, it is necessary to recognize that in the field of the first problem much is much more than in the field of the second.
Until recently, the geography of production and geography of economic ties attracted the attention of specialists in historical geography.
The strengthened attention of historians and economists to economic history issues began in the last third of the XIX century. A significant impact on Western European science in strengthening its interest in the problems of socio-economic history was the work of Marx. This does not deny the bourgeois scientists themselves. Characteristic in this sense, recognition of such a historian as DiLi 2. But the development of economic geography has significantly lagging behind and continues to lag behind and now from the development of economic history.
The founders of bourgeois anthropography, building their system, paid little attention to the problems of the geography of the economy. Economists-geographers Instead of studying the geography of the productive forces and production relations (the last problem and now in the West are engaged in the West). It has been described to describe the state of the national economy by industry, as they did long before the XIX century. It is clear that in the absence of the economic geography of the present, the economic geography of the past could not develop.
When a major explorer, Dejarden, in the above-mentioned work on Gaulle's geography, tried to give Gaul's economic geography during the times of Roman rule, he had a sectoral characteristics of Gaul's economy, about the same type, which the economic and geographical characteristics of France were then built. The authors of historical and economic work did not alien to the idea of \u200b\u200bthe need to study the history of the farm in areas. There were works devoted to the economic past of individual locations. But it was not until recently the work, which would give the historical and economic geography of any country.
Over the past 15 - 20 years, economic geography has made significant successes in the West. From industry descriptions of the economy, the center of gravity moved to the rapid characteristics. Economic history has accumulated significant material in the district context. As a result, in works on historical geography, attempts are made to build the economic geography of the past. Such a task, for example, puts the East (EAST) in his book "Historical Geography of Europe", published in 1935.
In Soviet literature, interesting works on economic geography
1 cm. Works V. V. Bartold "On the question of the fall of AMU-Darya in the Caspian Sea". "Notes of the Eastern Department of the Russian Archaeological Society." T. XJV. Vol. 1st. 1902; "Information about the Aral Sea and the lower reaches of AMU-Darya from ancient times to the XVII century." "News of the Turkestan Department of the Russian Geographical Society." IV, 1902; And "to the history of the irrigation of Turkestan." Spb. 1914. Recently, this issue, who has repeatedly studied earlier, was again studied by a specialist in physical geography A. S. Kez, who has revised the entire natural-historical material on the spot and the works of historians. See People A. "Spells of Uzboy and its genesis." 1939. "Proceedings of the Institute of Geography of the USSR Academy of Sciences." Vol. Xxx.
2 cm. Collection "Histoire Et Historiens Depuis Cinquante ANS", ed. French magazine "REVUE HISTORIQUE". T. i, p. 13.
p. 16.
fii of our past belong to the late P. G. Lyubomirov. The most interesting of them on the plan is his attempt to give for Russia the XVII century. And for Russia XVIII century. division on economic areas 1. Unfortunately, this attempt has a sketchy character.
If from individual problems studied by historical geography, go to the consolidated work, which is intended to give the historical and geographical characteristics of any country or territory, here you can state a very large variety. The first labor of this kind was the "ITALIA Illustrata" Biono, a large Italian historian of the middle of the XV century 2. "Italia Illustrata" is a rapid description of Italy. Regarding each of the described districts of Italy, Biono reports its location, sometimes calls rivers, gives a characteristic. Settlements in antiquity, briefly mentions the most important historical events that happened in this territory, further, lists the cities as disappeared and modern, speaks of each What he is wonderful in historical terms and what is famous for the modern author of the era. There are no cards in the work of Biono. As can be seen from this brief description, the "Italia Illustrata" mixed facts of local history with elements of historical and modern geography author. Therefore, "Italia Illustrata" can be considered an embryo of historical geography. "Italia Illustrata" made a strong impression on contemporaries and descendants.
As FUTER indicates, in Germany, an attempt was made in Germany "to imitate Biado" Germania Illustrata ".
The well-known work of the English historian Kemena (Camden) "Britannia" 4, published in 1586, is written in an extended and improved composition of the Essay of Biono. Kedden has already historical periodization. Back in the middle of the XVIII century. Alsatian Scientist Shepfin (Schoepflin) 5 was a diagram similar to Kemena's two-volume work "Alsatia Illustrata".
Mixing facts of local history with those or other elements of historical geography has become a characteristic feature of common, consolidated work on historical geography. The inclusion of the facts of local history had and takes place in historical and geographical work as abroad and in our country. Moreover: in pre-revolutionary Russian literature, often as historical geographic attributed almost most of the work devoted to the local history; So for example, S. M .. Sedonin in that paragraph of his book "Historical Geography", where he gives a brief overview of the development of historical geography in
1 See in the encyclopedic grenade (T. 36. Part 3) The word "Russia".
2 Biondo (Biondo) was born in 1392, as his newest Biographer Nogara (Nogara). Usually incorrectly considered the year of birth of Bionlo 1388; Died bioado in 1463. According to the evaluation of the Füter, to which the Soviet researcher O. L. Weinstein, Biontho, joined the middle ages and ancient Rome for the study of the Middle Ages and ancient Rome than all the modern Humanists, combined "(" Geschichte der Neueren Historiograph ", S. 109. 1911 ).
3 FUTER for some reason thinks "Italia Illustrata" written in the form of a dictionary, which is not really not. Apparently, after FUTER, this is the wrong opinion repeats O. L. Weinstein (Cyt. Op., P. 87). It is also impossible to agree with Weinstein that Biono was with the papal currics something like a scribe. The posts of the notary of the papal camera and the "apostolic secretary" who occupied Biono, were not the posts of scribe, but that Papa Nicholas V held Biono "in the black body", which is true. See Masius "Flavio Biondo, Sein Leben und Seine Werke", as well as Foigt "Revival of Classical Ancientness".
4 "Britannia" was written not only under the influence of the work of Biono, but also under the influence of the sodel, with whom Kemeya personally met in 1577, during the journey of Orel in England, and with whom he was in scientific correspondence. See the word "Camden" in "Dictionary of National Biography", Edited by Leslie Stephen, Vol. VIII and DENUCE "OUD NEDERLANDSCHE KAARTMAKERS IN BETREKK; NG MET Plantijn". T. II, p. 41.
5 was an honorary member of the Russian Academy of Sciences.
page 17.
seed country. This, of course, quite contributed to the fact that the historical geography has established a reputation of scientific discipline with uncertain content.
At the end of the XIX century, after modern scientific geography was formed, attempts appear to build a geography of the past as a knowledge system similar to the geography of the present. In 1876, Dejarden set the task before historical geography - "examines the country to continue a certain period of its past according to the same principles of the same method and, on the same plan, as if it was about the modern country" 1. Dejarden allowed this task in relation to Roman Gaul "at the level of the then state of geographic science.
We have two years old declaring similar views expressed L. N, Mikov 2, but did not try to implement them. The attempt to realize them was made by the design in the book "Herberstein and his historical and geographical news about Russia", published in 1884.
In German science since the end of the XIX century. 3 Under the influence of the Patzel and his followers, the division of the content of historical geography into three dies section was distributed: 1) Historische Naturlandschaft, 2) Historische Kulturlandschaft, 3) Historisch-Politische Landschaft 4. The first term here refers to the history of changes in the natural geographical landscape, which I have already said above, the third is the most familiar historical historical geography, "there was already a speech about it too. Under the second, it is understood to study how people looked around and how the locations of the paths of communication, fields, gardens, etc. were located. The main task of this section is to identify the influence of natural conditions for the placement of the country's studied farm in the past, as well as on morals and psyche its population. However, in fact, in German work on historical geography, in chapters dedicated to the "Historische Kulturlandschaft", these tasks are usually not allowed in such a volume. As an example, you can point out the solid work of the Krechmer's "Historische Geographie Von Mitteleuropa", in which there are brief common essays of agriculture, forests, mining and communication status in Central Europe for a number of dates, as appropriate economic phenomena are distributed across the territory And by virtue of what reasons, this distribution has one or another appearance, i.e., in other words, these essays are very little geography.
The revival in the West in recent years of interest in historical geography again delivered the problem of the summary historical and geographical characteristics of the country and moreover in the same direction, in which it was declarden.
At the International Congress of Historians in Brussels in 1923 5 and there, at the International Congress on Historical Geography in 1930, Parchmen (Pergameni), President of the Belgian Geographical Society, put forward the idea that historical geography is "a man's geography transferred to PAST "6. During the organization
1 desjardins "Geographie Historique et Administrative De La Gaule Romaine".
3 For the first time, such a division is proposed, if I'm not mistaken, a vimmer in the book "Historische Landschaftskunde". Innsbruck. 1885.
4 This understanding of historical geography in the post-war years has found a sympathetic response in the Polish scientific literature. See Arnold "Geografja Historyczna, Jej Zadama І Metody" in the magazine "PRZEGLAD HISTORYCZNY" for 1929. T. VIII.
5 See "COMPTE-REUNU DU V OONGRES INTERNATIONAL DES SCIENCES HISTORIQUES". Bruxelles. 1923.
6 "La Geographic Humain Transportee Dans Le Passe".
p. 18.
in 1932 in London, the historical and geographical associations of discussion on the content and objectives of historical geography 1 Gilbert indicated that the main task of historical geography is the "reconstruction of the district geography of the past". Of the modern works written in the spirit of this area, the most interesting is the collective work edited by Darby - "Historical Geography of England Before A. D. 1800", - released in 1935. The authors consider changes in the natural landscape of England, the composition and distribution of its population and the economic geography of the country starting from prehistoric times to the XVIII century. inclusive. They use both written sources and archaeological data. For the history of the settlement, toponymics data are used. When studying changes in the geographical landscape under the influence of human activity, great attention is paid to the history of the disintegration of the swamps in the XVII - XVIII centuries. When studying the economic geography of the past, they are engaged in both the geography of production and the geography of trade. Not forgotten and enhancing. Book methodology, usual for English historical works. Class struggle remains out of sight of the authors. This book is still certainly the best achievement of modern foreign historical geography.
It remains to say a few more words about historical cartography. Starting with sodel and almost until the very end of the XIX century. The task of the compiler of the historic card was to establish the location of the wonderful places in historical terms, to fix the political borders and their changes, to establish the location and ways of movement of troops. Such, the content of the cards (known historical Atlas XIX C.: Sprunner 2, Droisen 3, Schradera 4. In the XX century. Special atlases of colonial countries appear: JOPPEN - in India 5, Walker - in South Africa 6, Herman - in China 7 . In its nature, they do not differ much significantly from just mentioned. In addition, the maintenance of the most common modern school historical Atlas of Putsger 8 and Shepherta 9 is mainly reduced, although they have some features, in particular, the Schephert atlas are rushed Trading track cards, typical plan of English manura, historical and ethnographic maps, a tax case map in pre-revolutionary France, an economic map of England in an era of industrial coup and some others.
The development of scientific historical cartography went to the XX century. two ways: Richter 10 in Austria and Fabrichius 11 in the Rhine Region, in Germany, processing with scrupulous care
1 See above, p. 4.
2 SPRUNER "HANDATLAS FUR DIE GESCHICHTE DES MITTELLERS UND DER NEUEREN ZEIT". Atlas Sprunner used Engels when he wrote his work "On the decomposition of feudalism and development - bourgeoisie". See K. Marx and F. Engels. Op. T. XVI. Part 1, p. 443.
3 Droysen "Allgemeiner Historischer Handatlas". 1886.
4 Schrader "Atlas de la Geographic Historique". Paris. 1896.
5 JOPPEN "HISTORICAL ATLAS OF INDIA". 1st ed. - 1907; Last-1934 year.
6 Walker "Historical Atlas of South Africa". 1922.
7 Hermann "Historical and Commercial Atlas of China", 1935.
8 Putzger "Historischer Schulatlas" - a lot of editions.
9 Shepherd "Historical Atlas" - several editions.
10 Richter "Historischer Atlas Der Osterreichischen Afcpenlander". 1906.
11 Fabricius "Geschichtlicher Atlas Der Rheinprovinz" leaf from 1895.
p. 19.
material, seek to give extremely detailed cards of administrative and church division and settlements of the past. During World War I, in Holland, he began to emerge in individual sheets compiled by the same method "Historical Atlas of the Netherlands" 1 edited by Bekman. In the post-war years, Polish scientists in the same type began to be produced by individual sheets "Atlas Historyczny Polski" 2 . The degree of detail of the cards in this type of atlases can be tried by the following example: on the map of Krakow Voivodeship, the era of the four-year-old Seima (1788 - 1792) causes the boundaries of counties, parishes (except for larger church divisions), settlements, and their dimensions are indicated (by the number of smoke ;) and the social character of possessions (Shantehetsky, clergy, royal, etc.), chokes and monasteries are applied with various categories of them, the courts of various instances and other government agencies, schools, hospitals, fortresses, castles, crafts, mills, development Minerals indicating WADA fossils, glass, iron and paper enterprises, roads indicating their species, bridges, transportation, customs, forests.
Another direction in the cartography is presented by the German "Geschichtlicher Atlas von Rheinprovinz", published in 1926, edited by Aubin (Aubin), and "Atlas of the Historical Geographic of the United States" edited by Paully (GH. O. Paullin) published in 1932. In these atlases, in addition to historical and political maps, there are MІN cards on economic history and on the history of culture 3. But these two atlas do not differ in such a degree of detail as mentioned above.
In our country, historical cartography has paid little attention. True, in separate scientific monographs there are excellent historical maps, for example, in the works of Yu. V. Gautier 4, M. M. Bogoslovsky 5, M. K. Lyubavsky 6. But we do not have a scientific historical atlas. Of the few elementary training atlas, the best one must recognize the old Atlas of the Odlakhovsky (the last edition, 1887). The author of these lines made an attempt in 1923-1925. Make our historical cartography historical and economic cards by the Four of the Atlas on the history of the national economy of Russia XVIII - XX centuries 7.
Among historical cards it is necessary to note another of their kind - the archaeological cards that are available as we have and abroad. There are even special archaeological satin.
A quick review of the state "of historical geography shows that the reputation of science with uncertain content to some extent
1 More Kman "Gesehiedkundige Atlas Van Nederland".
2 For sending materials on Polish historical geography, the author brings the historical faculty of Lviv State University named after Franco, especially the Department of Department. Auxiliary sciences prof. T. I. Fashion. The author also grabs the head of the library of the Kaunas University of Tov. Burzhishka.
3 If you judge the published program, the same type should be attributed and started to publish the releases in Spain on the eve of the Civil War "Atlas Historico De La America Hispano-Portguesa", Por J. Dantin Correceda from Loriente Cancio. It appeared, apparently, only one second issue. Madrid. 1936.
4 cm. Gauthier Yu. "Zamasngyi Edge in the XVII century." and "The history of regional administration in Russia from Peter I to Catherine II."
5 Theologian M. "Zemskoy self-government in the Russian north in the XVII century.".
6 Lubavsky M. "Regional division and local department of the Lithuanian-Russian state."
7 was published by the Glavpilitus Division under the name "Visual manuals on the history of the national economy of Russia" (with the text).
p. 20.
deserved this discipline, it is a consequence of a number of reasons. Historical geography develops slowly; So far, there are few historians and geographers, so the old continues to live in it with the new one. In addition, historians are weakly familiar with geography and vice versa. Finally, the concept of economic geography was very long distinguished by significant uncertainty due to prolonged domination in this science of the so-called industry trend. And now, economic geography cannot be called well-established science.
But, on the other hand, an overview of the state of historical geography allows you to establish a completely definite trend in its development. The development of historical geography is closely associated with the development of historical science and with the development of geographic science. When historical science, it was mainly mainly to "the actions of kings and commander, to the actions of the" conquerors "and" conquerors of "states" 1, and in geography the most developed parts were mathematical geography and cartography, then naturally the content of historical geography was reduced to fixation on the map Wonderful places in historical places, to the study of the borders of states and paths of trips. The study of the influence of nature on the historical process could not go further further by the general reasoning, since the study of nature itself was extremely developed in geographic science, and in historical science there was no study of economic history, on the facts of which the influence of the geographical environment can be specifically shown.
The development of economic history, on the one hand, the formation of physical geography as naturally scientific discipline and at the same time with the development of economic geography, on the other hand, could not but cause expansion of the content of historical geography, making new problems into it, the emergence of attempts to build historical geography as a system Knowledge by type of modern geography.
What should be the content of Marxist historical geography? "The history of the development of society," said the history of production development, the history of production methods for centuries, the history of the development of the productive forces and production relations, the history of the development of the productive forces and production relations of people, is said in the "short-term history of the History of WCP (B)". The historical science "must, first of all, to engage in the history of manufacturers of material benefits, the history of the working people, the history of peoples" 3.
The main task of historical geography should be the study and description of the geographical side of the historical process. Historical geography, being a utility discipline of historical science and not claiming the disclosure of the basic patterns of the stroke of history, should be based on the periodization adopted in historical science, give a number of characteristics of the economic and political geography of a given country or territory at the corresponding points in time. The main elements of the above characteristics and descriptions should be: (i) Natural landscape of this era, i.e. historical physical geography, 2) population from the point of view of its nationality, placement and movement in the territory, i.e. historical geography of the population, 3) Geography of production and economic relations, i.e., historical and economic geography, 4) the geography of external and internal political borders, as well as the most important historical events, i.e.
2 Ibid.
3 ibid.
page 21.
historical and political geography. All these elements should be studied not isolated, but in mutual communication and conditionality.
The geographical environment, according to the instructions of the classics of Marxism, is one of the constant and necessary conditions for the development of society, "and it affects human society. However, "its influence is not the decisive influence" 1. In general, given this decisive indication of the Marxist theory, historical geography still, when studying the phenomena of the past, should take into account and investigate the role and influence of the geographical environment on the history of society.
The circle of natural resources involved in operation by man, with the course of history gradually * expands. In the feudal era, stone coal was almost not mined. With capitalism, coal acquired a major economic importance. Oil has become in significant quantities to be mined only from the second half of the XIX century. Phosphorous iron ores were made by minerals only after the invention of the Thomasovsky process, etc. On the other hand, the natural phenomenon, harmful at one level of economic development, can be made useful with the advent of new techniques. Waterfalls before the development of hydroelectriculture were only an obstacle for shipping. Now they are sources of white coal. Thus, the role of the same geographical medium in the eye stages of historical development may be different. Consequently, the role of the geographical environment should be taken into account in historical geography at each historical stage, and not considered only in the introduction to further presentation.
As indicated in Chapter IV "Brief Course History History)", for that very short, from a geological point of view, the period of time during which the history of human society developed, no radical changes in the geographical environment did not occur. Therefore, at first glance, it may seem unnecessary inclusion in the tasks of historical geography also the reconstruction of the natural landscape of the past. However, it is only at first glance. First, as the same "short course" indicates, minor changes in the geographical environment still had a place during the historical period of life of human society. These changes in some cases could have a certain value, and there is no reason to ignore them. Such changes include changes in the coastline (for example, the formation of Zapedsee Bay in the Netherlands in the XII - XIII centuries.) 2, changes in the direction of the flow of rivers, clogging their mouth with sand, etc. As an example of changing the flow of rivers for the historical period of time, you can To point to the Huanghe River, during the Chinese history, she changed her river many times, and her mouth moved throughout 700 km, from the Shanghai district to Tianjin district. Back in the first half of the XIX century. Huanghe fell into the sea to the south of Shandong Peninsula, but in 1852 she broke through her dams and, having changed the direction of his current, began to fall into the sea to the north of this peninsula.
Changes in the course of the Juanhe River hurt the population of the Great Chinese Plain huge disasters, since the river was destroyed with thousands of villages and huge spaces of fertile fields.
We must take into account that the geographical environment is particularly changing under the influence of man. This is an impact
2 See Demangeon "Belgique - Pays Bas - Luxembourg", p. 24.
page 22.
a person in nature affected the most on the soil and vegetable cover. Cultural soils of modern Western Europe will be very much different from those soils that the same Europe possessed in the Middle Ages. Many swamps are drained. Extermination of forests is so well-known fact that there is no need for it to stop. You can specify another channels of channels, including such as Suez and Panaman.
Especially large changes in nature as a result of human activity occur in our country. It is enough to indicate the reconstruction of the Volga, which not only makes the Volga deeper than its nature created, but is accompanied by the creation of a number of large lakes-reservoirs along our large river: "Moscow Sea", "Rybinskaya Sea", etc.
Learning the location of the population in the territory of our and foreign historical geography, as can be seen from the above-mentioned summary, and there is no need to explain the essence of the issue and ways to study.
As for the geography of production and economic relations, these are the problems with respect to the present deals with economic geography. Historical geography should explore these questions in relation to the past. This is the most difficult and difficult task, but at the same time, the most thankful task, as these issues are associated with all elements of historical geography, turn the latter from the collection of scattered facts that are necessary only for the knowledge of the facts of political history, into a special branch of historical science .
As mentioned above, the influence of the geographical environment on society can be studied only through the study of the influence of this environment on the Company's economy. The geography of the population is closely related to the geography of the economy. The relationship between the political borders of any territory and its economy is also undoubted. When studying the economic geography of the past, it is necessary to conduct research both by industry and regions. There is a difficult task of studying the economic regions of the past.
Sometimes it is expressed that modern economic areas are the creation of capitalism (if we are talking about the countries of capitalist) and there are no economic districts in reactive formations. Of course, to capitalism, district differences were smaller, but, of course, they were, and even in a very distant past. This is proven by a number of historical works. As one of the examples, you can bring the characterization of economic regions in the state of the X B. In the work of A. Yu. Yakubovsky "Feudal Societies of Central Asia and their trade with Eastern Europe in the X - XV centuries." one .
Localization on the map of the geographical names of the past, which was given before so much attention historical geography, of course, remains the necessary preliminary work for historical and geographical research.
All these elements are discussed in their mutual communication. The study is conducted as a whole on the territory of our country (the overall picture of the placement of the population, agriculture, industry, political and administrative borders, etc.) and in essential areas. Naturally, dividing to the districts cannot be one for the entire history of our country and for different moments of the historical process it is different. It would be wrong to restrict ourselves to the comparison of historical and geographical characteristics by a number of dates. We must show how they pass one to another; Consequently, the characteristics must be dynamic.
Based on this scheme, we will focus on two specific issues of the historical geography of our Motherland: on the general historical and geographical characteristics of our country in the XVIII century. and on the historical geography of the Central Chernozem region in the XVI - XIX centuries.
For the XVIII century. The dynamic historical and geographical characteristics of our country will have to be given separately on the following, almost not related between any economically connected and weakly bound by politically 1 territories: 1) Eastern Europe and Siberia,. 2) Caucasus, 3) Kazakhstan and Central Asia.
The historical and geographical characteristics of Eastern Europe and Siberia in its common, consolidated part will have to consider changing the political borders in Eastern Europe, caused by the conquest of Russia of the Baltic and Black Seas coasts together with the people inhabited by these territories and the inclusion of the Belarusian and most of the Ukrainian peoples in the Russian Empire . The focus of attention should be focused on the territorial changes themselves, and not on the facts of military and diplomatic order, which appeared the immediate cause of these changes. Attentive review it is necessary to subjected to the process of colonization of the South and East of the country in this period, the basis of new cities. The national composition of the colonists should be considered. Serious attention should be addressed to master the new, previously not involved in the economic turnover of natural resources - extensive spaces of chernozem soils and fossil wealth of the Urals, Siberia and partly the center and Karelia. It should be stopped here and on scientific expeditions of the XVIII century. Colonization and development of new natural wealth are in close connection with the change in state borders, but they are certainly due, of course, not only by these changes, and this should be correctly taken into account when studying. We must give here the geography of Manufactory of the XVIII century. (by industry) and explain it. It follows, further, pay attention to the process of folding the differences between consuming and producing strips. When studying household connections, there must be to dwell on the construction of the channels.
For the XVI - XVII centuries. The main issues of the study of this territory will be the landscape of the "wild field" XVI century, the direction of the construction of fortified lines in this "wild field", the nature and direction of colonization, the state of agriculture, the construction of cities and the composition of their population.
For the XVIII century. The historian will have to note the completion of the colonization and the beginning of the transformation of this area into the agricultural center of the country. Geography of farming, the geography of the social composition of the population, the geography of the barbecue and the lifesta, the placement of emerging progress manuffs, the formation of administrative division setting for a long time - these are the main issues of the historical geography of the Central Chernozem region for this period.
For the first half of the XIX century, when the region has become an agricultural center and a resident of the country, the main attention of the researcher will be addressed to the geography of agriculture and serfdom, on the placement of progressive cloth factories and sugar factories, on the geography of fairs and on the geography of household connections of the region with neighboring territories and In particular with the Central Industrial Area. An important task will be a launch study of the dynamics of deposit and population growth of the region during this period.
After the reform of 1861, the main factor that influenced the life of the region was the so-called custody of the center. This phenomenon imposed a heavy imprint on the geography of its population and farm. The roots of this cloak primarily lay under the elimination of serfdom. Naturally, the geography of these conditions in the central black earthly provinces should be considered. With this geography should be compared to the placement of remnants of serfdom in the region after 1861. The geography of the dynamics of sowing areas, the growth of which ceases, as well as the geography of other agricultural phenomena, should be studied. The fertility of the soil area in this era begins to be exhausted. This phenomenon must also be geographically studied. Of course, it is impossible to leave without the geography of railways and industry. Finally, the geography of the exit of immigrants and stretch crafts should be studied.
In addition, the sources for historical geography are also archaeological data, especially necessary for the reconstruction of the economic geography of a distant past. To study the change of nations on any territory in the distant past, the extremely valuable source is the data of toponymics. For the reconstruction of the natural landscape, it is also necessary to use data of natural historical order.
The nature of the sources determines the method of research in historical geography. This method is primarily an ordinary historical method (criticism and analysis of historical documents and archaeological data, etc.).
When studying historical sources of statistical order, it is necessary to apply the statistical method, as is usually done in historical and economic research. Attracting the data of toponymics, an employee of historical geography, if he does not have special linguistic training, has to use the results of the analysis of these data by linguists. When processing natural-historical order data for the reconstruction of the natural landscape of the past, it is necessary to use the methods of relevant industries of natural science.
Historians usually consider historical geography with auxiliary science. It is almost the only point where the opinions of most historians converge relative to historical geography. Auxiliary science, together with paleography, diplomacy, sfragistry, heraldry and numismatics, considers Bernheim's historical geography (Bernheim) in his famous "Lehrbuch der Historischen Methode". Almost all bibliographic reference books are attributed to the Auxiliary Sciences, such as: The International Bibliography of Historical Sciences published by the International Committee on Historical Sciences, the German Handbook "Quellenkunde Der Deutschen Geschichte Von Dahlmann-Waitz", Czech "Bibliografie Teske Historie Zirbt" A, Polish "Bibliograf Ja Historji Polskiej" and others. Almost the only exception in this regard is the Swedish "Svensk Historisk Bibliografi 1875 - 1920" Setterwall, placing work on historical geography in the local history department. Geographers are usually not inclined To consider historical geography only by the "servant" of history and dismiss her more independent position 1.
The traditional opinion of historians at present, of course, is outdated. Historical geography is undoubtedly developing in a separate sector of historical science. It is easy to see from all the above about the evolution of its content. In fact, such disciplines like paleography, diplomacy or spragistry, it is customary to call the auxiliary sciences, because the results of their research represent a little independent interest, and they need as a supporting agent for historical research in their own sense of the word. Paleography is primarily interested in us as a means to read the ancient manuscripts, and not as a letter of writing. Diplomacy need a historian not by itself, but to criticize documents, etc.
1 See Kfetschmer "Historische Geographie Von Mitteleuropa". Einleitung; Oberhummer "Die Aufgaben der Historischen Geographie" - a report printed in "Verhandlungen Des Neunten Deutschen Geographentages in Wien".
page 26.
her work also had mainly the service value. For science of political history, it was important to know where those places in which the events described by it were found and where the boundaries arose as a result of those wars with which political history was interested in. Courses of historical geography in those days were presented in essence, reference books, by virtue of which they were in the XVI - XVIII centuries. Even compiled in the form of dictionaries with the alphabetic location of the material. But later, written in the form of a systematic review, these courses are still essentially not like ordinary historical courses, but on directories. It is enough to read at least one chapter in such books as the above-mentioned "Historical Geography of Europe" Friman to make sure that.
Historical geography in her understanding, as it was developed above, is no longer a collection of reference information, but a certain system of knowledge, representing independent interest.
In the area of \u200b\u200bhistorical or geographical sciences should include historical geography?
It is mainly handling historical sources. Obviously, historical geography - historical science. This has long recognized geographers, such as Oberhummer (Oberhummer) 1. But this does not mean, of course, that the work in this area is a monopoly of historians. Geographers can also work fruitfully and worked in the field of historical geography. Here you can make an analogy with another industry of historical science - with economic history. After the "short course of history of the WCP (b)" quoted above, it is unlikely that the science of economic history, or the history of the national economy, as we usually call it, is not an organic part, the historical science, that work on its problems is not One of the priorities of historians. But, on the other hand, except historians, economists are also successfully operating in this field.
That the work of geographers on the problems of historical geography does not exclude the last of the historical sciences, the geographers themselves indicate this, for example, Oberhummer says that "a geographer, as soon as he leaves the area of \u200b\u200bgeographical research and begins to engage in history, ceases to be a naturalist and becomes a historian himself." 2 . Supan, who wrote outstanding labor on the history of the world section, was a major specialist in physical geography, but this circumstance does not make his work work that does not belong to the number of works of historical.
As mentioned above, the reconstruction of the Natural Landscaping of the past requires, in addition to using historical documents, also attracting materials of naturally historical order. In this area, the researcher has to use natural science methods. Therefore, this work can be performed with great success specialists in physical geography than historians. Study of the influence of the country's landscape on the economic and political geography of the past is the matter of historical geography.
The development of historical geography in the above understanding will be able to bring great benefit of historical science as a whole. Historical Science as a holistic history of historical knowledge, historical geography gives a specific spatial localization of the historical process "and those - first, contributes to the concretization and deepening of our ideas about many sides of the historical process, secondly, it allows you to catch and explain a number of local features in its development . It can also get rid of many incorrect generalizations. It is especially important for the history of the national economy, where else V. I. Lenin stressed the need for a rapid study. The development of historical geography will also explore the role of the geographical environment in the specific historical development of individual countries with methodologically correct positions.
Historical geography in the formation of economic geography as a scientific discipline can be played a major role. Economic geography Currently, as scientific discipline is still in the process of becoming. Historical geography should help economic geography in establishing the genesis of specific economic and geographic areas. This is important in itself, but it can also contribute to the establishment of patterns in the formation of economic and geographic areas.
Historical geography may be useful and in school teaching history. Until now, elements of historical geography in school teaching were represented by historical political cards. A big step forward in school historical cartography was made by the textbook of the history of the USSR edited by A. M. Pankratova, where historical and economic cards are also given. In this regard, the textbook edited by A. M. Pankratova is standing ahead of the history of the USSR history of the USSR for higher educational institutions, where historical and economic cards play not more, but a smaller role than in the high school textbook, while one could expect the opposite.
In the textbooks of ancient history, usually before presenting the stories of ancient Greece, Egypt and two-frequencies are given a brief information about the nature of these countries. It seems to me that in this respect it would be possible to take another step further, making small elements of historical geography directly into the presentation. As an example, how to do this, the characteristic of the nature and farm Attica in the old school German textbook of Knezel 1. How specifically, more likely, there would be historical ideas of students with this approach! Yet; To a greater extent, these elements must be included in history courses in high school. Once, A. P. Shchapov protested against the fact that in modern historical courses after mentioning in the first chapter "Earth and people" somewhere "failed" and "one state remained." Similar reproaches are now presenting our geographers to historians. Y. Sayushkin writes in the journal "Geography at School" (N 4 for 1940) on the textbook of the USSR history for higher education, which is different "almost complete ignoring the role of the Geographical Environment of V. Werevitia of the USSR and its individual parts; historical events in this
1 Kneisel "Leitfaden der Historischen Geographie". Berlin. 1874. The book is a teaching manual for gymnasiums.
page 28.
Despite the revival of the USSR of interest in historical geography, we still do it very little, much less than in bourgeois countries. Bourgeois historical geography must be opposed by Marxist. Historical and geographical topics should be included in the plans of our research institutions, historical and geographical. Especially relevant is the creation of an academic historical atlas of the USSR. This is a big job. Historical atlases abroad were created for years. When carrying out this work it is necessary to take into account all the accumulated experience. It is also necessary to organize collecting, systematization and study of our geographical names, just as done in Germany, England and France. Finally, historical geography should receive citizenship rights in our higher educational institutions.
From the editorial It is necessary to note the importance of issues raised in the article. B. No one naoo. The situation of the case with historical geography in our research institutions and higher educational institutions is completely unsatisfactory.
The editorial office of the journal believes that the Committee on Higher School, Drug Address and Universities should take the necessary measures to change the existing situation in the study of historical geography in higher educational institutions. Our historical research institutions should finally contribute to their plans to develop problems of historical geography.
The editorial office requests historical institutions and researchers to speak out on the merits of issues affected in the article. Yatsunsky and practical measures necessary for the development of scientific research and teaching historical and geographical knowledge in the system of historical education.
Historical geography as comprehensive science uses both generalistically organic and own methods. General - include historical, allowing to study the phenomenon in motion and development and logical, based on reproduction and comparison.
In historical geography, such original means are used as: historical and geographical, historical and toponymic and landscape-lexicological landscape. The content of the first of them is to study their most dynamic components of the landscape (forests, reservoirs, etc.) in order to identify "traces" (the results of the past exposure).
The main principles of the historical image are: the need to use in the study of the same type of sources (it is impossible to study the historical geography of France for acts and military topographic sources, England - according to the descriptions of travelers), rotume of the idea of \u200b\u200bthe world, which existed in one or another period (for example, that The land is flat and lies on three whales), it is necessary to know exactly the level of perception of the world around the world by the past epochs (their perception of earthquake, eruption of a volcanic, solar eclipse, etc.). Finally, the historical method requires the mandatory integrated use of information sources for the most complete and objective analysis of a particular question.
The use of toponymic and landscape-lexicological agents is very important. Its meaning is to study toponyms and common geographic terms, allowing to restore the peculiarities of the past and the nature of the change in nature by man (for example, the name of the village of Forest Time, as the forest has no forest near anywhere).
Thus, when using historical geography, their integrated use is necessary. So, for example, to make sure the conclusions about the resettlement of one or another ethnic group, it is necessary to study the characteristic "traces", data of ethnography, anthropology, archeology, toponymics, etc.
Important methods of historical geography that are inherent in this science methods of historical and geographic cut and diachronic.
The historical and geographical slice is an analysis of the object by a specific face. Cuts are component and integral. The component cut is used in the analysis of individual historical stories - political geography, demographics, economic geography, physical geography. These questions must be studied at certain intervals. For example, analyzing the administrative-territorial division, it is necessary to allocate certain periods of its development to make a full picture. The integral slice is used with a comprehensive analysis of nature, the population, the economy, political development at the specified time. The main difference between the two types of cut is their target destination.
When performing historical and geographical cut, it is necessary to adhere to certain principles, namely: synchronization of the analysis of the entire starting material, the virginity of the leading relationship between nature, the population and the economy inherent in this historical period; The territorial integrity of the areas in which the cut and the establishment of clear temporary boundaries is performed.
The diachronic method is a combination of historical and geographic sections and determining the general trends in the development of a geographical object for historical time. It is used in studying primarily the historical geography of a separate country. In the diachronic method, it is very important to use the term "Relic" (residual manifestations of the past in our time). When it is fulfilled, it is also necessary to adhere to certain principles. So, firstly, it is important to ensure the comparability of the results, secondly, to correctly identify the leading relationships (the landscape - the population - naturalization), thirdly, it is necessary to study the continuity of evolution, in fourth, to establish the main stages of the development of objects, and study Geographical cycles of development and territorial integrity of the object.
Historical geography enjoys the sum of historical sources. These are reports of written documents, evidence of real monuments, data from ethnography, folklore, language. Historical geography extensive uses toponymics materials, anthropology, as well as natural historical data.
For the historical, economic, political geography, geography of population, the most complete information is given written sources. However, not every writing source contains materials on historical geography. Among them are, first of all, such specific types of documents as maps and historical and geographical descriptions are distinguished. Cartographic materials for domestic history appeared rather late. The first cards - "drawings" refer to the XVI century. They did not have a degree grid, scale, accurate coordinates. This character of the card retains until the XVIII century, which should be borne in mind when using them. Drawings of the XVI - XVII centuries. Give only a schematic view of the tone or other territory. The distance to them is shown, as a rule, by the days of the path, and the main landmarks are rivers. It is such a character that the "drawing book of Siberia" S. Remezov (end of the XVII century), consisting of 23 drawings, where the general map of Siberia, its counties, the northern part of Russia, the placement of the population, etc. The same character had a big drawing "In total, the Moscow state for all neighboring states", compiled at the end of the XVI century. In the discharge order. Unfortunately, no big drawing, nor the new large drawing of 1627, the new large drawing of 1627, did not reach us. Lists of books of a large drawing are preserved, in which: the description of the drawing "field" (lunches, brods and "rehearses", towns and guard posts, intercourse, pivy, wells, indications of distances) and the description of the drawing of the "total Moscow state" on which rivers marked with lands, cities, ostentators, churches, wipes, minerals, peoples, etc. According to these lists, we have the opportunity to reconstruct the drawing, which covered the huge territory from Western Dnith and Dnipro on the Obian in the East, and Also southern regions (Crimea, Caucasus, Central Asia). The book information of a large drawing is unique, but, like any other sources, they require a critical attitude, especially since sources based on the drawing, there were various.
From the beginning of the XVIII century. In connection with the development of the country's farm, an increase in the level of scientific knowledge, topographic and other techniques, interest in cartographic material is sharply intensified. The "General Regulations" of 1720 provided for "in each college to have general and particular lunchrets (or drawings)." Works on mapping the entire country, which led to the publication I. K. Kirilov in 1734, "Atlas of the All-Russian Empire ..." from 14 map of districts and general maps of the Russian Empire. New maps were oriented to the north, had a degree network, scale, based on the surveying of the terrain. Atlas of 1734 is important to clarify the historical geography of the beginning of the XVIII century in .. because the content included "... province, provinces, counties and borders how much Russian surveyors to describe them and put in Lankarth, and cities are precisely expanded in length and latitude , suburbs, monasteries, settlements, villages, villages, plants, mills, rivers, seas, lakes, noble mountains, forests, swamps, big roads and prolonging with all sorts of applications studied by Russian and Latin names are investigated. "
The "Atlas of the Russian" released in 1745 was somewhat more than the previous one. It consisted of 19 rapid cards and a general map.
The first "historical map of the Russian Empire" was drawn up in 1793. Although the cards that partially had historical character, as annexes to historical and historical and geographical essays appeared in the first quarter of the XVIII century.
The value of the cartographic material arising in Russia is huge. Eastern European spaces and a significant part of Asia were first mapped, which provided further comprehensive study of the territory of Russia.
Over time, the number of cartographic material increases. Appear both general and ammunition cards of a country of different character and varying degrees of completeness.
Cartographic material is a capacious and visual source. Systems of conditional signs, scales, illumination (coloring) allow you to concentrate a large amount of information.
By its nature, the cards are divided into physical, economic, political and mixed species.
For historical geography, valuable sources are different types of territory descriptions with the characteristic of their physico-geographical features, the economic condition, placement of settlements, ethnic and social composition.
Economic notes made during the general survey in Russia in the second half of the XVIII - early XIX centuries, contain, in addition to the materials on the history of peasant and landlord, industry and trade, huge information on historical geography: territories, land possessions and their accessories, Assessment of the quality of land, types of land, settlements and their location, economic and commercial buildings, occupations of the population, etc.
The large material on the historical geography of our country gives various kinds of historical and geographical descriptions. Here and the "History of Greco-Persian Wars" Herodotus with information about Eastern Europe, the Caucasus and in part Central Asia, "Geography" of Strabo, Ptolemy, Anania Shirakuni, the writings of Tacita, Jordan and other authors who in one degree or another concern historical and geographical questions.
As the circle expands written sources, geographic moments are affected in "walking", the writings of foreign authors about Russia and neighboring countries. Especially many such information appears from the XVIII century. In the descriptions of travel and expeditions V. I. Bering, JV. Kraschiennikova, I. G.Gmelin, P. S. Pallas, I. I. Lephehina, P. Chelischeva, etc. Descriptions of individual territories are created, such as "Topography Orenburg" P. I. Richkov, Geographical Dictionaries - "Lexicon Geographic "V.N. Tatishchev," Geographical Lexicon of the Russian State "F. A. Polunina," The Great Geographical Dictionary of the Russian State "A. Shchchatova and others.
The information of the historical and geographical order is given to the annals, test, census, intertaries, customs and other books, materials of revisions and censuses, assembly monuments, such as spiritual and contractual certificates, peace treaties, land tenure acts, and other monuments.
Exceptional importance for historical geography have real sources. They establish the existence of certain archaeological crops, combined with the territory and common characteristic features of real monuments. These cultures are a reflection of both historically established economic relations, the unity of origin and the geographical conditions of the development of human society. The method of archaeological mapping helps to determine the geographical location of archaeological crops, the relationships and mutual influence of these cultures and ethnic groups, the placement and distribution of certain types of production, crops, to identify trading pathways and economic ties, etc. In some cases, it is possible to accurately with real archaeological materials Set the place of the settlement, which is mentioned in the writing source, but not preserved to our time, the boundaries of the settlement of ethnic groups, commodity sources of individual crafts and crafts, an ancient topography of cities.
Ethnographic data allow you to detect the composition, origin and resettlement of individual ethnic groups, peoples, features of their economic, cultural life.
An important role in historical geography is occupied by linguistic sources that help identify areas occupied by those or other peoples, the direction of population movement, their processes of mutual influence. For example, Siberia's old-timing counseling counseling treats Severquish. This reflects the fact that the initial Russian population of Siberia was mainly the people from Pomeranian counties. In this regard, these toponymics data are of great importance for historical geography. Toponymy (TOPOS - place + Onoma - name) can be defined as a special linguistic, geographical and historical discipline, which is engaged in the study of geographical names. According to the figurative expression of N. I. Net Dimin, a famous ethnographer and literary criticism of the XIX century. "Toponymika is the language of the earth, and the land is a book, where the history of mankind is recorded in the geographical nomenclature." The need to establish permanent names of geographic objects appeared early. People must navigate the terrain and, above all, these landmarks were forests, fields, swamps, rivers. However, their numerous, repeatability caused the need for designation, if possible, each object. They could reflect the signs, the properties of the designated geographical subject, its location in relation to other objects, historical events, etc.
Historical geography, using toponymics data, proceeds from the position that geographical names, in overwhelming, most, motivated and stable. With all possible accuracy in the occurrence of names there are its own patterns, historical conditionality, stability. In the title of the island, the boiler in the Arctic Ocean is reflected in the case. Outdoor in 1773, the island has forgotten the copper boiler, which served as a reason for the name. Bering Sea must be owned by Vitus Bering, which in 1725-1728. examined it. This name was established only in the XIX century. Before that, it was called Kamchatsky Sea, and the residents of Kamchatka Itelmen call him the big sea (Gytesh-Ningal). But each of this chance is at the same time a reflection of historical events of a greater or smaller scale.
A historian engaged in historical geography should distinguish the actual basis for the name of the name from various kinds of speculation about individual geographical names. Thus, the name of the Yakhroma River in the Moscow region was explained by the fact that the Great Princess, who passed from the prince in Vsevolod in the area of \u200b\u200bthe city of Dmitrov, stumbled, crawling out of the wagon, and screamed: "I'm chrome!". An arbitrarily explanation of the names of Orenburg by the combination of German words OHR - Ear and Burg - the city. In fact, it was the "city on Ori", i.e. on the river Ohhere. According to the "German fashion" (Petersburg, Ekaterinburg, Rannburg) instead of the Russian "city", "Grad" to the base, pointing to the geographical location of the city on the river. Oh, the German "Burg" added. It should be noted that modern Orenburg is located almost 300 km from the place of its appearance. The city was transferred twice by retaining the initial name for him. Old town on r. Ohhere is now famous under the name of Orsk.
The use of toponymics materials is complicated by the fact that it is not always the name can be explained. In some cases, the initial meaning of the word has acquired another meaning, the same word can be used in different ways. Until now, they do not find a satisfactory explanation to the origin of the names Moscow, Ryazan, Ryazhsk and other cities and places. M. N. Tikhomirov pointed out that the name of one of the old Moscow streets is "Barbarka" (now the street. Razin) is removed from the Church of St. Barbarians, which was built in 1514, however, and before this construction, the street was consonant with "Varia". When similarity in these names, there is also a difference. In the first case, it goes back to the name - Varbara, and in the second - by the word "Var". This word, meaning the cooking of salt and other products, as well as some of the duration of the population, and lay at the heart of the initial name of the street and only subsequently it was rethought in connection with the construction of the church.
Many names require a historical explanation. So, one of the districts of the Russian state was called Zavolzhye. This is an area of \u200b\u200bmedium current Volga, lying north along the axis from the coal to Kineshma. "Worse" he was in relation to the center of the Russian state, and the title responded to the historical folding of the territories, their development, the movement of the population, because, strictly speaking, "Worse" can be called the Earth south of this axis, if you consider it from the left bank of the Volga . It should be borne in mind that the historical concept of "Valzhye" changes over time. Already in the XVI century. The concept of "Zavolzhye" applies to the left bank of the middle and lower flow p. Volga. Thus, the "Valzhye" for different historical periods includes different areas. Similarly, the areas of "Zaison", "Zavolochye" and others are determined by explaining the name of these areas, their territory, we must take into account the process of their historical folding and allocation to certain areas, as well as subsequent changes.
Toponymics data in the establishment of the settlement of people, their movements, the development of new territories are very important. It is known that the names of the rivers, lakes, mountains, the tract are distinguished by greater antiquity than the names of settlements. Therefore, they matter to identify the ancient population. Especially stable the name of large rivers. The names of small rivers, the tributaries often changed. Apparently, this is explained by the fact that the names of a number of rivers located on the territory not populated by the originally eastern Slavs may be understood only on the basis of those languages \u200b\u200bon which the local non-Slavic population said. At the same time, the Slavic population brought new names for both rivers and settlements. This explains the appearance in the Rostov and Ryazan lands of River Truzh (with cities located on them - Pereyaslav-Zalessky and Pereyaslav-Ryazansky), rivers with the name Lybia, etc. If you keep in mind that there was Pereyaslavl in Kiev land . The pipes that the Lybede River is in Kiev, will be possible to associate the emergence of these names in the north with the movement of the population from the south. Toponymics makes it possible to set the history of the message paths. Such titles like Volokolamsk, the Vyshny Volochek, the Savolya, indicate an ancient worshipers. In the names of the Yamsk Slobod, the streets have preserved certificates of Yam's paths, pits.
Toponymic information can be used in the study of economic, political geography, geography of population. These anthropology are important for the study of the origin of races and peoples. Based on the submission of human biology subordination to the laws of development of society and its history, the Soviet historical science adheres to the hypothesis about the origin of all people from one type of fossil anthropoids. This means that there are no direct continuity between the former and new races that modern races arose inside the type of Homo Sapiens. Their settlement in the territory of the old world, and then the transition to other continents was long and complex and led to the formation of the three main races: a disheveled, European and mongoloid, which, in turn, have further divisions. The process of the ratio of these races and their parts, relations between them, mutual influence is far enough. The boundaries between races do not differ at all and do not always coincide with the boundaries of languages. Races can be different in loved ones among themselves, and at the same time one race can be among different nations. So, Turkic peoples: Chuvashi, Tatars, Kazakhs, Kyrgyz, Uzbeks, Turkmen, Azerbaijanis, Yakuts have similar languages. However, they differ in anthropological type. The initial anthropological type has been preserved in the Kazakhs and Kyrgyz, it is very relaxed at the Uzbeks, and the Azerbaijanis the features of this type are difficult to detect. Consequently, anthropology data can confirm the mixture of peoples.
Historical geography uses and information of natural sciences. They are of particular importance in the reconstruction of historical physical geography. For example, when establishing the boundaries between the forest and the steppe in the past, when the area is clarified at one time, covered with forest and a person reduced. It is known that the landscape of the forest-steppe has changed much. As and when, how it happened on written and other sources, it is not always possible. Natural sciences come to the rescue. Install the primacy or secondary forest and the steppe can soil analysis. In the folding of soils, trees, shrubs, herbal covers play an active role. The climatic conditions, the degree of moisturizing the soils, a peculiar competition of grassy vegetation have a certain impact on the possibility of spreading forests.
Materials of natural sciences allow you to establish ancient river beds, which is important for the historical geography of the economy, transport links of especially those areas, where there are now a large mobility of the river beds, for example, for Central Asia. From finding out how and how and how the channel AMU-Darya went, whether she fell into the Caspian Sea, the decision of a number of issues of the history of this region depends.
Historical geography - this is a historical discipline that studies history through the "prism" of geography; It is also the geography of any territory at a certain historical stage of its development. The most difficult part of the task of historical geography is the show of the economic geography of the territory under study - the establishment of the level of development of productive forces, their placement.
Thing
In a broad sense, historical geography is a section of history aims to study the geographical territory and its population. In a narrow sense, it is engaged in the study of the topographic side of events and phenomena: "Determination of the boundaries of the state and its regions, settlements, communication paths, etc."
Sources for Russian historical geography serve:
- historical acts (spiritual wills of great princes, statutory letters, intertaries, etc.)
- picks, sentiginal, census, audisian books
- Establishment of foreigners: Gerberstein (Notes on Muscovy), Fletcher (), olearia (Description of the travel of the Holstet Embassy in Muscovy and Persia), Pavel Alleyovsky (in 1654), Meyerberg (in 1661), Ratettfels (legends with a light duke Tuscan goat of the third about Muscovy)
- archeology, philology and geography.
At the moment there are 8 sectors of historical geography:
- historical physical geography (historical landmark) is the most conservative industry, studies the landscape changes;
- historical political geography - studying changes in a political map, state system, routes of conquering campaigns;
- the historical geography of the population is studying the ethnographic and geographical features of the distribution of the population in the territories;
- historical social geography - studying the relationship between society, a change of social layers;
- historical cultural geography - studies spiritual and material culture;
- the historical geography of the interaction of society and nature is direct (human influence on nature) and the opposite (nature per person);
- historical economic geography - studies the development of production, industrial revolutions;
- historical and geographical studies.
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Literature
- Spitsyn A. A. Russian historical geography: training course. - Petrograd: Type. J. Bashmakov and K °, 1917. - 68 p.
- Yatsunsky V.K. Historical Geography: History of its occurrence and development in the XIV-XVIII centuries .. - M.: Publishing House of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, 1955. - 336 p. - 4,000 copies.
- Gumilyov L. N. // Bulletin of Leningrad University. No. 18, vol. 3. - L., 1965. - P. 112-120.
- Historical Geography of Russia: XII - early XX centuries. Collection of articles to the 70th anniversary of prof. L. G. Berekronnaya / T. ed. Acad. A. L. Narotinitsky. - m.: Science, 1975. - 348 p. - 5 550 copies.
- Zheclin V. S. Historical geography: subject and methods. - L.: Science, 1982. - 224 p.
- Maksakovsky V.P. Historical Geography of the World: Study Guide: Recommended by the Ministry of General and Vocational Education of the Russian Federation for students of higher educational institutions / Ed. E. M. Goncharova, T. V. Zicnieva. - M.: Ecopros, 1999. - 584 p. - ISBN 5-88621-051-2.
- The historical geography of Russia IX is the beginning of the XX centuries: territory. Population. Economy: Essays / Ya. E. Vodarsky, V. M. Kabuzan, A. V. DEMKIN, O. I. Eliseeva, E. G. Istomina, O. A. Shvatchenko; Ot. ed. K. A. Averyanov. - m .:, 2013. - 304, p. - 300 copies. - ISBN 978-5-8055-0238-6.
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Excerpt characterizing historical geography
It is needed for the place that expects him, and therefore, almost independently of his will and despite his indecision, on the lack of a plan, for all the mistakes he does, he is drawn into a conspiracy, aims to master the authorities, and the conspiracy is crowned with success .He is pushing to the meeting of the rulers. Frightened, he wants to run, considering himself dead; pretending to faint; Says meaningless things to kill him. But the rulers of France, formerly rapid and proud, now, feeling that they are played by their role, confused even more than he, they say not the words that they need to say, in order to keep power and destroy him.
Accident, millions of chances give him power, and all people, as if consistent, promote the approval of this power. Accident make the characters of the then rulers of France, submitting to him; Accident make the character of Paul I, recognizing his power; Accident makes a conspiracy against him, not only not harmful to him, but approving his power. Accident sends him into the hands of Engiensky and inadvertently forces him to kill, thereby, stronger than all other funds, convincing the crowd that he has the right, as it has power. Accident is doing that he strains all the forces on an expedition to England, which, obviously, would take it away, and never fulfills this intention, and inadvertently attacks Mac with Austrians who are surrendered without a battle. Accident and genius give him a victory under Austerlitz, and accidentally all people, not only the French, but also all of Europe, with the exception of England, which will not accept participation in having events, all people, despite the former horror and disgust for his crimes, Now he admires his power, the name he gave himself, and his ideal of greatness and glory, which seems to be beautiful and intelligent.
As if warming and prepared for the upcoming movement, the strength of the West several times in 1805 m, 6 m, 7 m, 9 meters tend to east, strong and increasing. In 1811, a group of people who pretended in France merges into one huge group with middle peoples. Together with a magnifying group of people, the force of the justification of a person standing at the head of the movement is developing. In a ten-year preparation time preceding a large movement, this person comes down with all the crowned persons in Europe. The distinguished lords of the world cannot oppose the Napoleonic ideal of glory and greatness that does not make sense, no reasonable ideal. One before others, they strive to show him their insignificance. King Prussian sends his wife to curl the grace of a great man; The Emperor of Austria believes for the grace what the person takes the daughter of Cesar in his bed; Dad, the shrine of the peoples, serves as its religion the elevation of a great man. Not so much Napoleon himself cooks himself to fulfill his role, as all the surrounding prepares him to accept all the responsibility of what is performed and has to make. There is no deed, there is no atrocity or petty deception, which he would commit and which immediately in the mouth of his surrounding would not affect the form of a great act. The best holiday that the Germans may come up with for him is the celebration of Yen and Aurstet. Not only is he great, but his ancestors are great, his brothers, his stepsing, a hazard. Everything is committed in order to deprive his last power of mind and prepare for his terrible role. And when he is ready, ready and strength.
The invasion is committed to the east, reaches the ultimate goal - Moscow. The capital is taken; The Russian army is more destroyed than ever the enemy troops were destroyed in former wars from Austerlitz to Wagram. But suddenly, instead of those randominess and genius, which so consistently conducted it until now, a number of success towards a dedicated target, is countless randomness, from a cold in Borodin to frosts and sparks lit into Moscow; And instead of the genius, nonsense and meanness that do not have examples are.
The invasion runs, returns back, again runs, and all the chance is constantly now not for, but against him.
Anti-east is made to the west with a wonderful similarity with the preceding movement from the west to the East. The same attempts to move from East to West in 1805 - 1807 - 1809 preceded by a large movement; the same clutch and group of huge sizes; The same marina of the middle peoples to the movement; The same oscillation in the middle of the way and the same speed as the goal approached.
Paris is an extreme goal achieved. Napoleonic government and troops are destroyed. Napoleon himself does not make more sense; all actions of his obvious pitiful and dutches; But again, an inexplicable accident is committed: the allies hate Napoleon, in which they see the cause of their disasters; Having deprived of the strength and power, exposed in villains and cunning, he would have to be represented by him as he seemed to be ten years ago and a year after, - the robber is out of law. But for some strange chance, no one sees it. His role is not yet over. A man whom ten years ago and a year after considered a robber out of law, send two days from France to the island, who gave him to hold with the Guard and Millions, who pay him for something.
The movement of peoples begins to fit into their shores. The waves of a large movement were flooded, and circles formed on the subsided sea, according to which diplomats are worn, imagining that they make the lull of movement.
But the sacrifices of the sea suddenly rises. Diplomats seem to be their disagreement, the cause of this new forces; They are waiting for war between their states; The position seems unresolved. But the wave, the rise of which they feel, is not from there, from where they are waiting for her. The same wave rises, with the same initial point of movement - Paris. The last reminder of the movement from the West is performed; A flash blast, which must resolve seemingly insoluble diplomatic difficulties and put an end to the militant movement of this period.
