Sociology pays attention to repeating cyclic processes. In public life, cyclic processes have the same distribution as in nature. There are, as you know, astronomical cycles (day, night, seasons), biological cycles (birth, childhood, youth, maturity, old age, death). Cycles are also distinguished in everyday life (weekends and working days), etc. In society, political, economic, social cycles are clearly manifested: political crises are replaced by political stability, decline comes for economic prosperity, an increase in the level of welfare of the population alternates with its decline, and the like . In other words, social life is similar to a cycle. Each of the processes in society replaces the other. Each of the processes exhaust its potential. Social and historical development goes in a circle, which allows you to talk about its certain reversibility.

Cyclic means repetition of the trends of the past, but with some new variations. Each of the cyclic processes has similarities between the repeated states of the system, the number of repetitions in the cycle. The cycle duration may be short and long. Cycles differ in the number of phases, rhythm, acceleration or slowing the intervals. Cyclic processes contribute to the reproduction of social system, reproducing its functions (manufacturing material goods, their distribution, regulation of human behavior, etc.), reproduction of social communities (ethnic groups, nations, classes, strata), reproduction of sustainable forms of activity (scientific, industrial, artistic and etc.), social roles (doctor, lawyer, educator, military). The cyclicity gives rhythm to social processes, is a way to exist and preserve society. It is very important to know that every new cycle is not an absolute repetition of the previous one. The reproduction of society does not mean a complete substantive identity of the phases of the cycle, the beginning and end of the cycle.

Consequently, cyclic changes are not in the pure form circular processes. Therefore, the European CenterRist ideas about the absolute stump in the XVII - XVIIIs of Eastern countries are incorrect, as, for example, China, whose history has long been a typical example of cyclic development that has rejected cultural and technical innovations. Nevertheless, the current dynamic China is reproduced to a large extent traditional relationship.

Modern sociologists consider it possible to identify the forms of cyclic changes. Such forms of cyclic processes call changes by the type of pendulum, wave movements, spiraloids. Movement, or changes, by type of pendulum, are considered the simplest form of the cyclic process. As an example of such a movement, investment social policy can be given when funds for the development of the social sphere of society are increasing, then, on the contrary, are reduced, that is, they return to the original amount. The illustration of the wave processes in society serves, say, the cycle of technical innovations, which reaches its wave peak and again falls on the decline, as if fading.

Spiral type is the most complex form of cyclic changes. Spiral dynamics are determined by the classical formula - "Return to allegedly old, the repetition of the old on a different level." This is a process of change when the update and obsolescence are only partial. Each cycle of a changing phenomenon (process) seems to be denied preceding, turning into its opposite, to another quality and at the same time, as it may be refunded to its previous state. But this refund to the old is carried out at the new level, with the detection of new properties. Spiral model is a way of social continuity. Spiral processes are implemented in society, both on the upstream type and downward. This means that the spiral cycle of the change cannot be understood only as progressive, ascending. There are also descending spiral processes indicating dysfunctions in society, about his death, decline. An example of a spiral process is the attitude of a person to nature. In primitive times, nature was perceived by a man like blinding power. From the new time to the 20th century, a person thanks to scientific and technical progress gained new technological capabilities and found himself with its conqueror and the lord. And now he realized his organic connection with nature and the need for a human relation to her.

In addition to cyclic changes occurring within the framework of a qualitatively single social system, sociologists and culturologists particularly identify cyclic changes occurring in the cyclic dynamics of sociocultural systems. Therefore, it is appropriate besides the system-functional cycle, which has so far been discussed, talking about the historical cycle. The historical cycle, allocated by such thinkers as D. Vico, N. Danilevsky and others, reflects the unity of the process of occurrence, the flourishing and decay of sociocultural systems, emphasizes a certain lifetime of society. The concepts of these cultural buildings seek to show the unity of the world theory, its repeatability, the conjugation of ascending and downward lines, or consider the story as a combination of various cultural and historical types that have their own life deadlines (cycle).

Social changes, culture as a factor of social change

Lecture 25. Concepts and factors of social change

The formation of a classic approach to social change coincided with the emergence of sociology as science. Already Auguste CONT and Herbert Spencer considered society, on the one hand, in a temporary static perspective, and, on the other hand, as a dynamic system based on social changes. In fact, any society cannot exist in constant condition, beyond different speed, intensity, rhythm and tempo.

What is social change? The most simple and accurate definition of this concept gives Yu.M. Plotinsky " under social change It is understood to be any change in the characteristic of the observed object.».

In sociological science exist various typology Social measurements.

Let us dwell on the two most common.

Table 1.

At the heart of the second typology of social changes lie social Time Models: Linear and Cyclic.

According to models of linear time , time flows irreversible and continuously from the past, through the present for the future. For example, O. Kont The basis of this model put the idealistic concept of evolutionwhich protrudes the driving force of historical changes. Its essence is that the human genus in its history takes three stages: theological, metaphysical and positive. In the first stage, people spend supernatural creatures and strength, as if those are responsible for earthly events. In the second stage, people replace the gods by abstract reasons and entities perceived by the mind. In the third, positive stage, people refer to laws based on empirical evidence, observation and experiment.

Herbert Spencer considered evolution as a universal principle of all reality - Nature and society. Human history, he believed, passes a number of consecutive stages.

1. Simple, isolated society from each other, in which all members are engaged in approximately one and the same activities and therefore there is no political organization.

2. Sophisticated societies in which the division of labor among individuals and the division of various parts of society appears, a hierarchical political organization acquires the central importance.

3. Society of double complexity exist on a permanent territory and have a current constitution and system of laws.

4. Civilizations are the most complex societies that are expressed in forms such as national states, the Federation of states or large empires.

Thus, in the age of science and industry, the tank of human knowledge is constantly replenished.

Model of cyclic time gained widespread in recent years. Cycles are called a certain set of phenomena, processes whose sequence is a circulation for a period of time. The final phase of the cycle as it repeats the initial, but only in other conditions or on a different level.

In society, political, economic, social cycles are observed: political crises are replaced by political stability, economic growth alternates with the economic downturn, its decline is to increase the level of welfare of the population.

Many social institutions, generality and even whole societies vary on the cyclic scheme - the emergence, growth, flourishing, crisis. The complexity of cyclic social measurements is that different phenomena and processes in society have cycles of different duration - from seasonal to centuries-old. Therefore, at any given moment, there is simultaneous coexistence of social structures, phenomena and processes located at different phases of their cycle. This largely determines the difficult nature of interaction between them, mutual inconsistencies, incomprehension and conflicts.

Among the cyclic processes allocate changes by the type of pendulum , wave movements , spiraloid . The first are considered the simplest form of cyclic changes. As an example, it is possible to give a periodic shift in the power of conservatives and liberals. Consideration of wave movements implies, on the one hand, a certain focus of the development of the social system, the tendency to its complication, and on the other, the presence of changes in the waves of changes that correspond to different levels of the organization of the social system. For example, the wave process may be a cycle of technological innovation, which reaches its wave peak, and then decreases, as if fading. Spiral type is the most complex form of cyclic social measurements. He involves changes in the formula: "Repetition of old on a qualitatively new level." Spiral processes characterize the social continuity of various generations. Each new generation is closely related to the previous ones, but at the same time does not seem to bring something to social life, new, thereby contributing to public development.

In addition to cyclic changes occurring within a single social system, sociologists allocate cyclic processes covering entire cultures and civilization. This approach was reflected in the theories of cultural and historical types, one of whose creators was Russian sociologist N.Ya. Danilevsky (1822-1885). In Western sociology, such concepts were developed in the works of O. Spengler (1880-1936), P. Sorokina (1889-1968) and A. Tynby (1889-1975).

In the theories of cultural and historical types, the emphasis was carried out on many zealinee the development of "natural" sociocultural systems as special civilizations. They arose as antipodes of the linear theory of social development. The failure of the "linear theory" especially emphasize the modern sociologists who believe that society can change the most unexpected way. This process occurs when the social system cannot restore its equilibrium using the previous mechanisms, and the innovative activity of the masses seeks to go beyond all institutional restrictions. As a result, there is a situation when the problem of choice of a variety of social development options arises. Such a branching or splitting associated with the chaotic state of society is called social bifurcation, which means the unpredictability of public development logic.

Social changes occur in the process of joint actions of people who are not scattered, but, on the contrary, unidirectional, mutually conjugate. Moreover, this pairing can often be unconscious due to the presence of motives and orientations in people.

Natasha. The entire modern world is covered by deep changes. They affect all spheres of human civilization. If there were no changes in society, it would have died.

According to famous sociologists A.A. Badgin and K.A. Kazyginsocial change This is the transition of social systems, communities, institutions and organizations from one state to another.

The concept of "social changes" in sociology is used to describe the speakers in society.

Social changes taking place in society may include population growth, changes in relations between social groups, in personal rights, etc. Social changes differ from each other as a scale and depth.

From the entire totality of social changes, the following types can be distinguished:

Cyclical;

Linear;

Nonlinear.

Cyclic means repetition of the trends of the past, but with some new variations. The duration of the cycle may be short or long. Cycles differ in the number of phases, rhythm. The cyclicity gives rhythm to social processes, is a way to exist and preserve society. Each new cycle is not absolute repetition of the former. Cyclic changes are not in pure form circular processes.

Sociologists allocate the following forms of cyclic changes:

By the type of pendulum (the simplest form of the cyclic process; an example may be the investment policy of the state);

Wave movements (they can include a cycle of technical innovations, which reaches its wave peak and again falls on decline, as if fading);

Spiral-shaped (the most complex form of cyclic changes; an example of a spiral process is the attitude of a person to nature).

The linear type of social change lies in the fact that each stage of public progress, each stage of the movement acts as a moment of genetic continuation of the previous stage. The linear process is directed to the future, perceived as a movement forward in space and time. Linear processes partially absorb the properties of the previously enriched and develop them.

A vivid expression of linear changes is the idea of \u200b\u200bsocial evolutionism. According to F. Tennis, the process of evolution is directed from a traditional society to society modern. In his book, the "community and society" tennis allocated two types of society: the peasant, village community and industrial, city society. Development moves from one to another.

The authors of the theory of the Industrial Society of R. Aron and W. Jostov believe that the change of "traditional society", in which natural economy prevails with a class hierarchy, comes the company of a new type - industrial. It is characterized by mechanization and automation of labor, mass production of goods.

Furniture and further development in the second half of the 20th century, the theories of "post-industrial society" are obtained. From the point of view of the authors of these concepts, the human society in development takes three stages: pre-industrial, industrial, post-industrial. The main value of post-industrial society is knowledge, information, creative activity.

Linear speaker suggests not only movement forward, in the future (progress), but also regression, i.e. Downward line movement in the Company's change. Linear regression and progress replace each other in the historical process.

The theory of linear changes in the twentieth century criticized. Reality has proven that there are no eternal linear patterns. Linear type is only one of many possible changes.

The main subject of social change is man. The role of each individual in society is implemented on a nonlinear principle. The transition of society from one state to another is not always a deterministic nature, and the direction of movement can be unpredictable. Social changes in society are uneven and contradictory. In particular, the inconsistency of social changes is due to the incompatibility of the social interests of various groups in society and the different perception of social transformations.

2. Katya.Sources. Social changes put people before new situations and encourage them to generate new forms of activity. Changes in the behavior of people, as well as in the culture and structure of our society, cause the interaction of many factors. Sociologists allocate a number of particularly important factors, the impact of which differs depending on the situation, time and place. Physical environment. People live in a specific habitat. In order to survive, they need to enter into interaction with the environment. The main adaptive mechanisms available in the disposal of the population include a social organization and technology. However, the social organization and technology that help people adapt to one environment is not necessarily suitable for adaptation to some other. Society of hunters and collectors, garden, agricultural and industrial differ in the type of adaptation. If the environment for some reason varies, its inhabitants who have developed a certain type of adaptation to it should respond to these changes with relevant institutional changes, new forms of social organization, new technical inventions. Drought, flooding, epidemics, earthquakes and other natural strengths forcing people to make changes to their life styles. In addition, a person also has a significant impact on its physical environment. The burial of harmful waste, acid rain, water and air pollution, the exhaustion of water resources, erosion of the upper fertile layer of the soil and the "offensive" of the desert - all this is the result of damage caused by people ecosystem. Consequently, a person is associated with the environment chain of complex mutual changes. Population. Changes in the number, structure and distribution of population also affect the culture and social structure of society. For example, the generation of "Bebi-Bohet" had a significant impact on the musical tastes and the political climate of Western societies. The "aging" of society also creates serious problems with work places, since the number of middle-aged workers who seek promotion on the service staircase increased. An increasing number of people awaits their chance to promote service, but the vacancies appear less than candidates who wish to take them. Conflicts because of resources and values. As repeatedly noted above, the conflict is the form of the interaction of people in the struggle for resources or values. The interests of individuals and groups contradict each other; Their goals are incompatible. It is not surprising that the conflict becomes a source of social change. To achieve its goals during this struggle, members of the Group must mobilize their resources and opportunities. For example, during the war, citizens are forced to abandon the usual lifestyle, to endure the inconvenience of the Military situation. Of course, the conflict also often involves negotiations, the achievement of a compromise or the ability to adapt, which leads to new institutional structures. However, history shows that the outcome of this interaction rarely happens to achieve the goals of participating in the struggle of the parties. Most often the end result is expressed in the formation of a qualitatively new holistic structure. Old social order is constantly undergoing and inferior to a new one. Supporting values \u200b\u200band norms. Values \u200b\u200band norms adopted in society act as a kind of "censors" allowing or prohibiting some innovations. They can also act as "stimulants". It is interesting to compare our readiness for technical innovation with our resistance to change in economic theory, religion or family models. This cultural contradiction is reflected in our application of the concept of "inventor". For us, an inventor is the one who creates new material things, and one who is the author of intangible ideas, we often call the "revolutionary" or "radical" - in words, the meaning of which has a negative shade. Innovation. The discovery increases the knowledge by adding new to the already existing ones. The theory of relativity A. Einstein and the genetic theory of Mendel is discoveries. In contrast, the invention is a new combination of old elements. For example, a car liquefied gas is six known elements in a new combination: a liquefied gas engine, a liquefied gas cylinder, a gearbox, an intermediate grip, a leading shaft and body. Innovations - both discoveries and inventions are not single acts, but a cumulative sequence of the knowledgeable knowledge transmitted from generation to generation plus a number of new elements. Consequently, the greater the number of cultural elements on which innovations can be based, the higher the frequency of discoveries and inventions. For example, the invention of glass gave impetus to the creation of lenses, decorations for dresses, glasses, window glass, laboratory tubes, X-ray tubes, electric lamps, lamps for radio and television receivers, mirrors and many other products. The lenses in turn contributed to the appearance of glasses, magnifying glasses, telescopes, cameras, lanterns, etc. The basis of this type of development is the exponential principle - as the cultural database expands the possibility of new inventions tend to exponential growth.

3. IRA. Diffusion - This is a process, during which cultural characteristics apply from one social system to another. Each culture contains a minimum number of unique features and patterns that are inherent only to her. For example, the Slavic alphabet (Cyrillic) is based on the Greek alphabet, which, in turn, arose under the influence of Phoenician. The Russians received the Christian faith from the Greeks of the Byzantine Empire, and they - from the Jewish sect began a new era who believed in Jesus Christ as a Messiah. We proudly arguing that they took other nations from us, but often forget that we ourselves received from them. First of all, this applies to the United States - a country without centuries-old traditions. As an illustration, we give a satirical description of the life of the "100% American" life from under the pen of the anthropologist Ralph Linton: "The dawn takes the convinced Patriot, closed in pajamas - the robe, which came from East India - and resting on the bed made by the sample leading his own Origin of Persia or Asia Minor. He is immersed in the materials of non-American origin: cotton, first developed in India; Flax, coming from the Middle East; Malaya Asian coat; Silk, the possibility of using which was first open by Chinese ... If our patriot is quite old-fashioned and adheres to the traditions of the so-called American breakfast, then coffee and orange will be adjacent to America from the Mediterranean. Then he will eat a plate of porridge made of grain grown in the Middle East ... And as a supplement to breakfast, it can eat an egg demolished by a bird, which is bred in Southeast Asia, or a piece of meat of animals grown in the same region ... ". (Vander Zanden James W. Sociology. P. 357.) In general, we can say that many social factors are involved in the continuous social change.

According to the researchers, no society is in place.

If the sum of the positive consequences of large-scale changes in society exceeds the sum of negative, it suggests that in society progress. Otherwise, there is a regress of society.

Progress is a global world-historical process, covering the period of climbing humanity from the state of wildness to the vertices of civilization.

Regress is a local process that arises in separate societies in short periods of time.

Social progress can be gradual, it is also called reformist, and jump-like, i.e. revolutionary.

Reform (from lat. Reformo) - more or less significant changes in individual spheres of public life that do not affect the essence of this social system.

Reforms are social, economic, political.

Revolution (from Lat. Revolution - turn, coup) - a radical and violent change in state and public building affecting all parties to the life of society.

Revolutions are scientific, religious, technical, economic, political, etc.

Reforms and revolutions differ in scale, an area of \u200b\u200bapplication, subject of implementation and its historical significance.

Reforms require partial improvements and graduality, and the revolutions suggest a radical transition from the old to the new one.

The most greatest revolution in the history of mankind is the Neolithic. She lasted 3 thousand years (approx. 5-6 thousand - 2 thousand BC). During this revolution, humanity made a grand leap.

4. Masha. Laws of social change.

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Currently, the main concepts of social changes are the theory of systems and a model of the fluid sociocultural field. According to the basic idea of \u200b\u200bthe theory of systems, a complex intelligence consists of a plurality of elements that are combined with various relationships and are isolated because they are surrounded by some borders. At the macro level, the Global Society (humanity) can be considered as a system, at the average level (meso-level - national states and regional political or military alliances, on micro levels of local associations, associations, firms, families, friends, etc. Under social changes, representatives of the System Theory Schools understand what is happening either with the system itself, or inside it. The system's condition in itself is not one-dimensive, it is a generalized, total result of the state of many social changes:

finite elements (the number and variety of human individuals, their actions, etc.);

interconnections of elements (social ties, relations of personal dedication and loyalty, interaction, exchange, etc.);

functions of the system elements as a whole (the need for certain actions to preserve social order);

boundaries (the criteria for inclusion, principles of recruiting, the conditions for adopting individuals into a group or control of inclusion in the organization, etc.);

subsystems (number and variety of specialized regions, sections, units, etc.);

environment (natural conditions, neighborhood of other societies, geopolitical position).

Only through integrated interaction, the system acquires some common characteristics: equilibrium and instability, consensus or disagreement, harmony or discord, cooperation or conflict, peace or war, prosperity or crisis. Within the framework of the flower sociocultural field model, developed as an alternative to the social system model, the main provisions of the concept of social dynamics are particularly significant. In it, under social change, it is meant: a social process that includes a sequence of social events (various states of the social field); Social development, differentiation, expansion, crystallization, dismemberment of the social field in its various dimensions, which are the result of its internal properties; And finally, social progress, which is a development that can be considered as a certain improvement in accordance with one or another axiological point of view. The main difference between the field of the system of the systemic consists in theoretical substantiation of changes and processes as precisely extended, rather than discrete, fragmented or broken. Between two points in time, no matter how close they are, the movement does not stop. No matter how the scale was not narrowed, limiting the time distance between the two "cuts" of society, this distance will always be filled with changes. They occur continuously, and any two states of the sociocultural field - and almost coincident on time and remote - will be qualitatively different. The typology of social processes is based on six criteria:

form or outlines that take the process;

result, the result of the process;

public awareness of the social process;

his driving forces;

the level of social reality in which the process works;

temporary aspect of the process.

The concept of "social changes" is the initial to describe the dynamic processes occurring in society. This concept does not contain an estimated component and covers a wide range of diverse social changes regardless of their direction. In the broadest sense, under social changes, the transition of social systems, their elements and structures, connections and interactions from one state to another is understood.

Sociologists allocate four types of social change:

? structural social changes(related to structures of various social formations - families, small groups, mass communities, social institutions and organizations, social layers, social and class formations, etc.);

? procedural social changes(affecting social processes reflecting the relationship of solidarity, tensions, conflict, equality and subordination between various subjects of social interactions);

? functional social changes(related to the functions of various social systems, structures, institutions, organizations, etc.);

? motivational social changes(What is happening in the field of motivation of individual and collective activities; so, in the formation of a market economy, the interests and motivational installations of significant segments of the population are significantly changing).

In its nature and degree of influence on society, social changes are divided into evolutionary and revolutionary.

Under evolutionary, gradual, smooth, partial changes in society are understood.They can cover all spheres of society - economic, political, social, spiritual and cultural. Evolutionary changes most often take shape social reformswhich suggests various activities to transform certain parties to social life. Social reforms, as a rule, do not affect the foundations of the social system of society, and change only individual parts and structural elements.

The subject of social reforms is the ruling political party (in the context of democracy) or a group of political leaders (with an authoritarian mode) using government levers to implement the desired changes in society (here it is clearly seen to the difference of reforms from revolutions, most often breaking the old and creating a new state car. ).

The object of reform can be any element of political, economic and other systems of society, including social relations. The practical implementation of reforms usually begins with the adoption of relevant laws that create the necessary regulatory framework. Then there are changes in the institutional region - new executive and legislative bodies are formed, the functions of existing social institutions are transformed, etc. In the future, through the communicative subsystem, mediating the activities of reformers, changes are distributed to all spheres of society.

Under revolutionary are relatively fast (compared to previous social evolution), comprehensive, indigenous changes in society. Revolutionary transformations are hugged and represent the transition of society from one qualitative state to another.

The social revolution is the subject of acute discussions and disputes in sociology and other social sciences. Most of the sociologists see the social anomaly in it, deviation from the natural course of history. In turn, Marxists consider revolutions as a natural and progressive phenomenon in the history of mankind, they consider them the "Locomotives of History", the "highest act of politics", "the holiday of oppressed and operated", etc.

According to a number of modern domestic sociologists, unacceptably unilaterally regard or an evolutionary or revolutionary form of social change. These are two different, but it is necessary interconnected, conjugate sides of social development. They are inseparable and lose the meaning of each other, just like the paired philosophical categories: quantity and quality, content, and form, essence and phenomenon, cause and consequence.

Consequently, revolutionary, qualitative changes in the development of society are equally natural and inevitable, as well as evolutionary, quantitative. The ratio of evolutionary and revolutionary forms of social development depends on the specific historical conditions of the given era and this country. Modern experience shows that in developed countries, many social problems that generated revolutionary speeches in the past are successfully solved on the paths of evolutionary, reformist development.

The overall result of reforms in the countries of developed democracy were not only changes in the system of power and management, but also the deep transformation of the Western society itself. A multi-detective, socio-oriented market economy has emerged, a numerous middle class arose, the social polarization of society was noticeably softened. The powerful structures have become more democratic, the differentiation of the carriers of political and economic power has occurred, the development of the social partnership was developed, the standard of living of the population increased.

All this indicates that in modern authentic democratic civil society and the legal state, there are ample opportunities for deep public transformations without socio-political upheavals, the massive use of violence, the indigenous breakdown of the established social structures.

In recent years, sociologists have been paying more attention cyclic social changes.Cycles are called a certain set of phenomena, processes whose sequence is a circuit for a period of time. The final phase of the cycle as it repeats the initial, but only in other conditions or on a different level.

Political, economic, social cycles are observed in society: political crises are replaced by political stability, economic growth alternates with an economic downturn, its decline should be reduced by improving the level of well-being of the population.

Many social institutions, community, social and class education and even companies change over the cyclic scheme - the occurrence, growth, flourishing, crisis and fading, the occurrence of a new phenomenon. The special complexity of cyclic social changes is that different phenomena and processes in society have cycles of different duration - from seasonal to centuries-old. Therefore, at any given moment, there is simultaneous coexistence of social structures, phenomena, processes on different phases of their cycle. This largely determines the difficult nature of interaction between them, mutual inconsistencies, incomprehension and conflicts.

Among the cyclic processes, changes in the type of pendulum, wave movements, spiral-shaped are distinguished. The first are considered the simplest form of cyclic changes. As an example, it is possible to give a periodic shift in the power of conservatives and liberals in some European countries. An example of wave processes can serve as a cycle of technological innovation, which reaches its wave peak, and then decreases, as if it fades. Spiral type is the most complex form of cyclic social change. He implies a change by the formula: "Repetition of old on a qualitatively new level." Spiral processes characterize the social continuity of various generations. Each new generation is closely related to the previous ones, but at the same time does not seem to bring something to social life, new, thereby contributing to public development.

In addition to cyclic changes occurring within a single social system, sociologists and cultureologists allocate cyclic processes covering whole cultures and civilization. This approach was reflected in the theories of cultural and historical types, one of the creators of which was the Russian sociologist N. Ya. Danilevsky (1822-1885). In Western sociology, such concepts were developed in the works of O.Spengarler (1880-1936) and A.Tunby (1889-1975).

In the theories of cultural and historical types, focus was made on many zealinee development of "natural" sociocultural systems as special civilizations. Any civilization has its own life cycle and takes place in its development four main phases: the origin, formation, flourishing and decay. At the same time, each cultural and historical type is designed to make a peculiar contribution to the development of humanity.

The concepts of cultural and historical types were formed as antipodes of a linear theory of social development. Currently, sociologists also criticize the idea of \u200b\u200bthe one-core nature of social processes. They emphasize that society can change the most unexpected way. This happens when the social system cannot restore its equilibrium using the previous mechanisms, and the innovative activity of the masses seeks to go beyond all institutional restrictions. As a result, there is a situation when the problem of choice of a variety of social development options arises. Such a branching or splitting associated with the chaotic state of society is called social bifurcation, which means the unpredictability of public development logic.

Thus, the transition of society from one state to another is not always deterministic. The historical process is a fan of possible alternatives, this is a multivariate of social development, the source of which is the energy embodied in the social activities of people. A similar point of view is increasingly approved in modern domestic sociological science.

If there are no changes in society, it dies, starts to stagnate (rot). Society is a lively dynamic system exposed to both domestic and external forces. Structural elements of society (social groups, social institutions, generality) enter into various complex interactions. This constant interaction naturally leads to changes in society that can occur as on micro levels, i.e. due to the influence of the role of an individual, a change in the status of this personality and on the macro level.

Social change, as noted by Sociologists A.A. Raughth and ka. Radugul, this is the transition of social systems, communities, institutions and organizations from one state to another. P

the "social change" is generally common and can specify the concept of "development", which in a narrow sense means the "irreversible change in objects" involves the transition from simple to complex, from the lowest to the highest. This is the movement of society, which is not connected with any changes, but with deep, changing the structure of society, leading to the emergence of new public relations, institutions, norms and values. However, in everyday speech, as a rule, the concept of "development" is used as a synonym for the concept of "change". And in this case, we can say that the concept of "development" is not used in narrow, but in a broad sense.

Social changes occurring in society may include population growth, changes in relations between social groups, in the electoral system, in personal rights, etc. Changes may relate to the field of inventions, to the rules of the Russian language, morality regulations, etc.

Social changes differ not only to scale, but also in depth. From the entire totality of social changes, the following types can be distinguished: cyclic, linear, nonlinear.

Cyclic type

Sociology pays attention to repeating cyclic processes. In public life, cyclic processes have the same distribution as in nature. There are, as you know, astronomical cycles (day, night, seasons), biological cycles (birth, childhood, youth, maturity, old age, death). Cycles are also distinguished in everyday life (weekends and working days), etc. In society, political, economic, social cycles are clearly manifested: political crises are replaced by political stability, decline comes for economic prosperity, an increase in the level of welfare of the population alternates with its decline, and the like . In other words, social life is similar to a cycle. Each of the processes in society replaces the other. Each of the processes exhaust its potential. Social and historical development goes in a circle, which allows you to talk about its certain reversibility.

Cyclic means repetition of the trends of the past, but with some new variations. Each of the cyclic processes has similarities between the repeated states of the system, the number of repetitions in the cycle. The cycle duration may be short and long. Cycles differ in the number of phases, rhythm, acceleration or slowing the intervals. Cyclic processes contribute to the reproduction of social system, reproducing its functions (manufacturing material goods, their distribution, regulation of human behavior, etc.), reproduction of social communities (ethnic groups, nations, classes, strata), reproduction of sustainable forms of activity (scientific, industrial, artistic and etc.), social roles (doctor, lawyer, educator, military). The cyclicity gives rhythm to social processes, is a way to exist and preserve society. It is very important to know that every new cycle is not an absolute repetition of the previous one. The reproduction of society does not mean a complete substantive identity of the phases of the cycle, the beginning and end of the cycle.

Consequently, cyclic changes are not in the pure form circular processes. Therefore, the European CenterRist ideas about the absolute stump in the XVII - XVIIIs of Eastern countries are incorrect, as, for example, China, whose history has long been a typical example of cyclic development that has rejected cultural and technical innovations. Nevertheless, the current dynamic China is reproduced to a large extent traditional relationship.

Modern sociologists consider it possible to identify the forms of cyclic changes. Such forms of cyclic processes call changes by the type of pendulum, wave movements, spiraloids. Movement, or changes, by type of pendulum, are considered the simplest form of the cyclic process. As an example of such a movement, investment social policy can be given when funds for the development of the social sphere of society are increasing, then, on the contrary, are reduced, that is, they return to the original amount. The illustration of the wave processes in society serves, say, the cycle of technical innovations, which reaches its wave peak and again falls on the decline, as if fading.

Spiral type is the most complex form of cyclic changes. Spiral dynamics are determined by the classical formula - "Return to allegedly old, the repetition of the old on a different level." This is a process of change when the update and obsolescence are only partial. Each cycle of a changing phenomenon (process) seems to be denied preceding, turning into its opposite, to another quality and at the same time, as it may be refunded to its previous state. But this refund to the old is carried out at the new level, with the detection of new properties. Spiral model is a way of social continuity. Spiral processes are implemented in society, both on the upstream type and downward. This means that the spiral cycle of the change cannot be understood only as progressive, ascending. There are also descending spiral processes indicating dysfunctions in society, about his death, decline. An example of a spiral process is the attitude of a person to nature. In primitive times, nature was perceived by a man like blinding power. From the new time to the 20th century, a person thanks to scientific and technical progress gained new technological capabilities and found himself with its conqueror and the lord. And now he realized his organic connection with nature and the need for a human relation to her.

In addition to cyclic changes occurring within the framework of a qualitatively single social system, sociologists and culturologists particularly identify cyclic changes occurring in the cyclic dynamics of sociocultural systems. Therefore, it is appropriate besides the system-functional cycle, which has so far been discussed, talking about the historical cycle. The historical cycle, allocated by such thinkers as D. Vico, N. Danilevsky and others, reflects the unity of the process of occurrence, the flourishing and decay of sociocultural systems, emphasizes a certain lifetime of society. The concepts of these cultural buildings seek to show the unity of the world theory, its repeatability, the conjugation of ascending and downward lines, or consider the story as a combination of various cultural and historical types that have their own life deadlines (cycle).

Linear type

The linear type of social change considers the whole history of mankind as a single and most importantly - directional process. The linear type of social dynamics appeared as a result of the influence of biblical historosophy, the Jewish-Christian tradition and turned into a public consciousness in the idea of \u200b\u200bevolutionism, in the idea of \u200b\u200bprogress. Linear progress is directed to the future, perceived as a move forward in time and space.

The feature of the linear dynamics is that each stage of public progress, each stage of movement acts as a moment of genetic continuation of the previous stage. Linear processes partially absorb the properties of previous, enriched and develop them.

The most striking expression of linear representations are the ideas of social evolutionism. The theories of social evolutionism, despite their diversity, represent the desire to comprehend the historical process as a single line, as part of the total diverse linear cosmic evolution that chooses the complex evolutionary processes of the Earth and the entire planetary system.

The classic theories of the social evolution of Spencer, E. Durgeima, F. Nenis, as well as modern theories formulated by R. Arone, U. Rostow, D. Bella, 3. Brzezinsky, A. Toffler, and others. I will stop the attention on the main provisions nominated by these theorists, having remembered that there were already talking about their concepts in previous topics.

The evolutionary process, from the point of view of Spencer, is the complication of the forms of social life. Social life as a variety of external conditions affects it, heterogeneity in the subsystems constituting society increases. Thus, the society is differentiated, and this pace of differentiation is accelerated as complexity increases. Differentiation means separation of functions between parts of society, its subsystems, the development of specialization. Evolutionary changes increase the harmony of social processes, contribute to the integration of the components of the society of parts. Thus, the main idea of \u200b\u200bSpencer's social evolutionism is the idea of \u200b\u200bdifferentiation and integration. Society develops towards simple, traditional, differentiated, complex, rational, increasingly integrated. E. Durkheim saw the evolution process as a movement from the society with the undeveloped division of labor, the segmental structure and the mechanical solidarity of its members to society with a developed division of labor, a complex structure and organic solidarity. Mechanical solidarity, according to E. Durkheim, exists in traditional societies, where the team absorbs the individual, where there are single norms of behavior and value. Thus, solidarity between individuals is due to the uniformity of social life in each of the segments of society, the undeveloped division of labor, why it is named mechanical. Organic solidarity, on the contrary, due to the developed division of labor, which puts individuals into close dependence on each other, the weakening of the prohibitions and an increase in the degree of individual freedom of individuals. The transition from mechanical solidarity to organic and is the evolution of society, the source of which lies in the deepening of the division of labor and social differentiation.

F. Tennis presented two types of society in his book "Community and Society" in his book - the peasant, the village community (in German - Hemeinshaft) and the industrial, city society ("Gezelshaft"). Thus, the process of evolution is directed from the traditional society to the modern society. Tennis allocated five main features that distinguish between these societies that can be called interconnection types. The peasant, the village community assumes that in it the behavior of individuals and their roles are due to community principles, traditions, religious values \u200b\u200blimited (underdeveloped) specialization. The main cell of this society is a family, a community. In the city society, everything happens on the contrary. Here, social roles, the behavior of individuals are determined by the desire for personal benefits, subordinate to formal laws, the implementation of specialized formal roles, secular values. The main cell of urban society is corporate and associative forms of people's association.

R. Aron and W. Rosto - the authors of the theory of industrial society, which comes to replace the backward agrarian, "traditional society" with the prevailing natural economy, with a classroom hierarchy. Industrial society is characterized not only by developed labor specialization and management system, but also mechanization and automation, deployment of the scientific and technical revolution, mass production of goods for wide segments of the population.

In the second half of the 20th century, the theory of "post-industrial society" is widely developed and further development, which is also called "information society". All the development of human society, from the point of view of the authors of these concepts, is three stages: pre-industrial (agricultural), industrial and post-industrial. In the post-industrial society, knowledge, intelligence, information, creative activity embodied in man are becoming the main value.

It must be said that the linear dynamics implies not only progress, not only movement forward, to the future, but also regress, that is, perceived as a descending line in changes in society. However, regress should not be understood as a simple repetition in the reverse order of the stages already passed. The absolute repetition of the past is impossible in new, changed conditions, therefore, it is correct to talk about the asymmetricity of linear processes. Linear progress and regress are replacing each other in the historical process. The story is not completely reversible.

Sociologists also identify the types of social change. Of particular importance are innovative changes that are transformed into a social development factor.

These include various discoveries and inventions. Humanity knows a lot of discoveries that have changed its fate and the appearance of the planet (wheel, alphabet, a steam engine, a car, the doctrine of conditional and unconditional reflexes, the Table of Mendeleev, elected democracy, etc.).

Often, innovations are incompatible with the existing culture, and then a lot of time passes before innovation will be accepted by society. And yet it happens that innovation is rejected by society. So, for example, in Russian society, such values \u200b\u200bof liberal democracy, as an economic individualism, inviolability of private ownership, etc., are caused in the Russian society, and others. If technical, material inventions can be experienced and checked quickly, then social innovations prove their feasibility for a long time. Therefore, social innovations, for example, even the necessary laws, have to overcome resistance, and sometimes protest social groups before these laws prove their efficiency.

What are the causes of social change? With some part of the convention, two main approaches can be distinguished, which opposite each other way respond to this very difficult question. The source of social changes, from the point of view of most of the sociologists, is inside the society itself, that is, the social conflict is played in the interaction of its structures, spheres, groups, etc. The social conflict plays a decisive role in the change. At the same time, Marxists identified the conflict between opposite classes, parties, ideologies at the heart of social change. All social history in Marxism appears as the history of the struggle of the class of oppressive and oppressors. Social contradictions in the Marxist concept is a source of development.

Non-Marxist modern conflict theory in the face of L. Kozerev, R. Duddorf, L. Gumplovich, E. Giddens and others also consider the conflict as a natural phenomenon as a way of movement, society development. Conflict is an integral line of social life. The task of society is to learn to resolve conflicts, rationally regulate them, and not suppress. Conservation of the conflict will inevitably lead to high voltage in society and ultimately - to the explosion of socio-political activity and the destruction of the social system.

The difference between the Marxist and Nemmarxist School of Conflict is to interpret the content of the conflict. So, for example, the German sociologist R. Duddorf believes that the basis of modern social conflict is the relationship of domination and subordination, which permeate all spheres of society. Such relations are present in the family, in the student audience, in the army, etc. This relationship is always, in any society there are natural resistance. So, if Marxism considers the base of conflict inequality in relation to the means of production, inequality in the field of property relations, then R. Darönedorf transfers the conflict to another soil - in the field of human management. Polish-Austrian sociologist L. Gumplovich explains the conflict from the point of view of social darwinism and social psychology, since it considers it as an expression of human passions: envy, aggression, dissatisfaction, as a merciless struggle.

Another approach in sociology is associated with such a direction as functionalism. Functionalists do not deny the need for social change in society, including deep. But they suggest that such changes should not disturb the "mobile equilibrium" of the social system. Functionalists prefer to talk more about the equilibrium of society than about conflicts in it. Society should reduce the likelihood of conflict. It is for this "blittleflipness", the functionalists criticize the representativeists of the conflictological direction.

Nonlinear Type

In the XX century, the theory of linear changes is criticized. Reality has proven that there are no eternal linear patterns, universal stages of evolution, which would be related to the world's world community, to any societies or groups. Linear type of change is just one of many possible. In order for a linear tendency to keep constantly, the status quo is required. In other words, it is necessary that the changing object (in this case society) is not exposed to external forces, or this impact must be neutralized in such a way that the social system continues to remain in an equilibrium, balanced state.

However, society is continuously changing, exposed to the environment. There are new types of interactions, new structures and norms. The same structural education simultaneously participates, as a rule, in a variety of processes. Therefore, it is necessary to remember changes in the structures and processes occurring at the same time. Sequential change of states, the movement of structural elements continuously violates the equilibrium of the system. The main subject of social change is the person, people who create the social system and its destroying. It has already been said that people living in society occupy a certain place in the social space. This place is determined by the status and role, which implies the possession of the individual a set of rights and obligations. But the behavior of individuals is much more complicated and diverse than the existing role structure and status.

The interaction of roles and statuses that individuals possess, occurs on nonlinear type. The role of each individual is implemented on a nonlinear principle. Modern synergetics studying a stochastic (random) nature of the processes has had a great influence on the development of humanitarian sciences, and especially for sociology and philosophy. Sociology emphasizes that society can change the most unexpected, unpredictable way. This happens when the social system cannot restore its equilibrium using the previous mechanisms, and the revolutionary or innovative activity of the masses seeks to free themselves from all system-structural limitations. Then the situation arises when the problem of choosing its new state grows before society. Such a branching, or split, is called "bifurcation". It is very important to say that bifurcation means a violation of the prior development logic, and it is impossible to predict. Society is such a system that develops, changes not only due to causal relationships and relations. A society worried bifurcation is a chaotic system in which random deviations (fluctuations) replace the former order.

Thus, the transition of society from one state to another is not always deterministic, and the direction of movement can be unpredictable. The historical process is a fan of possible alternatives, this is a multivariate of social development, the source of which is the energy embodied in the behavior of people.

The need for choice stood before the Decembrists. They could not go to the Senate Square (December 12, 1825). There was an alternative to the conclusion of the peace treaty between the USSR and the fascist Germany. During the election campaign, citizens appear several options, each of which opens its way to the future.