Most truths. It is associated with the inevitable aberration of reality in the process of its multiplication and superposition. Human vision, worldview, art, based on L. is obliged by its very essence. When art appears not as reality, but as deception, perversion, latent psychic. In science, L. is stipulated under the guise of certain premises and artificial methods, or it remains implicit both in the form of a methodological lie and in the form of a difference between the scientific worldview and the supposed cardinally true worldview. It would seem that the task of philosophy is a worldview from L., a worldview corresponding to the "actual state of affairs", but philosophy shows all the philosophical teachings that have come down to us. However, clearing the worldview of L. - main philosophy and the goal of initially oriented philosophizing. natural and artificial, unintentional and intentional L. does not facilitate any ethical distinction. Different human psychotypes have the same (homogeneous) L. at different mental levels, in different ways with the phenomena of forgetting and contamination. Similarly, the division of coarseness-subtlety is ambiguous, where both “coarse” and “coarse lies” could be negative. Religious L. can be associated with psychotechnics and cheap affects, which are provided by and. Ontologically, L. looks like segregations, inferior existences. Post-subjective lies - a process begun. Biased, L. is real.

2) Lies- see Truthfulness.

3) Lies- - deliberately unfair distortion of the truth, far from an honest expression of doubt; "unlike delusion and error, it denotes a conscious and therefore morally reprehensible contradiction to truth" (Vl. Soloviev). In logic, a false conclusion is simply an erroneous conclusion in reasoning, capable of misleading both the reasoning person and other people. In ethics there is a problem of "necessary lies", moral permissibility, for example, for the sake of saving someone's life to declare something that obviously does not correspond to the real state of affairs. According to Soloviev, “a person who is kind by nature does not hesitate with the moral interest to save his neighbor and with the moral interest to observe factual accuracy in his testimony; a good nature excludes a tendency to lie or deceit, but in in this case deceit does not play any role. "But by and large a religious person cannot be a liar: falsehood is anti-religious, a person begins from weakness of spirit and destroys not only his personal spiritual life, making himself insincere in the depths, but commits" treason to the Center ", invades" the main dimension of things, people and relationships. Its danger and fatality lies in the fact that it violates or directly destroys the divine fabric in human life. When a person lies, he is lying: or to God about himself; or other people about God; or to other people about themselves before the face of God; or about oneself and others about others in their divine dimension "(I. Ilyin).

4) Lies- - in contrast to delusion and error - denotes a conscious and therefore morally reprehensible contradiction to truth. Of the adjectives from this word, only the false form retains an undoubtedly bad meaning, while the false is also used in the sense of the objective non-coincidence of the given position with the truth, even if without the intention and guilt of the subject; so a false conclusion is one that is made with the intention of deceiving others, while a false conclusion and, which is made by mistake, deceiving the wrong person. In moral philosophy, the question of necessity is important, i.e. about whether it is permissible or impermissible to make statements deliberately disagreeing with the factual reality in extreme cases, for example. to save someone's life. This question is sometimes unreasonably confused with the question of the permissibility of bad means for good ends, with which it has only an apparent connection. The question of the need for L. can be correctly resolved on the following basis. Morality is not a mechanical collection of various prescriptions, irrespectively obligatory in their own right. On the material side, morality is a manifestation of good nature; but a person, who is good by nature, cannot hesitate with a moral interest to save his neighbor and with a moral interest to observe factual accuracy in his testimony; kind nature excludes inclination to L. or deceit, but in this case deceit does not play any role. From the formal side, morality is an expression of pure will; but the observance of the external correspondence between word and fact in each individual case, regardless of its vital meaning and with the sacrifice of real moral obligations arising from a given position, is not an expression of pure will, but only soulless literalism. Finally, from the side of the ultimate goal, morality is the path to true life, and its prescriptions are given to man so that he may live by them; therefore, sacrificing human life for the exact fulfillment of a separate prescription is an internal contradiction and cannot be moral. Vl. WITH.

5) Lies- - a statement that distorts the actual state of affairs. According to Aristotle, the structure of a lie is as follows: if a judgment connects what is disconnected in reality or separates what is actually connected, then it is false. Nonsense or absurdity should be distinguished from lies. Lying is one of the fundamental concepts of the general theory. information systems without revealing the concept of lies, it is pointless to talk about information and related concepts. Lying is the opposite of truth, but connected with the latter by an inseparable bond: if you combine a big truth with a small lie, you get a big lie. (see structure of lies). Lies are a fundamental category of philosophy, ethics, politics, economics and other areas of human life and the existence of mankind. Due to the fact that it is fundamental, society prefers to pretend that it does not exist. In ancient times they said: "Do not use the name of God in vain!" Exactly the same situation is developing with the institution of lies - this word is not in the dictionary of the LEXICON editor, in which the version of the text of the present interpreter is typed (at least, he does not incline him), politicians avoid it, inventing equivalents of "cunning", "intellectual bad faith ", etc. That is, people subconsciously and consciously understand that, following the path of lies, they will inevitably reach themselves and bring others to the abyss. They understand and do not do it, since a lie allows, as it seems, a liar, in many cases to achieve a goal with minimal time, moral and energy costs. At the same time, revenge shows that ethical equations work and ultimately triumph. Another thing is that the question "why?" Is often asked. this retribution has come. Associative block. A case is described when a plane crashed over Africa (broke into pieces). People fell along with the chairs and the girl shouted into the radio, which these chairs were equipped with, apparently in case of splashdown: "God, I was always so good and obedient. Why did you punish me specifically?" Ether heard all this, but could not help her in any way.

6) Lies- - a statement designed to deceive, when the speaker is silent or distorts what he knows about the state of affairs in question, when he knows something else and about which he does not speak. From the point of view of ethics, lying is condemned if the deception is caused by the desire to harm a person or gain an advantage for himself over another. In the knowledge of Sophia, one must learn to distinguish between truthfulness or falsehood and act in the name of truth.

7) Lies- - deliberate distortion of the truth, not deceit.

8) Lies- - a conscious distortion of the truth; a statement that is incompatible with a true statement.

9) Lies- - a statement designed to deceive, when the speaker is silent or distorts what he knows about the state of affairs in question, when he knows something other than what he is saying. From the point of view of ethics, a lie is condemned if the deception is caused by the desire to harm another person or gain an advantage for oneself over another. No matter how it looks, a lie is positively assessed only out of politeness or out of pity. A lot of lies arise when asked: the person being asked perceives the question as a compulsion to answer (corresponding to the truth), which he seeks to avoid with the help of lies (nar I proverb: "Do not ask me, then I will not need you"), - that's why the respected person does not no questions to be asked; most often, complete silence is ineffective, since it leaves too much room for guesswork and does not prevent carrying (for example, when interrogating a prisoner of war or when asking questions that hint at a commercial secret). In such situations, it is necessary, depending on the case or in good conscience, to distinguish between what serves the highest ethical value - truthfulness or falsehood.

10) Lies- - a distorted reflection of reality, such a cognitive content, a cut does not correspond to the objective nature of things. Conscious L. is deliberate misinformation. Unintentional L. coincides with a delusion that includes objective and truthful moments. From L. it is necessary to distinguish nonsense, or absurdity.

Synonyms: nonsense, lies, lies, lies, lies, lies, lies, deception

Lie

The fundamental primordial element (network of elements) of perception and communication, component most truths. It is associated with the inevitable aberration of reality in the process of its multiplication and superposition. Human vision, world outlook, art, sciences are actually based on L. Art is obliged to lie by its very essence. At the same time, art acts not as a fake of reality, but more as a means of deception, perversion, and latent modification of the psychic. In science, L. is either specially stipulated under the guise of certain premises and artificial methods, or it remains implicit both in the form of a methodological lie and in the form of a difference between the scientific worldview and the supposed cardinally true worldview. It would seem that the task of philosophy is to cleanse the world outlook from L., to present a world outlook corresponding to the "real state of affairs", but the history of philosophy shows the falsity of all the philosophical teachings that have come down to us. However, clearing the worldview of L. - the main objective philosophy and the presence of such a goal - the criterion of initially correctly oriented philosophizing. The distinction between natural and artificial, unintentional and intentional L. does not in the least facilitate any ethical distinction. In different human psychotypes, one and the same (homogeneous) L. can arise at different mental levels, in different ways to be associated with the phenomena of forgetting and contamination. Similarly, the division between coarseness and subtlety is ambiguous, where both "gross truth" and "gross lie" could be equally negatively evaluated. Religious L. can be associated with psychotechnics and those cheap affects that naivety and conformism provide. Ontologically, L. looks like a conglomerate of segregations, a coherence of inferior existences. Post-subjective creation of a lie is a continuation of a process begun in advance. Biased, L. is real.

see Truthfulness.

Willfully unfair misrepresentation of the truth, far from honest expression of doubt; "unlike delusion and error, it denotes a conscious and therefore morally reprehensible contradiction to truth" (Vl. Soloviev). In logic, a false conclusion is simply an erroneous conclusion in reasoning, capable of misleading both the reasoning person and other people. In ethics there is a problem of "necessary lies", moral permissibility, for example, for the sake of saving someone's life to declare something that obviously does not correspond to the real state of affairs. According to Soloviev, "a person who is kind by nature cannot hesitate between the moral interest to save his neighbor and the moral interest to observe factual accuracy in his testimony; kind nature excludes a tendency to lie or deceit, but in this case deceit does not play any role." But by and large, a religious person cannot be a liar: a lie is anti-religious, a person begins to lie from weakness of spirit and destroys not only his personal spiritual life, making himself insincere in the depths, but commits “betrayal of the Center”, invades the “main dimension of things, people and relationships.Its danger and disastrous lies in the fact that it violates or directly destroys the divine fabric in human life.When a person lies, then he lies: either to God about himself; or to other people about God; or to other people about himself in the face of God ; or about oneself and others about others in their divine dimension "(I. Ilyin).

Unlike delusion and error, it denotes a conscious and therefore morally reprehensible contradiction to truth. Of the adjectives from this word, only the false form retains an undoubtedly bad meaning, while the false is also used in the sense of the objective non-coincidence of the given position with the truth, even if without the intention and guilt of the subject; so a deceitful conclusion is one that is made with the intention of deceiving others, while a false conclusion may also be one that is made by mistake, deceiving the erring one himself. In moral philosophy, the question of necessity is important, i.e. about whether it is permissible or impermissible to make statements deliberately disagreeing with the factual reality in extreme cases, for example. to save someone's life. This question is sometimes unreasonably confused with the question of the permissibility of bad means for good ends, with which it has only an apparent connection. The question of the need for L. can be correctly resolved on the following basis. Morality is not a mechanical collection of various prescriptions, irrespectively obligatory in their own right. On the material side, morality is a manifestation of good nature; but a person, who is good by nature, cannot hesitate between the moral interest to save his neighbor and the moral interest to observe factual accuracy in his testimony; kind nature excludes inclination to L. or deceit, but in this case deceit does not play any role. From the formal side, morality is an expression of pure will; but the observance of the external correspondence between word and fact in each individual case, regardless of its vital meaning and with the sacrifice of real moral obligations arising from a given position, is not an expression of pure will, but only soulless literalism. Finally, from the side of the ultimate goal, morality is the path to true life, and its prescriptions are given to man so that he may live by them; therefore, sacrificing human life for the exact fulfillment of a separate prescription is an internal contradiction and cannot be moral. Vl. WITH.

A statement that distorts the actual state of affairs. According to Aristotle, the structure of a lie is as follows: if a judgment connects what is disconnected in reality or separates what is actually connected, then it is false. Nonsense or absurdity should be distinguished from lies. Lies are one of the fundamental concepts of the general theory of information systems, without revealing the concept of lies, it is meaningless to talk about information and related concepts. Lying is the opposite of truth, but connected with the latter by an inseparable bond: if you combine a big truth with a small lie, you get a big lie. (see structure of lies). Lies are a fundamental category of philosophy, ethics, politics, economics and other areas of human life and the existence of mankind. Due to the fact that it is fundamental, society prefers to pretend that it does not exist. In ancient times they said: "Do not use the name of God in vain!" Exactly the same situation is developing with the institution of lies - this word is not in the dictionary of the LEXICON editor, in which the version of the text of the present interpreter is typed (at least, he does not incline him), politicians avoid it, inventing equivalents of "cunning", "intellectual bad faith ", etc. That is, people subconsciously and consciously understand that, following the path of lies, they will inevitably reach themselves and bring others to the abyss. They understand and nevertheless do, since a lie allows, as it seems, a liar, in many cases to achieve a goal with minimal time, moral and energy costs. At the same time, history shows that ethical equations work and in the end, truth or vengeance triumphs. Another thing is that the question "why?" Is often asked. this retribution has come. Associative block. A case is described when a plane crashed over Africa (broke into pieces). People fell along with the chairs and one girl shouted into the radio, which these chairs were equipped with, apparently in case of splashdown: "God, I was always so good and obedient. Why did you punish me specifically?" Ether heard all this, but could not help her in any way.

- a statement designed to deceive, when the speaker is silent or distorts what he knows about the state of affairs in question, or when he knows something else and about which he does not speak. From the point of view of ethics, lying is condemned if the deception is caused by the desire to harm a person or gain an advantage for himself over another. In the knowledge of Sophia, one must learn to distinguish between truthfulness or falsehood and act in the name of truth.

Deliberate distortion of the truth, not the truth, deception.

Conscious distortion of the truth; a statement that is incompatible with a true statement.

A statement designed to deceive when the speaker is silent or distorts what he knows about the state of affairs in question, or when he knows something other than what he is saying. From the point of view of ethics, a lie is condemned if the deception is caused by the desire to harm another person or gain an advantage for oneself over another. No matter how it looks, a positive lie can only be judged out of politeness or out of pity. A lot of lies arise when asked: the person being asked perceives the question as a compulsion to an answer (corresponding to the truth), which he seeks to avoid with the help of lies (nar one I am a proverb: "Do not ask me, then I will not need to lie to you"), this is why the respected the person does not need to ask any questions; in most cases, complete silence is ineffective, since it leaves too much room for guesswork and does not prevent a part of the self (for example, when interrogating a prisoner of war or when asking questions that hint at a commercial secret). In such situations, it is necessary, depending on the case or in good conscience, to distinguish between what serves the highest ethical value - truthfulness or falsehood.

Distorted reflection of reality, such a cognitive content, a cut does not correspond to the objective nature of things. Conscious L. is deliberate misinformation. Unintentional L. coincides with a delusion that includes objective and truthful moments. From L. it is necessary to distinguish nonsense, or absurdity.

To a greater or lesser extent, many people lie. Someone is misleading in order to hide or obtain information, someone - for the benefit of others, which is also called an altruistic lie or a lie for good. Others deceive themselves; for others, lying has become an integral part of life. They lie all the time for no apparent reason. In psychology, several types of lies are distinguished, there is a classification depending on different aspects.

What it is

A lie is a deliberate statement by a person that does not correspond to the truth. In other words, deliberate transmission of distorted, untrue information. Even silence in certain situations can be considered a lie. For example, when a person deliberately tries to hide or withhold any information.

At one time, Benjamin Disraeli said: "There are three types of lies: statistics, lies and blatant lies." This expression is considered rather humorous, but, as everyone knows, there is some truth in every joke. Then these words were rephrased many times, and their authorship was attributed to to different people... Modern interpretations are often heard today. For example: "There are 3 types of lies: lies, blatant lies and advertising", or "... lies, blatant lies and election promises."

Lies, lies and deceit

In psychotherapy, there are three types and deception. To this day, scientists are trying to understand if there is a difference between these concepts. Lack is a delusion, a person believes in what he says, but his opinion turns out to be erroneous. That is, a person does not realize that he is wrong and deceives unintentionally. This can be due to a lack of knowledge or misinterpretation of a situation.

The tale is a lie, but there is a hint in it! A lesson to good fellows.

The tale is not a lie, since the author is not trying to pass off what he has written as truth. But is a lie always a negative phenomenon? There are situations in which words depend more on circumstances than on people. For example, should the pilot of a plane crash tell passengers the truth? Should a son tell a mother who has cancer that he himself is terminally ill?

A deception can be called a half-truth, when a person does not report all the facts known to him with the expectation that the second person will draw incorrect conclusions (but those that are beneficial to the deceiver). Not always a half-truth can be called a deception. If a girl honestly admits to her friend that she cannot give out all the information about a particular case, this will not be considered cheating.

So, we can distinguish such types of lies in psychology: untruth, lies and deception.

People are constantly passing information to each other. At the same time, everyone perceives it in their own way, some embellish it, some forget the details and substitute invented ones instead. During a conversation, often someone "misses" something, then tells another, adding his own, and he fantasizes, adds something else, and until the third one the information will be half distorted. This is how gossip is born.

Example: "Alina said that Masha said that Nadia saw him with his mistress!" In fact, Nadya saw how the guy, leaving the cafe, held the door for the girl, and then they went in one direction, keeping a distance of several meters.

"Sorry, I was late because there are terrible traffic jams on the road," says Andrey. But he thinks: "In fact, I was late, because yesterday I was late with friends at the bar, and in the morning I did not hear the alarm clock."

“I didn’t come to the first class, because Masha told me that there would be no class,” says Albina. But she thinks: "In fact, I did not come, because Masha told me that she and her friend would not go to the first pair, so I also wanted to take a walk."

Lying as an evasion is the most common type of lie. People are not telling the truth because otherwise they will get in trouble. They are pushed to this by the instinct of self-preservation.

Lie out of courtesy

“How glad I am to see you, it’s very good that you and I met” - a typical phrase of old acquaintances. Most likely, no one is happy to see anyone, everyone wants to end this conversation as soon as possible in order to go about their business.

It often happens that once at school / institute the guys were The roads went separate ways, now everyone has their own family, completely different interests and social circle. There were no fights, it just happened. But to a person with whom you were once close, you will not say: "I absolutely do not care whether you are in my life or not, I have never even remembered about you."

This type of lie can also include a lie as empathy.

"Don't worry, he is not worth your tears at all, just that evening he was very drunk, and in a couple of days he will crawl on your lap, it happened to me too, believe me," - a phrase that every girl thrown by a guy hears. He, of course, was not drunk at all and is now happy with his new girlfriend, and he will hardly come to ask for forgiveness. You can't tell your friend that. Over time, everything will work out, but now a person just needs support.

The most dangerous form of lying is lying to yourself. When a person refuses to face the truth, even though it is obvious. It is easier to justify yourself, to justify other people, to come up with a reason for doing something, than to admit that there is a problem. You cannot build a world of illusions and go headlong into it.

"He does not pick up the phone because he does not hear / is busy / at the meeting," the girl says to herself, although she knows very well that he is cheating on her. You don't need to be afraid to make decisions, change yourself and change your life. Everything that is done is for the best.

a distorted reflection of reality, such a cognitive content, a cut does not correspond to the objective nature of things. Conscious L. is deliberate misinformation. Unintentional L. coincides with a delusion that includes objective and truthful moments. From L. it is necessary to distinguish nonsense, or absurdity.

Excellent definition

Incomplete definition ↓

Lie

a statement that distorts the actual state of affairs. According to Aristotle, the structure of a lie is as follows: if a judgment connects what is disconnected in reality or separates what is actually connected, then it is false. Nonsense or absurdity should be distinguished from lies. Lies are one of the fundamental concepts of the general theory of information systems, without revealing the concept of lies, it is meaningless to talk about information and related concepts. Lying is the opposite of truth, but connected with the latter by an inseparable bond: if you combine a big truth with a small lie, you get a big lie. (see structure of lies).

Lies are a fundamental category of philosophy, ethics, politics, economics and other areas of human life and the existence of mankind. Due to the fact that it is fundamental, society prefers to pretend that it does not exist. In ancient times they said: "Do not use the name of God in vain!" Exactly the same situation is developing with the institution of lies - this word is not in the dictionary of the LEXICON editor, in which the version of the text of the present interpreter is typed (at least, he does not incline him), politicians avoid it, inventing equivalents of "cunning", "intellectual bad faith ", etc. That is, people subconsciously and consciously understand that, following the path of lies, they will inevitably reach themselves and bring others to the abyss. They understand and nevertheless do, since a lie allows, as it seems, a liar, in many cases to achieve a goal with minimal time, moral and energy costs. At the same time, history shows that ethical equations work and in the end, truth or vengeance triumphs. Another thing is that the question "why?" Is often asked. this retribution has come.

Lie

Unlike delusion and error, it denotes a conscious and therefore morally reprehensible contradiction to truth. Of the adjectives from this word, only the false form retains an undoubtedly bad meaning, while the false is also used in the sense of the objective non-coincidence of the given position with the truth, even if without the intention and guilt of the subject; so a deceitful conclusion is one that is made with the intention of deceiving others, while a false conclusion may also be one that is made by mistake, deceiving the erring one himself. In moral philosophy, the question of necessity is important, i.e. about whether it is permissible or impermissible to make statements deliberately disagreeing with the factual reality in extreme cases, for example. to save someone's life. This question is sometimes unreasonably confused with the question of the permissibility of bad means for good ends, with which it has only an apparent connection. The question of the need for L. can be correctly resolved on the following basis. Morality is not a mechanical collection of various prescriptions, irrespectively obligatory in their own right. On the material side, morality is a manifestation of good nature; but a person, who is good by nature, cannot hesitate between the moral interest to save his neighbor and the moral interest to observe factual accuracy in his testimony; kind nature excludes inclination to L. or deceit, but in this case deceit does not play any role. From the formal side, morality is an expression of pure will; but the observance of the external correspondence between word and fact in each individual case, regardless of its vital meaning and with the sacrifice of real moral obligations arising from a given position, is not an expression of pure will, but only soulless literalism. Finally, from the side of the ultimate goal, morality is the path to true life, and its prescriptions are given to man so that he may live by them; therefore, sacrificing human life for the exact fulfillment of a separate prescription is an internal contradiction and cannot be moral.

Excellent definition

Incomplete definition ↓

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Psychology Abstract

The psychology of lies

Introduction

Distinguishing truth from lies is a great art.

In the book by Paul Ekman "The Psychology of Lies" for 2001 and in the book by I. Vagin "The Psychology of Survival in modern Russia»For 2004, it is well described what types, signs of lies are, how to distinguish truth from deception, as well as how you can learn how to put a psychological defense in order not to fall into the trap of a liar. From these books you can learn how, by the smallest flaws in people's behavior, you can not only recognize a lie, but also find out hidden intentions or information. A very good definition of lies and deceit is given by V.V. Signs: A lie is usually called the deliberate transfer of information that does not correspond to reality. The most common definition of St. Augustine in European culture is that a lie is spoken with a desire to tell a lie. The main difference between lying and deceiving is that it is always based on a verbal or non-verbal intentionally untrue, false statement. The essence of a lie always boils down to the fact that a person believes or thinks one thing, and in communication expresses another. The liar's goal is to convey a false message. Deception is based on the deliberate desire of one of the communication participants to create in the partner a false idea of ​​the subject of discussion, but the deceiver does not distort the facts. A hallmark of deception is the complete absence of false information, direct distortions of the truth. The purpose of deception is to direct the interlocutor's thinking along the path of actualizing familiar situations. The deceived is always an unwitting accomplice in deception: he is a victim of his own inadequate ideas about reality and incompleteness of information. In the 16th century, Pope Paul IV expressed this thought in the following way: "The world wants to be deceived, so let them be deceived." Yastrebov, 1994: “If there is an urgent need in society to be deceived, cheated, then a group of people will surely emerge that realizes this desire in practice: be it a game of cards, a lottery or the sale of shares, from which the buyer will never receive dividends. The main thing is to withdraw money from the people and provide them with what they yearn for - to be deceived. " Every person has lied at least once in their life. Sometimes this happens out of necessity, and sometimes the lie is completely unjustified. In any case, the ability to recognize it is a very useful skill that will help to avoid many problems.

1. Liar. Types of lies

The book by I. Vagin "The Psychology of Survival in Modern Russia" examines the problems of deception and lies. It says that a person, as a rule, lies either to achieve his own goals or to elevate himself in the eyes of others or to hide information that can compromise a person. Also, we must not forget about the so-called "lies for the sake of salvation."

Paul Ekman, in his book The Psychology of Lying, defines lying as an act by which one person misleads another, doing it deliberately, without prior notice of their goals and without explicitly asked by the victim not to reveal the truth.

* Silence (hiding the truth);

* Distortion (reporting false information).

There are other types of lies, such as:

* Concealment of the true cause of emotion;

* Reporting the truth in the form of deception;

* Special lie;

* Half-truth;

* Confusing evasion.

Finally, there are two types of signs of deception:

* Leakage of information (the liar gives himself out by accident);

* Information about the presence of deception (the liar's behavior reveals only that he is telling a lie). Information leaks and information about the presence of deception are errors. But mistakes don't always happen; sometimes the liar behaves flawlessly.

Several forms of lying can be considered:

Silence or hiding real information. According to I. Vagin: “For some reason, most people do not take this type of lie for, directly, a lie. A person does not give out distorted information, but he does not speak real information either. However, it would be worth taking a closer look at this type of deception. For example, when the doctor does not inform the patient that he is terminally ill, or the husband does not consider it necessary to tell his wife that he spends his lunch hours at her friend's apartment. Quite often, only part of the information is covered, and the unnecessary is left behind the scenes. This method of silence is commonly referred to as "partial coverage or selective presentation of material." As an example of such a situation, the following case can be cited: a juice producer writes “100% natural orange juice” on the packaging of his product, of course, the buyer understands this as a statement that this is pure juice, not diluted with water. However, the manufacturer implies that this is only orange juice, and not a mixture of different juices, but presents this information in a way that is in their favor. And already in the back, in small print, they add "recovered from concentrated juice."

Distortion of real information, says I. Vagin, is what we used to call a lie. When, instead of real information, we are presented with deception, passing it off as the truth, and thereby, misleading us. We meet with such lies every day, and it is this lie that is the most dangerous and most unjustified. Telling the truth in the form of deception. A person speaks the truth in such a way that the interlocutor gets the impression that he is lying, and the true information is not accepted. Paul Ekman gives the following example: A wife is talking to her lover on the phone and suddenly her husband walks in. The wife hangs up and blushes.

Who were you talking to?

The wife puts on a sweet smile and says

With a lover with whom else?

Everyone laughed, and the truth remained hidden. The husband did not even have a shadow of suspicion, although the wife, in fact, spoke to her lover.

I. Vagin also highlights a special lie. Very often, a person who lies does not consider himself a liar because he himself believes in what he says, and therefore the signs of lying are absolutely not expressed here. He does this subconsciously, not realizing why and why. Usually almost everyone lies in this way, but this lie does not affect anything - it is not serious. It aims to impress others. This is an exaggeration of real facts, presentation real story that happened to other people for their own, etc. it can very often betray such a liar that he, over time, will forget about what was said and begin to contradict himself. The author of the book "The Psychology of Survival in Contemporary Russia" advises: "When you understand that this lie is beyond all boundaries, you should not express your extreme discontent. Trust the person, even if you know for sure that he is lying. This usually comes from self-doubt and an inferiority complex. Such a person cannot be changed, just draw conclusions for yourself. "

If you are not sure if the person is lying to you, then ask for any details or clarify something about what was said. Then a person can remember that what he said is not true, and he will begin to deliberately lie, with all the ensuing consequences, and it will be easier to catch him.

2. Signs of lying

“If you look closely at a liar, you can always notice some flaws in his behavior. The problem is that we believe what we want to believe, and that kills our vigilance. To recognize a lie, you need to keep cool and throw away your emotions. Signs of deception:

Leakage of information - a liar inadvertently betrays himself to be inconsistent with information. An example of such a sign of deception can be given. The young man promised his girlfriend that he would quit smoking, and when she once again started telling him about the dangers of smoking, he lied to her that he had already quit, because for her sake he was ready for anything. About a month later, when this topic became closed, the guy coughed, complained a little through clenched teeth about his lungs and said that it was time for him to quit smoking. Needless to say, the deception was immediately exposed.

Information about the presence of deception - the liar by his behavior betrays only that he is telling a lie, but the true information is still not known. Knowing that we are being lied to, we cannot always tell what exactly they are trying to hide from us. I talked with one woman who said that her husband was cheating on her. She said: “He is hiding something from me, I can feel it. He comes home from work gloomy, eats poorly, he even refuses his favorite dishes! But when I ask him what happened, he says that everything is fine! I know him well, I know that he is lying to me, but what exactly is he hiding from me? " A few months later it turned out that he had been diagnosed with lung cancer ... "

3. Why does a lie sometimes fail?

In Paul Ekman's The Psychology of Lies, this happens for many reasons. A victim of deception may accidentally stumble upon evidence after discovering hidden documents or a treacherous lipstick stain on a handkerchief. Someone can betray the deceiver. An envious colleague, an abandoned spouse, a paid informant - they all contribute to the disclosure of deception. However, we are only interested in mistakes that occur directly in the process of deception, mistakes made by a liar against his wishes; we are interested in the lies betrayed by the behavior of the deceiver.

“Signs of deception can be manifested in facial expressions, body movements, voice modulations, swallowing movements, in too deep or, on the contrary, shallow breathing, in long pauses between words, in slips of the tongue, micro-facial expressions, inaccurate gestures. Why do liars make such misbehavior? After all, this is not always the case. And then the liar looks perfect; nothing betrays his deception. But why does this not always happen? First of all, for two reasons: one of them concerns the mind, the other - feelings. "

Unsuccessful line of conduct

A liar does not always know in advance what and where to lie. He also does not always have time to develop a line of behavior, rehearse and memorize it.

But even in the case of a sufficiently successful deception, when the line of conduct is well thought out, the liar may not be smart enough to foresee all possible questions and prepare answers to them.

It happens that a liar changes his line of behavior even without any pressure from circumstances, but simply because of his own anxiety, and then cannot quickly and consistently answer the questions that arise.

All of these blunders give easily recognizable signs of deception:

* Inability to foresee the need for lies;

* Inability to prepare the required line of behavior;

* Inability to adequately respond to changing circumstances;

* Inability to adhere to the initially accepted line of conduct; NB:

Sometimes too smooth a line of behavior can be a sign of a cheater who has rehearsed his role well, and some crooks deliberately make minor mistakes in order to make the cheating look more credible.

Lack of preparation or inability to adhere to the initially chosen line of conduct, as a rule, gives signs of deception, not in what the cheater says, but in how he does it. The need to think over each word (weigh the possibilities and choose expressions carefully) manifests itself in pauses or in more subtle signs, such as, for example, the tension of the eyelids and eyebrows, as well as changes in gesticulation. Careful word choice is not always a sign of deception, although sometimes it is.

Lies and feelings

Strong emotions are very difficult to control. In addition, in order to hide intonation, facial expressions or specific body movements that arise during emotional arousal, a certain struggle with oneself is required, as a result of which, even in the case of successful concealment of feelings experienced in reality, efforts directed at this may be noticeable, which will in turn appear a sign of deception.

It is not easy to hide emotions, but it is equally difficult to falsify them, even when it is not done out of necessity to cover up the real one with a false emotion. This requires a little more than just stating whether I am angry or I am afraid. If a deceiver wants to be believed, he must look the way he does, and his voice really sounds scared or angry. It is not so easy to select the gestures or intonation of the voice necessary for the successful falsification of emotions. In addition, very few people can control their facial expressions. And to successfully falsify grief, fear, or anger, you need a very good command of facial expressions.

Feeling guilty about your own lies

The pangs of conscience are directly related only to the feelings of the deceiver, and not to the legal determination of guilt or innocence. In addition, they also need to be distinguished from feelings of guilt about the content of a lie.

Like fear of exposure, remorse can be of varying intensity. They can be very weak or, conversely, so strong that deception will fail, because the feeling of guilt will provoke information leakage or give any other signs of deception.

It should be noted, says Paul Ekman, that remorse is heightened when:

* The victim is deceived against her will;

* Cheating is very selfish; the victim does not gain any benefit from the deception, but loses as much or even more than the liar gains;

* Cheating is not allowed and the situation presupposes honesty;

* The liar has not practiced deception for a long time;

* The liar and the victim have known each other for a long time;

* Liar and victim stick to the same social values;

* It is difficult to blame the victim for negative qualities or excessive gullibility;

* The victim has a reason to suppose deception or, conversely, the liar himself would not want to be a deceiver.

Fear of being exposed

Fear of exposure in a weak form is not dangerous; on the contrary, by not allowing relaxation, it can even help the liar to avoid mistakes. Behavioral signs of deception, visible to an experienced observer, begin to appear already with an average level of fear. Information about a liar's possible fear of exposure may be good help for the verifier.

Fear of exposure is greatest when:

* The victim has a reputation as a person who is difficult to deceive;

* The victim begins to suspect something;

* The liar has little experience in the practice of deception;

* A liar is prone to fear of exposure;

* The stakes are very high;

* Both reward and punishment are at stake, or, if only one of them takes place, the bet is to avoid punishment;

* The punishment for the lie itself or for the act is so great that there is no point in admitting it;

* Lying is completely unprofitable for the victim.

Feelings of elation sometimes experienced when failure occurs

In addition to the negative feelings that arise in the liar, such as the fear of exposure and remorse, the liar may also have positive emotions. Lying can also be considered an achievement, which in itself is pleasant. The liar can experience joyful excitement either from a challenge, or directly in the process of deception, when success is not yet entirely clear. If successful, there may be pleasure in relief, pride in what has been accomplished, or a feeling of self-righteous contempt for the sacrifice.

The delight of swindle can also be of varying intensity. He may be completely absent; be insignificant compared to fear of exposure; or so strong that it will be expressed in certain behavioral signs.

The delight of swindle increases when:

* The victim behaves defiantly, having a reputation as a person who is difficult to deceive;

* Lying itself is a challenge;

* There are understanding spectators and connoisseurs of the skill of a liar.

The essence lies in the fact that remorse, fear of exposure, delight of deception can manifest itself in facial expressions, voice or plasticity, even when the liar tries to hide them. If they do manage to be hidden, then the internal struggle necessary to hide them can also give behavioral signs of deception. Thus, there are ways to determine deception by words, voice, body movements and facial expressions.

4. Methods of detecting lies

In the book of I. Vagin, a technique for detecting a lie is described, which will allow a person who suspects deception to assess how justified or unfounded his suspicions are. The book lists the main behavioral mistakes that a liar commits and with the help of which he can be exposed:

a) the words “Sometimes it is worth listening to a person's reservations. In them, he can say what he is very afraid to say. Mixing up words may not be a simple speech error. This is due to the fact that when lying, a person is worried (most often) and slightly loses vigilance. By means of this, truth can break out. When a person deliberately lies, he often has interjections, extra syllables, words ... for example: "Well ... well, I do this ... w-I ... I like y-your new haircut!"

Frequent pauses are the main sign of cheating. The liar takes time to think over the line of behavior, especially if the liar did not know that he would have to lie. The tone of the voice also changes dramatically. Usually it gets much higher, but you cannot neglect people who, fearing to be exposed, begin to forcefully play with their voices. He becomes too unnaturally restrained, low. Short coughs also show the person is agitated.

Plastic

Hands usually touch each other. Nervous leg twitching or any other rhythmic movement begins. Touching your nose or ear with your finger for a few seconds. Just do not confuse: a person's nose or ear can itch! As a rule, the nose is scratched quickly and purposefully, but if this movement lasts long enough, then you should know that the person says what he does not want to say.

You can often observe a confused expression on the face, a little embarrassed. And even if the person keeps himself well, any question asked head-on on a topic about which you are being lied to will confuse the interlocutor, at least for a few seconds. While the person is composing the appropriate answer, you can easily see the lost child on his face, thereby exposing him. But all these factors give out the excitement of a person, and there are people who keep the excitement in themselves and then hide behind laughter or feigned and unnatural calmness.

5. Signs due to the autonomic nervous system

The autonomic nervous system (ANS) also produces certain changes in the body that are noticeable when emotions change: changes in the frequency and depth of breathing, the frequency of swallowing, the intensity of sweating, and changes caused by the ANS that affect the face (such as face paint, pallor and dilated pupils .)

VNS changes depend on the strength of the emotion, not on its nature.

Most people seem to be good at deceiving others by giving their voices the intonations of anger, fear, grief, happiness, disgust, or surprise. While it is very difficult to hide the characteristic changes in the sound of the voice for these emotions, it is much easier to depict them. But the easiest way to fool people is with your voice.

Some of the changes caused by the autonomic nervous system are not difficult to imitate. Rapid breathing or swallowing is difficult to hide, but it does not take much art to imitate them: just breathe faster or swallow more often. True, sweating is difficult to both hide and portray. I think, however, that few liars use rapid breathing and swallowing to create the impression of a negative emotion they are experiencing.

While a cheater can increase the amount of manipulation in an attempt to demonstrate that he is “out of place,” most people will likely not remember this opportunity in time. These actions, which are so easy to perform, may by their absence betray the falsity of otherwise convincing assurances.

Illustrations can be done intentionally (albeit with a low probability of success) to create the impression of interest and enthusiasm not actually felt in relation to the subject of the conversation. It is very difficult to correctly combine illustrations with words when you do it on purpose; they tend to get ahead of words, or be late, or overextend.

Changes in breathing and sweating, increased swallowing due to severe dry mouth are signs of strong emotions, and it is likely that in the future it will be possible to determine which ones by the nature of such changes.

6. Psychological protection

Remember: in Russia the first of April is not a one-day holiday, but a lifestyle.

Talented people are hindered, talented people are envied, brilliant people are harmed.

Niccolo Paganini In the book "The Psychology of Survival in Modern Russia" I. Vagin gives advice on how to correctly put "psychological protection" so as not to be a toy in the hands of people who pursue their goals and manipulate us with the help of deception. This is called the "art of psychological defense." After all, “your soul is not public toilet and there is nothing to let everyone go there to spoil ”, - as the Hollywood stars say. I. Vagin gives two rules of the art of psychological defense:

Emotional neutrality. The emotion ventilation technique will help you stay calm even in a stressful situation that is imposed on you.

At the same time, I. Vagin advises: “Imagine that your rib cage is a doorway. Inhale - draft, exhale - draft changes direction. Your ribcage is an opening for a walking draft that quickly and easily ventilates your emotions. A rational, critical approach to the situation.

Common sense dictates that if you have not done anything to avoid being fooled, wait - you will be deceived. Therefore, it is more rational to initially proceed from the fact that you can be deceived. And to prevent this from happening, make sure in advance. "Polygraph"

“Gather information on the problem that has arisen, get it from three sources at the same time. Compare the facts with each other, carefully check and analyze them, ”advises I. Vagin.

Distinguishing truth from lies is a great art. And the technique of "lie detector" will help you to do it. How many cunning, supersensitive devices have been invented by scientists in order to use them to establish the truth: is a person lying or telling the truth? But can you personally use them if necessary? And this need arises every day, every hour ...

Once in China and India, a suspect in a lie was asked to chew and then spit it out rice flour... If he did it without difficulty, then he was considered honest man... Dry mouth meant excitement, and therefore - a lie.

For the same purpose, the Bedouins of Arabia were forced to lick the iron: if there was saliva in the mouth, then the burn did not happen. "The best lie detector is you yourself!" - says I. Vagin in his book. Words are made to lie. But the eyes are invented in order to tell the truth! It is no coincidence that they say: "Yes, I can see in his eyes that he is lying!"

The eye reaction is instantaneous and very difficult to control.

Then I. Vagin talks about what the "lie detector" technique is based on. Pose a question to the person you are talking to and note the movement of his eyes. If your gaze goes up even for a moment, be sure: he is lying to you. Perhaps at first he will look through you as it were ...

Continue to clarify details. If he "remembers" someone's words, his gaze will go up and to the right. If he comes up with a place for the action, the gaze will go up and to the left. But if he lowers his eyes for a while, it means that the information is true.

The liar's eyes often either run to the sides, or narrow, and the gaze becomes harder, tensely intent, it kind of drills you.

Note the change in voice. When a person begins to lie, his voice changes, it becomes tense. The liar is betrayed either by excessive verbosity, or by the fact that at some point he cannot squeeze a word out of himself. By tilting the head, you can also determine whether a person is telling the truth or lying. When he is having an honest conversation, his head is usually tilted to the right or left. But as soon as it begins to give false information, the position of the head becomes straight, tense.

Often, the liar is betrayed by the eyebrows: at some point, one eyebrow can creep up. A crooked grin on one half of the mouth is also indicative of the dishonest intentions of your interlocutor. But before working with the "lie detector" method, you need to track the reactions a specific person in the case when he speaks the truth, so as not to be deceived. It must be borne in mind that hysterics and hyperthymes are able to lie sparklingly and with inspiration, psychosthenics almost do not know how to lie, schizoids also have difficulty in lying, epileptoids occupy an average position between schizoids and hyperthyms.

Finally, much depends on the type professional activity and the social status of a person. Big bosses, administrators, lawyers, politicians, diplomats - that is, people who know how to manipulate others, people who, by the nature of their work, must hide information or even deliberately misinform others - they have experience and easily pass a lie for the truth.

A lie can be recognized by a set of correct signs.

Liars are betrayed by:

> Verbosity, lack of clear wording;

> Pauses before replies;

> Internal tension;

> Uncharacteristic gestures;

> Chaotic movements;

> Unnatural facial expressions;

> Unnatural blush or pallor;

> Dilated pupils.

And no matter how false a person is, he is still not able to control himself in all these positions.

In his book, I. Vagin cites the following story as an example:

... The last murder was monstrous. Even the seasoned "operatives" could not remember analogues and refused to comment. The perpetrator subjected the victim to such torture that already death to her, apparently, seemed like goodness. The investigator said only one thing unambiguously: the killer could not escape from the "tower" now.

But the lawyer brought a certificate from which it was clear that Ilya R., who was detained at the crime scene, has recently been registered in a mental hospital. Psychiatric forensics dragged on with a final answer. The diagnosis was essentially confirmed. Only one thing aroused suspicion: excessive verbosity.

Ilya talked in too much detail about what he was not asked about.

He fizzled out after 3 months. During the investigation, it was found out that a year ago a district psychiatrist bought with giblets gave Ilya paid consultations on how to simulate a mental disorder. And although the student turned out to be not talented, he was still taken out into the open, tracing the correct signs of the behavior of a liar.

"Human - Computer"

As Bertrand Barer once correctly noted, language is given to man in order to hide his thoughts.

Words cannot be trusted.

We know that. And we continue to believe!

And then - we are surprised, indignant, angry, worried.

But what a sin to conceal - sometimes we ourselves are glad to be deceived !.

As a rule, it happens - first we lie to ourselves, and only then - to others.

"The darkness of low truths is dearer to us than the elevating deception!" - Pushkin even included this main human weakness in an aphorism.

To protect yourself from deception from the outside, you must first of all keep your own psychocomplexes under control. Situations often arise when it is really necessary to know and clearly imagine the intentions of the partner. This is especially important in business, politics, and sometimes in personal life. If you use the outdated recommendation "Measure seven times - cut once", then there is a great risk of simply not being in time. The time now requires quick and at the same time verified decisions. I. Vagin says: “The human-computer technique will help you to achieve this. Imagine a computer screen. The screen displays 4 questions that you must ask yourself:

> Why is this person attractive to me?

> Why does he tell me all this?

> What does he want from me?

> Have I done everything to protect myself?

“If you constantly ask yourself these 4 questions during the negotiations, then through a short time you will notice that your computer has become hypersensitive. Whenever a question remains unanswered or your answer turns out to be incorrect, a blinking light of the color of your alarm will appear in the corner of the screen. And this way you will always be on the right track ”, says I. Vagin. I. Vagin proposes to dwell in more detail on each position, to analyze each issue in more detail.

Why do I like this person?

Perhaps he reminds you of something or artificially appeals to your location. Experienced swindlers know how to do it brilliantly. Arousing the sympathy of a person is a couple of trifles for them. Remember how wonderful Ostap Bender did it. This is the basis of the movie "The Thief", which was awarded the audience's sympathy. The boy associates his military uncle with his father who died at the front, and therefore he unquestioningly obeys him.

As for the ability to artificially evoke sympathy, let us recall the episode when main character collects on the occasion of the holiday all the residents of the communal apartment. Here's what he tells them:

I am a military man. I travel a lot, have seen a lot. But such friendly, such good people have not met yet! For you!

And after inviting everyone to the circus at his own expense, he immediately sings "Oh, roads ...". And that's it, the job is done: all the tenants of the apartment were deceived by him and subsequently robbed. Because no one bothered to ask themselves a simple question: "Why is he saying all this?"

And then, to win the favor of new people. This he brilliantly succeeds. He loads them with relevant information that lulls vigilance, with the help of bluff he raises his image, skillfully affects psycho-complexes. The hero bluffs, dressed up in military uniform... And a subtle bluff gives him the location of those around him: the attitude towards the military, especially after the war, was confidential.

Second, a direct compliment worked: "But I have never met such friendly, such good people." After that, how can they not go to the circus together if they are so friendly? The third is the impact on the psycho-complex of greed. Circus tickets are free - who wouldn't want such a freebie?

Fourth, the technique " soul mates". It is known that any feast was accompanied by songs. And the hero makes great use of this: “Citizens! Who has an accordion? The soul asks for a song! " And he sings the most sincere song of that time "Eh, dear ...".

So, the disposition of others is caused. And then it would be a good time for one of them to ask himself the question: “What does he want from me? What is the goal he pursues, communicating with me? What can he really get from me? "

The answer is not difficult if you look at the situation not from the inside, but through the eyes of a stranger. (Imagine that you are giving an interview to a meticulous reporter and have to answer this question exhaustively).

The hero of the film had a simple goal: having lulled the vigilance of cautious citizens, it was customary to rob them. And he achieved it. Because no one asked himself: "Have I done everything to protect myself?"

There are several options for safety net. First of all, it is the collection and verification of information. And then - detailed study possible options the consequences of the step taken.

For example, how to defend yourself if you are asked to borrow money? It is not out of place to immediately ask yourself a few questions, on the answers to which your inner comfort will depend. It is important not only to make money, but also to keep it. There will always be people who will tell you that they are guides in the jungle of life and know where hidden wealth can be found. The only question is, why haven't they done it themselves?

So, more questions:

Am I ready to just give this money? (You should always take into account the fact that there is a high probability that the money will not be returned to you).

Would this person have lent me money?

How can I get my money if the debtor refuses to give it back?

(Maybe there is a sense of insuring himself: take a receipt from him in advance or leave some valuable thing with you as a pledge).

Conclusion

One cannot but agree with the authors of the books "The Psychology of Lies" and "The Psychology of Survival in Modern Russia" that we must always remember one important truth for the success of exposing a liar: not one liar, not when, gets pleasure from the process of lying. I absolutely agree with the authors of these useful books that a lie will come to light sooner or later, no matter how diligently you hide the truth. We usually lie, and our body betrays us by itself, it shows that we are not telling the truth. I think these books contain very valuable and interesting information. I really liked both books for their richness and examples.

References

psychological defense nervous

1. "Psychology of survival in modern Russia", I. Vagin, Moscow, 2004

2. "The Psychology of Lies", Paul Ekman, St. Petersburg, 2001

3. "Psychology of survival in modern Russia", I. Vagin, Moscow, 2004

4. "Psychology of survival in modern Russia", I. Vagin, Moscow, 2004

5. "The Psychology of Lies", Paul Ekman, St. Petersburg, 2001

6. "Psychology of survival in modern Russia", I. Vagin, Moscow, 2004

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Lying is the ability to deceive another person. While no one likes to be deceived, we have all fallen prey to this unsubstantiated skill. Surprisingly, lies are quite recognizable. Just keep a close eye on the body language of the person you are talking to.

What is a lie

Lie is a deliberate concealment of the truth. From the point of view of psychology, a lie is an oral statement containing information that is incompatible with actual events. The definition of a lie, therefore, shows it as a conscious, deliberate action aimed at cheating the recipient information.

And although many people believe that deceiving loved ones, in matters of little importance, that is, the so-called small lie for salvation, is a completely normal and innocent thing, but, in accordance with the definition of a lie, it is always a fraud, that is, a manifestation of dishonesty and insincerity towards others.

How to tell if someone is lying

When you lie, our body has the task of hiding the truth, which makes us feel uncomfortable and stressed. In this regard, our body language reveals hidden intentions.

Here symptoms of lying:

• Redness on the face.
• Desire to scratch the body.
• Lack of eye contact with the interlocutor.
• Constricted pupils.
• Excessive body expression.
• Chained facial expressions.

Lies can also give out way of speaking... V stressful situations increases the rate of speech, volume and tone of voice... A lying person very often does not finish sentences and is faced with the problem of expressing thoughts - speaks chaotically and indistinctly.

Why do we need other people

We lie to achieve a certain goal. In simple terms, people lie to get certain benefits- for example, material, social or political.

According to psychologists, lies are often resorted to people with low self-esteem who are trying to raise their importance in the eyes of others. It happens that you lie for noble reasons, for example, we do not tell the child about a serious illness, because in this way we want to protect him from enormous mental suffering.