Stanislav VENIAMINOV,

research testing center (Moscow) of the Central Research Institute of the Aerospace Defense Forces, full member of the International Academy of Astronautics and Aeronautics, member of the expert working group on space threats, member of the International Committee on Space Debris and the Committee on Pollution Problems of the National Research Council of the USA, Doctor of Technical Sciences, Professor.

Based on the materials of the report “Technogenic contamination of space and some of its military aspects”

"TRASH" STATISTICS

After the launch of the first Earth satellite, space powers carried out more than 5,000 launches. Over the entire period of space exploration, over 30 thousand large (more than 10-20 cm in size) space objects (SO) have been launched into near-Earth space. There are much more registered (about 35 thousand) - due to the fragmentation of some large space objects. More than two-thirds of them still remain in orbit and are monitored by ground-based and space-based surveillance systems. To date, over 17 thousand KOs have been officially cataloged.

However, the space monitoring systems (SCCS) of the USA and the Russian Federation track over 23 thousand space objects larger than 10 cm in size. At the same time, 95% of the catalog of space objects is space debris (SD). I emphasize: the given quantitative characteristics relate only to large space objects, and taking into account the gigantic cosmic speeds of their movement and from the point of view of the threat they pose (which is proportional to the square of the speed), they should be regarded as very large. It is clear that a collision with any of them by a real spacecraft would be catastrophic. But not only with them.

Today, there are about 100 thousand space objects larger than 5 cm in size. In addition to them, there is a huge amount of small CM in orbit: according to various estimates, more than 500-600 thousand in size from 1 to 10 cm to hundreds of millions in size from 1 mm to 1 cm. The amount of smaller CM is in the billions and trillions (see Fig. 1) . And almost all of them pose a danger in a collision, although to varying degrees.

For some reason, it is generally accepted (even among some specialists) that collisions with a space object larger than 1 cm in size pose a catastrophic threat to a spacecraft. But the decisive factors here are the relative speed of the attacking particle, the location of the spacecraft where it will hit, and the direction its velocity vector relative to the surface of the spacecraft at the point of contact. So dust particles from space debris can also be deadly.

And this is not hyperbole. A striking example is the case of the Russian metrological satellite “Blitz”. It, having a diameter of only 17 cm, collided with a particle weighing less than 0.08 g on January 22, 2013 and split into at least two fragments, which were discovered and catalogued.

However, with existing means it is possible to relatively reliably detect only a space object with a size of 10-20 cm, that is, the majority (> 99.97%) of potentially dangerous space debris is not controlled. Out of every 10,000 potentially dangerous space objects, only three are observed. And this is the main problem of space debris control, the scale of which is clearly illustrated in Figure 1.

Any space debris is dangerous to varying degrees for space activities and not only for it. The largest space debris when entering the dense atmosphere poses a threat to ground objects and people. As for the smallest space debris, astronomers have long noticed that over the past decades, the transparency of the environment in near-Earth space has significantly decreased, which interferes with astronomical observations.

In addition, it severely damages sensitive surfaces of on-board instruments, such as optics. So it is important to control any space debris.

The progressive increase in contamination of the NCP is clearly characterized by the following two graphs (see Fig. 2 and 3), each in its own way. Figure 3 shows a steady increase in the average density of technogenic debris in the near space, and the jumps in Figure 2, which reflects the history of quantitative changes in the composition of the catalog of space objects over the years, illustrate the abrupt increase in the danger of collisions with space debris. (They are not shown in Figure 3, since only the number of space objects changes abruptly after catastrophic destruction, and not their total mass.)

Of the more than 5,000 satellite launches carried out by humans over an interval of about 60 years, only 10 of them generated one third of today’s catalog of space objects. Moreover, out of these ten, six have occurred in the last 10 years!

As the contamination of the near space increases, the number of collisions between spacecraft and space debris and space debris among themselves also increases. Figure 4 shows NASA's LEGEND model forecast of the growth in the number of collisions of large space objects over the next 100 years for several space exploration scenarios.

Figure 5 shows a similar forecast for 200 years using the Russian model of A.I. Nazarenko.

Pavel VINOGRADOV,

Cosmonaut who made seven spacewalks, Hero of the Russian Federation. The total duration of its work in outer space for 2014 is 38 hours 25 minutes.

The number of space objects in Earth's orbit is so large that all threats from space are absolutely real. If an object with a diameter of 2 or 2.5 kilometers arrives on Earth, then all life on Earth may die.

CASCADE EFFECT

In both predictions obtained using independent models, the exponential growth in the number of collisions of large space objects and the total amount of small space debris with a moderate increase in the number of large space objects is already a sign of a cascade effect. Other models predict similar dismal prospects.

The gloomiest prospect for our cosmic future is the emergence and development of the cascade effect (Kessler syndrome) in the NCS, that is, a rapidly expanding chain process of the formation of secondary fragments. In this most tragic phase of the process of contamination of the spacecraft, space debris already acquires a certain aggressive character, which can no longer be counteracted. The general nature of the cascade effect is the same as that of a nuclear chain reaction. The only difference is in the time scale of the development of the process.

The probability of collisions depends primarily on the number of space objects in a given orbital region, and not on their total mass. But it is the total mass of space debris (more precisely, the total kinetic energy of space debris) that determines in the future the speed and intensity of the development of the cascade effect.

Many scientists believe that the cascade effect has already begun in some orbital regions and for some classes of space debris (for example, at altitudes of 900-1000 km and 1500 km) (see Fig. 6).

COLLISION THREATS

The increase in the probability of a collision between a spacecraft and space debris is clearly demonstrated by the history of taking into account the threat of space debris to the operation of the International Space Station (ISS). Figure 7 shows a diagram of changes in the number of maneuvers to evade the ISS from a collision with space debris by year (according to the Mission Control Center).

In the geostationary orbit (GEO) region, a collision with space debris is not as dangerous as in low orbits, since there the speed of space objects usually does not exceed 3 km/s; in addition, space objects in the geostationary belt move mainly in one direction (in difference from the region of low orbits). Therefore, the average relative speed during a collision is even less - 0.5 km/s.

If impacts from small space debris do not cause serious structural damage, the chips, craters, holes, scratches, erosions, and small cracks they create lead to gradual degradation of the surface of the spacecraft, weakening it and making it more vulnerable to the effects of the external environment and subsequent collisions with space debris.

Gennady PADALKA,

Russian cosmonaut, Air Force colonel, Hero of the Russian Federation. It ranks first in terms of total duration of stay in space - 878 days.

In each of my five flights, space debris avoidance maneuvers were performed several times.

Over the past decades, sudden failures of military spacecraft have been observed many times, the causes of which have never been officially established either through observations or through telemetry. Two possible explanations remain - an unregistered collision with space debris or the “intrigues” of a potential space adversary. And this is already a politically dangerous dilemma.

Thus, today the existing population of space debris (SD), from the point of view of aerospace defense, is a powerful uncontrolled orbital constellation that poses a threat to both military and civilian spacecraft (SC), as well as ground-based objects (in particular, defense purposes and state strategic objects), regardless of their nationality. This fact means the emergence of a new unique player in the space theater of military operations, in contrast to the ground, sea and air theaters.

The existing population of space debris (SD), from the point of view of aerospace defense, is a powerful uncontrolled orbital constellation that poses a threat to both military and civilian spacecraft (SC), as well as ground-based objects (in particular, defense purposes and government strategic objects) regardless of their nationality. This fact means the emergence of a new unique player in the space theater of military operations, in contrast to the ground, sea and air theaters.

The peculiarity of this player is his absolute independence. The degree of danger of a new player is determined primarily by the following three factors: the long orbital existence of space debris, the high speed of movement, and the difficulty of its disposal.

The consequence of these factors (especially the second) is that even the smallest space debris (less than 1 cm in size) can pose a serious danger to the spacecraft.

Small space debris is especially dangerous in the low-orbit region (the main tactical and operational zone of the space theater of military operations), where the relative speeds of spacecraft and space debris can exceed 15 km/s, and in the perigee region of highly elliptical orbits - 17 km/s. And at such speeds, a collision of a spacecraft with even the smallest debris can not only damage solar panels, windows and optical surfaces of on-board observation instruments, but also destroy the spacecraft, as was the case with the Blitz spacecraft.

The particular political danger posed by the emergence of such an independent group in the OKP is that the unpredictable impact of this group on a spacecraft (especially for military purposes) could provoke a political or even armed conflict between space powers. It is not always possible for the country that owns a spacecraft exposed to space debris to quickly determine the actual cause of its failure (or loss of efficiency of its functioning).

LITERATURE:

1. Veniaminov S.S. Space debris is a threat to humanity. 2nd edition, corrected. and additional M.: IKI RAS, 2013. (Ser. Mechanics, control, computer science).

2. Aksyonov O., Oleinikov I. et al. Analysis of the population of the NCP with objects of technogenic origin // Polet. All-Russian scientific and technical journal. 2014. No. 9. P. 8-14.

3. Orbital Debris Quarterly News. NASA, USA, Jan. 2015. V. 19. Iss. 1.

4. Liou J.-C. An Updated Assessment of the Orbital Debris Environment in Leo // Orbital Debris Quarterly News. January 2010. V. 14. Iss. 1.

5. Potter A. Early detection of Collisional cascading // Proceedings of the 1st European Conference on Space Debris, ESA/ESOC, Darmstadt, Germany, 1993.

6. Nazarenko A. Forecast of PCB contamination for 200 years and Kessler syndrome [Electron. text]. Access method:

7. Nazarenko A. Space Debris Status for 200 years ahead & Kessler effect // 29th IADC Meeting, Berlin, Germany, 2011.

8. Kessler D. et al. The Kessler syndrome: Implications to Future Space Operations // 33rd Annual American Astronautical Society, Rocky Mountain Section, Guidance and Control Conference, Breckinridge, Colorado, USA, 2010.

9. Small Satellite Possibly Hit by Even Smaller Object // Orbital Debris Quarterly News. NASA, USA, April 2013. V. 17. Iss. 2.

10. Orbital Debris Quarterly News. NASA, USA, January 2014. V. 18. Iss. 1. R. 10.

11. Orbital Debris. A Technical Assessment // NRC. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C. 1995.

14.09.2017

The author of the article, Colonel Olander Lafarg Konstantinovich, being a lieutenant, participated in the radar post in the work to detect and track the flight of the First Earth Satellite, and then the flight of Yu.A. Gagarin.
After graduating from the Artillery Radio Engineering Academy of Air Defense in 1966, he was sent to serve in the Space Control Center (TSKKP). where for the last 12 years he commanded the department of the Main Catalog of Space Objects.
After retirement, he worked at Vympel MAK for 25 years. Author of a number of books devoted to the creation and work of the Central Committee of the Communist Party and its individual parts. Currently he works as an engineer at the Central Committee for Control and Management.

The problem of space control arose not only in the Soviet Union; it was also typical for other countries, in particular the USA, Western Europe, and China. Therefore, work on organizing space control in the main countries began almost simultaneously. At that time, there were no specialized means for monitoring outer space in the country, or in the world as a whole. Back in 1956, the Soviet government, by its resolution, obliged the USSR Academy of Sciences to create a network of observation stations and organize the training of observers. The creation of a network of observation stations from the USSR Academy of Sciences was led by Academician M.V. Keldysh, and the Astronomical Council of the USSR Academy of Sciences, represented by Deputy Chairman A.G. Masevich, was directly responsible. To solve this problem, it was decided to use astronomical instruments located in the system of the USSR Academy of Sciences, as well as in higher educational institutions of the country. The telescopes available at large observatories for tracking low-orbit space objects could not be used due to the high angular velocities of space objects. As a result, on the basis of the Astronomical Council of the USSR Academy of Sciences and higher educational institutions, a network of more than 100 optical observation stations (ONS) was created, which detected and tracked (based on target designations) the flight of space objects (on October 1, 1957, 66 stations were ready for operation ). It was necessary to quickly learn to detect space objects, recognize and track them with the required accuracy against the background of the starry sky.
In May-August 1957, training sessions were held in Ashgabat to train observers in the art of detecting and tracking artificial space bodies. The head of these classes was the head of the Zvenigorod station A.M. Lozinsky.
Here is how Professor A.G. Masevich writes about it: “In the summer of 1957, all station managers underwent special training in courses created at the Ashgabat Astrophysical Observatory. The classes were conducted by employees of the Astronomical Council and the Ashgabat Observatory, although they had extensive experience in observing stars, planets and meteors, but had never (as, indeed, the entire population of the globe) dealt with artificial space objects. Much was not yet clear at that time, and the students, together with the teachers, together tried to recreate, at least approximately, the visibility conditions of the future satellite in order to learn to observe it as accurately as possible. So the following “imitation” proposed by A.M. Lozinsky enjoyed great success. One of the participants with a long pole, to the end of which a lit lantern was attached, climbed the mountain in the evening and walked quickly, trying not to shake the lantern too much. Below, in the observatory garden, observers saw a moving bright light against the backdrop of the starry sky and determined its position using binoculars or small astronomical “satellite” tubes specially created for this purpose. Subsequently, when the training of observers at the stations began, several training exercises were conducted. Planes with lights simulating satellites flew over the stations, creating a more advanced illusion of an artificial satellite. The main instrument at the stations were AT-1 tubes created by order of the Astronomical Council. These are small wide-angle telescopes with an entrance pupil diameter of 50 mm, sixfold magnification and a field of view of 11°."
In August 1957, an order was received: to report on the network’s readiness for operation. There were two months left before the launch of the first Earth satellite.
Daily, painstaking work began on organizing and conducting observations of artificial Earth satellites and using these observations for research in the field of space geodesy, geodynamics and geophysics. Initially, the processing of coordinate information was carried out by employees of the Astronomical Council using the computing power of the Academy of Sciences. It should be noted that some of the observation stations were located outside the USSR, on the territory of socialist countries, as well as in a number of countries in Africa, Asia and South and Central America, which affected the efficiency of obtaining observation results in the information processing and planning center.

The main organizer of all the work was Alla Genrikhovna Masevich - one of the outstanding scientists of our country and the world who began the work of space control. She was Deputy Chairman of the Astronomical Council for 35 years. Thanks to her energy, the Astronomical Council took upon itself the entire burden of responsibility for organizing the work of the optical observation stations being created. She was deeply concerned about the quality of the work of the first observers, mainly from among students of astronomy and physics departments of higher educational institutions.
Particularly noteworthy is the role of the head of one of the best optical observation stations at the Ryazan Pedagogical Institute, Doctor of Physical and Mathematical Sciences, Professor V.I. Kuryshev, who led one of the best stations. One of the first organizers of tracking space objects was the head of the Zvenigorod station A.M. Lozinsky. A scientist, a talented experimenter, an observer of the highest qualifications, he united around himself a large group of like-minded people, among whom the young scientist N.S. Bakhtigaraev, who replaced Alexander Markovich as head of the station, especially stood out. Nowadays, N.S. Bakhtigaraev devotes a lot of effort and energy to organizing tracking of space objects, especially when it comes to the geostationary region of outer space. A modest, charming man, he devoted his entire adult life to serving the control of outer space. The Zvenigorod Observatory still plays a significant role in detecting and tracking geostationary spacecraft. The staff of this station is conducting serious research in the field of space pollution by space debris. Optical observation stations under the leadership of A.M. Lozinsky and V.I. Kuryshev were among the best stations throughout the entire period of work with the Central Control Commission.
Subsequently, the AT-1 devices were replaced by modernized BMT-110M (binocular sea tube) devices. The modernization of observation devices was carried out at the Kazan Optical-Mechanical Plant. Highly sensitive television equipment has been developed. Such an installation, attached to a telescope with a mirror diameter of 500 mm, made it possible not only to photograph automatic lunar and interplanetary stations at a distance of up to 80,000 km, but also to monitor their movement for several hours. Work was carried out on the development of satellite laser rangefinders under the Intercosmos program. They would make it possible to measure distances to satellites with an accuracy of 10-20 cm in full automatic mode and observe space objects at altitudes up to 20,000 km. The use of laser reflectors on domestic spacecraft increased the accuracy of measurements of the parameters of the Intercosmos-17 spacecraft (the error was only 2-3 m).
In 1959, near the city of Zvenigorod, Moscow Region, by order of the Presidium of the USSR Academy of Sciences, the Zvenigorod Experimental Station of the Astronomical Council (currently the Zvenigorod Observatory of the Institute of Astronomy of the Russian Academy of Sciences) was created as the main base station of the Astronomical Council of the USSR Academy of Sciences. Already in 1961-62. About 4,000 photographs of space objects were obtained using the Nafa-3s/25 camera, and more than 10,000 photographs were obtained using the AFU-75 camera (1968-1986).
In 1964, construction began on a laboratory building and three astronomical towers, in one of which (the largest) the “High-Precision Astronomical Installation” (HAU) was installed, which went into operation in 1971. The WAU was superior in its characteristics to all surveillance cameras available at that time, including the famous American Baker-Nunn camera. It is an automatic Musatov-Sobolev mirror-lens system. The main task of the VAU was the observation of space objects located in highly elliptical, high and geostationary orbits. Since 1975, with the help of VAU, about 3,000 astronegatives have been obtained, on which about 14,000 images of geostationary satellites (GSS) have been detected, and over 5,000 of their exact positions have been calculated. Based on the processing results, catalogs of the exact positions of the GSS were compiled. In the catalogs, observations were distributed in chronological order. For each date, the GSS were arranged in ascending order of the longitude of the subsatellite point. At the same time, the catalog data was highly accurate both in time (0.01 s) and position (0.1 arcsecond).
The value of the root-mean-square error in determining one position of a geostationary object, obtained by adjusting a number of close positions of the GSS, was about 4 s on the AFU-75 camera, and about 1 s on the VAU. Another VAU was installed at the Gissar Observatory in Tajikistan.
The second most important in space control was the Simeiz scientific base of the Astronomical Council, located 25 kilometers from Yalta near the resort village of Simeiz. Since 1973, systematic observations of space objects (mainly geostationary) began at this base in accordance with the decision of the Presidium of the USSR Academy of Sciences. The station staff actively participates in various international programs. The SBG camera, developed in the GDR at the Carl Zeiss enterprise, was widely used and installed at many surveillance stations, including in Zvenigorod and Simeiz.
Optical observation stations carried out a large volume of visual and photographic, and later laser observations of satellites to solve problems of geodesy, geophysics, ephemeris service and space control. Suffice it to say that over 10 years of operation of optical observation stations, over 900,000 measurements were received from more than 500 Soviet and foreign satellites and launch vehicles (of this number, more than 400,000 measurements were sent from abroad, including from Bulgaria, Poland , Holland, Finland, Italy and other countries). This made it possible to assert that already at the dawn of the space age, the space control service successfully coped with the tasks assigned to it.
Much credit for organizing the work of the space object tracking system belongs to doctors of physical and mathematical sciences A.G. Masevich and V.I. Kuryshev (head of the department of the Ryazan Pedagogical Institute).
The first launch of an artificial Earth satellite in the USSR produced an unprecedented rise in pride in their country and a strong blow to the prestige of the United States. An excerpt from a United Press publication: “90 percent of the talk about artificial Earth satellites came from the United States. As it turned out, 100 percent of the case fell on Russia...” And despite erroneous ideas about the technical backwardness of the USSR, it was the Soviet device that became the first satellite of the Earth, and its signal could be tracked by any radio amateur. The flight of the first Earth satellite marked the beginning of the space age and launched the space race between the Soviet Union and the United States.
Just 4 months later, on February 1, 1958, the United States launched its Explorer 1 satellite, which was assembled by the team of scientist Wernher von Braun. And although it was several times lighter than PS-1 and contained 4.5 kg of scientific equipment, it was still second and no longer had the same impact on the public. The main organizer of all the work was Alla Genrikhovna Masevich - one of the outstanding scientists of our country and the world who began the work of space control. She was Deputy Chairman of the Astronomical Council for 35 years. Thanks to her energy, the Astronomical Council took upon itself the entire burden of responsibility for organizing the work of the optical observation stations being created. She was deeply concerned about the quality of the work of the first observers, mainly from among students of astronomy and physics departments of higher educational institutions.
Particularly noteworthy is the role of the head of one of the best optical observation stations at the Ryazan Pedagogical Institute, Doctor of Physical and Mathematical Sciences, Professor V.I. Kuryshev, who led one of the best stations. Vasily Ivanovich introduced many innovations into the work of his brainchild. So, for example, in order for observers to use observation time more efficiently without overworking, he ordered the transmission of light music tunes throughout the night over the local radio broadcast network. This was not modern thunderous music. Quiet music sounded from loudspeakers located directly on the observation platform. As an excellent psychologist, he understood that this technique gives people the opportunity to relax psychologically, and, as a result, work more effectively. He published a textbook on organizing optical observations, which became a reference book for many years not only for observers at SON, but also for officers of the Central Control Commission. The material presented in the book in accessible language allowed people, even those who did not have a solid mathematical background, to master the basic principles of observing space objects in a short time. For many years, he led the theoretical and practical training of the heads of the PON VPVO (Optical Observation Points of the Air Defense Forces), carried out at training camps, first at the PON in the village of Mamontovka near Moscow, and later at the 12th training center. He was sincerely concerned about the quality of training of the heads of optical observation points, and tried in a short training period (one week) to teach them not only how to effectively manage people when organizing sessions of observing space objects, but also how to master the art of working with optical means themselves.
V.I. Kuryshev sought to convey to the officers all his rich experience as an observer - theorist and practitioner. The first optical observation stations were armed with optical instruments: AT-1 (astronomical tube) and TZK (anti-aircraft commander's tube). These were instruments that made it possible to observe cosmic bodies, the brightness of which did not exceed a tenth of a magnitude. For reference: stars visible to the human eye have a brightness of no more than the sixth magnitude; the last star of the constellation Ursa Major, called the Polar Star, glows like a star of the second magnitude. V.I. Kuryshev demanded from observers an excellent knowledge of the map of the starry sky, he organized his own kind of control exercises, when his listeners had to accurately find the necessary constellation or star in the sky or in the star atlas, and about 200 thousand of them were registered in the atlas.
One of the first organizers of tracking space objects was the head of the Zvenigorod station A.M. Lozinsky. A scientist, a talented experimenter, an observer of the highest qualifications, he united around himself a large group of like-minded people, among whom the young scientist N.S. Bakhtigaraev, who replaced Alexander Markovich as head of the station, especially stood out. Nowadays, N.S. Bakhtigaraev devotes a lot of effort and energy to organizing tracking of space objects, especially when it comes to the geostationary region of outer space. A modest, charming man, he devoted his entire adult life to serving the control of outer space. The Zvenigorod Observatory still plays a significant role in detecting and tracking geostationary spacecraft. The staff of this station is conducting serious research in the field of space pollution by space debris. Optical observation stations under the leadership of A.M. Lozinsky and V.I. Kuryshev were among the best stations throughout the entire period of work with the Central Control Commission.
Subsequently, the AT-1 instruments were replaced by modernized BMT-110M (large offshore pipe) instruments. The modernization of observation devices was carried out at the Kazan Optical-Mechanical Plant. However, the effectiveness of the work of the SON did not fully meet the requirements of the military, since the observers were students whose qualifications were not high enough. Along with their main task (observation of space objects), optical observation stations under the leadership of the Astronomical Council participated in many international programs.
To study the influence of short-period manifestations of solar activity on the accuracy of determining the parameters of the orbits of space objects, it was necessary to observe the movement of satellites according to a special program over short periods of time. Such an international program of observations and research, called Interobs, began to be carried out in the USSR in cooperation with other countries, starting in 1963. The resulting quasi-synchronous observations of low satellites such as the Cosmos-54 launch vehicle and other objects made it possible to determine orbital periods with good accuracy at short (1-2 days) time intervals and to carry out studies of their dependence on solar flares and magnetic storms on Earth .
At the end of the 60s, optical means began to implement the Atmosphere program, the main goal of which was to clarify the navigation reference of satellites. Photographic observations of such spacecraft as Polet-1, Oreol-1 and Interkosmos made it possible to increase the accuracy of the navigation reference by approximately 6-8 times. This was of great importance in solving problems of linking scientific experiments on satellites.
In the early 70s, experimental observations of the automatic interplanetary stations “Mars-1”, “Luna-4”, “Zond-3” and “Luna-7” began at distances from 100,000 km to 150,000 km. For this purpose, the telescope of the Crimean Astrophysical Observatory of the USSR Academy of Sciences was used. The diameter of the mirror of this device was 2.6 m. Highly sensitive television equipment has been developed. Such an installation, attached to a telescope with a mirror diameter of 500 mm, made it possible not only to photograph automatic lunar and interplanetary stations at a distance of up to 80,000 km, but also to monitor their movement for several hours.
Since the beginning of the 60s, trial work has been carried out on synchronous observations of spacecraft in order to clarify the geodetic reference data of ground objects using the space triangulation method. The main condition for carrying out this work was the use of the so-called observation base (the distance between points carrying out synchronous work) from 3000-4000 km to 100,000 km. The result was the receipt of accurate geolocation data for ground objects, amounting to several tens of meters. There is no need to state how important this was for the country's defense capability.
Work was carried out on the development of satellite laser rangefinders under the Intercosmos program. They would make it possible to measure distances to satellites with an accuracy of 10-20 cm in full automatic mode and observe space objects at altitudes up to 20,000 km. The use of laser reflectors on domestic spacecraft increased the accuracy of measurements of the parameters of the Intercosmos-17 spacecraft (the error was only 2-3 m). In 1975, using the AFU-75 photographic camera of the Simeiz station of the Zvenigorod Observatory, photographs of geostationary satellites were first obtained.
60 years have passed since this significant event - the launch in the Soviet Union of the world's first Artificial Earth Satellite. And today we are filled with pride in our Soviet science, which has proven in practice that our scientists were able to do what foreign countries, including the United States, could not do. GLORY TO OUR SCIENCE, GLORY TO OUR SCIENTISTS AND DESIGNERS!
Colonel Olander L.K., member of the Council of Veterans of the CPSU and the Standing Commission of the Central Committee of the SVKV on social and legal protection.

Lesson 45

SPACE FORCES, THEIR COMPOSITION AND PURPOSE

Subject: life safety.

Module 3. Ensuring the military security of the state.

Section 5. Fundamentals of state defense.

Chapter 14. Types and types of troops of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation.

Lesson #45. Space forces, their composition and purpose.

Date: "____" _____________ 20___

The lesson was taught by: life safety teacher Khamatgaleev E.R.

Target: consider the composition and purpose of the Space Forces.

Progress of lessons

Class organization.

Greetings. Checking the class roster.

State the topic and purpose of the lesson.

Updating knowledge.

What combat missions are the Airborne Forces intended to perform?

What combat capabilities of the Airborne Forces can you list?

What famous units are part of the Airborne Forces?

How do you understand the Airborne Forces motto “Nobody but us!”? Explain your answer.

Checking homework.

Listening to several students' answers to homework (as chosen by the teacher).

Working on new material.

Space Forces are a fundamentally new independent branch of the military, which is intended for:

the discovery of the beginning of a missile attack on the Russian Federation and its allies;

combating enemy ballistic missiles attacking the defended area;

maintaining orbital constellations of military and dual-use spacecraft in the established composition and ensuring the use of spacecraft for their intended purpose;

space control;

ensuring the implementation of the Russian Federal Space Program, international cooperation programs and commercial space programs.

The Space Forces include: the Rocket and Space Defense Association (RKO), the State Test Cosmodromes of the Ministry of Defense of the Russian Federation "Baikonur", "Plesetsk" and "Svobodny", the Main Test Center for Testing and Control of Space Facilities named after G. S. Titov, Directorate for the introduction of funds for RKO, military educational institutions and support units. The RKO association includes missile attack warning, missile defense and space control units.

FORCES AND MEANS OF ROCKET AND SPACE DEFENSE

On missile attack warning system (MAWS) assigned the task of receiving and issuing warning information about a missile attack to state and military control points, generating the necessary information for the missile defense system and issuing data on space objects to the space control system.

Missile defense system carries out target detection and destruction of warheads of intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) with anti-missile missiles, eliminating the detonation of their charges.

Space control system (SSC) is unique. Only two powers can control space: Russia and the United States. The main catalog of the Russian Federation spacecraft system contains information about almost 9 thousand space objects.

The forces and means of the command post, in interaction with the information means of the PRN, missile defense systems and other information systems, perform the tasks of monitoring outer space and issuing information about the space situation to control points of state and military leadership. The system determines the characteristics and purpose of all spacecraft, as well as the composition of orbital constellations of space systems of Russia and foreign countries with their recognition.

In the context of the increasing role of outer space in solving peaceful and military problems, the CCP system has new tasks: information support to support Russia’s implementation of its rights to use outer space; information support for countering space reconnaissance means, including for maintaining a mobile group of strategic nuclear forces (SNF); environmental monitoring of outer space; control over testing and possible deployment of elements of a space-based missile defense system.

The space forces are equipped with launch vehicles, command and measurement systems, radar stations, and optical-electronic systems.

STATE TEST SPACE PORTS OF THE MINISTRY OF DEFENSE OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION

Baikonur Cosmodrome founded in June 1955. From here on April 12, 1961, the first cosmonaut of the planet, Yu. A. Gagarin, launched.

After the collapse of the USSR, the cosmodrome became the property of the Republic of Kazakhstan. In accordance with the Lease Agreement for the Baikonur complex between the Governments of the Russian Federation and the Republic of Kazakhstan in 1994, its use is carried out by the Russian Federation. The lease period for the Baikonur complex is 20 years with the possibility of further extension.

The overall coordination of work carried out at the cosmodrome is entrusted to the Ministry of Defense of the Russian Federation (Space Forces), and the implementation of the Russian Federal Space Program and international cooperation programs is entrusted to the Russian Aviation and Space Agency.

Cosmodrome "Plesetsk" is the northernmost cosmodrome in the world (it is located in the Arkhangelsk region) and launches spacecraft under military, socio-economic and scientific programs, as well as under international cooperation programs.

Cosmodrome "Svobodny" created in accordance with the Decree of the President of the Russian Federation B. N. Yeltsin on March 1, 1996.

The favorable geographical location of the Svobodny cosmodrome in the Amur region allows launching spacecraft in a wide range of orbital inclinations, including polar and sun-synchronous, and more efficiently using the energy capabilities of launch vehicles.

Conclusions.

Space Forces are a new branch of the military that is part of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation.

Space forces ensure control of outer space.

The main tasks of the Space Forces include the destruction of enemy ballistic missiles attacking objects and troops in defended areas.

The Space Forces perform reconnaissance functions, collecting the necessary information for our country's missile defense.

Questions.

What is the main purpose of the Space Forces?

Which cosmodromes of the Ministry of Defense of the Russian Federation can you name?

What are the missions of the Space Force?

Why is control of outer space using the forces and means of the Space Forces so important for the Russian Federation? Justify your answer.

Tasks.

Prepare a report on the forces and means of the country's missile and space defense.

Using special literature, prepare a report about one of the cosmodromes used by the Space Forces of the Russian Federation.

Write an essay about one of the Soviet or Russian cosmonauts.

Additional materials to §45.

Main Test Center for Testing and Control of Spacecraft named after. G. S. Titova

The starting point for the creation of the Main Center for Testing and Control of Space Facilities named after. G. S. Titov (GITSIU KS) can rightfully be considered the Resolution of the Council of Ministers of the USSR of January 30, 1956, which determined the program for the development and launch of the first artificial Earth satellites.

Specialists from GITSIU KS and subordinate military units, together with the Mission Control Center, provide all space programs, starting with the launch of the first artificial Earth satellite on October 4, 1957. People in uniform are responsible for the condition of almost all domestic orbital systems - military, scientific, manned, etc. Space Earth service includes satellites for communications, navigation, weather forecasting, cartography, television broadcasting, relaying, etc.

The forces and means of the GICIU KS are deployed throughout almost the entire territory of the Russian Federation - from St. Petersburg to Kamchatka.

Rocket at the test site

End of lesson.

Homework. Prepare for retelling §45 “Space forces, their composition and purpose”; complete tasks 1-3 (section “Tasks”, p. 236).

Giving and commenting on ratings.

Home Structure Armed Forces of the Russian Federation Aerospace Forces To the 50th anniversary of Russian missile and space defense Control of outer space

The main task of the space control system is reconnaissance of the military space systems of potential adversaries, detection of military operations in space and from space, as well as bringing information about the space situation to the leadership of the country and the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation and information support for the security of space activities of the Russian Federation.

The system determines the characteristics and purpose of all spacecraft at altitudes of more than 50,000 kilometers, the composition of orbital constellations of space systems of Russia and foreign countries with their recognition, as well as signs of the outbreak of hostilities in space and from space.

The most effective means of the SKKP are the optical-electronic complex "Window", capable of autonomously and automatically solving the problems of monitoring space objects at altitudes from 2,000 km to 50,000 km, collecting information on them and distributing it to command posts, and a radio-optical recognition complex space objects "Krona".

According to external target designations, the Okno complex is also capable of providing control of low-orbit space objects with flight altitudes from 120 to 2,000 km. In addition, the complex can be used for environmental monitoring of outer space.

In turn, the Krona complex detects and records the parameters of the trajectories of objects in low Earth orbit, catalogs their characteristics and recognizes new artificial Earth satellites.

The main tasks solved by the Space Control System:

1. Rapid assessment and forecasting of dangerous changes in near-Earth space through continuous monitoring of outer space, determining the composition and condition of military space assets of foreign states; monitoring the testing of such weapons and the deployment of anti-satellite, anti-missile and strike groups.
2. Maintaining the Main Catalog of Space Objects - recognition of space objects, including selection, identification and determination of their intended purpose and nationality. Automatic identification of the facts of launch, maneuver and deorbit of space objects, determination and systematic clarification of the parameters of their orbits.
3. Assessing the situation on the flight paths of domestic spacecraft, predicting situations dangerous for them created by various space objects and anti-space defense systems. Assessment of the state of domestic spacecraft in emergency situations.
4. Formation and delivery to command posts of information about space objects, the state and changes in the space situation.
5. Providing the Missile Attack Warning System with information about cataloged space objects in order to reduce the likelihood of generating false warning information about a missile attack.

Combat duty of UKKP assets is the fulfillment of a combat mission of national importance and is carried out around the clock. Professionalism, a high sense of responsibility for the assigned work, and loyalty to the traditions of older generations underlie the unconditional and reliable performance of the combat mission by the personnel on duty shifts.

History of the creation of the space control system

At the dawn of active space exploration, the need arose to create special means of observation and processing of measurement information that would make it possible to determine the orbits of foreign and domestic spacecraft (SC) with failed or expired onboard equipment, as well as fragments of launch vehicles that entered orbit. Collectively, these means became known as the space control system.

In 1962, the Central Committee of the CPSU and the Council of Ministers of the USSR adopted the Resolution “On the creation of a domestic space control service.”

The first specialized means of monitoring outer space were the Dniester radar stations, missile attack warning systems, located in Kazakhstan (near Lake Balkhash) and Siberia (near Irkutsk). Their joint work made it possible to create an observation line with a length of 5,000 km at altitudes of up to 3,000 km. Subsequently, a total of eight such radars were used.

In January 1970, the Space Control Center (TSKKP) went on combat duty. At that time, the capabilities of the Central Control Commission made it possible to accompany up to 500 space objects at altitudes of up to 1500 km - this accounted for only 10-15% of the number of satellites located in near-Earth orbits.

In subsequent years, measures were taken to expand the radar field, modernize the radar and create specialized means for reconnaissance and recognition of space objects in the interests of the Center.

As the situation in space became more complex, active work was launched to improve the Central Control Commission and transform it into a command post for the space control system.

At the first stage, in 1974, for this purpose, communication was provided between the Central Control Commission and the information means of the missile attack warning (MAW) and missile defense (BMD) systems. The zone of controlled outer space expanded sharply - by 1976, the Central Control Commission was already accompanying more than one and a half thousand space objects, which accounted for 30% of their total number.

At the same time, the reliability of the information generated by the PRN system has significantly increased, since it has become possible to maintain a complete catalog of space objects flying over the territory of the country, which has made it possible to significantly reduce the likelihood of a false warning by rejecting the flight trajectories of space objects descending and burning in the dense layers of the atmosphere.

In addition, real opportunities have emerged for the timely and reliable issuance of appropriate target designations to the anti-space defense complex in order to intercept spacecraft attacking the country’s territory.

Subsequently, the degree of control over objects located in outer space continuously increased - by 1980, the Central Control Commission was able to predict the locations of space objects falling and accompanied more than half of all orbital objects.

At the same time, in 1980, a decision was made on the further development of the KKP System with the gradual introduction into its composition of specialized space control means: optical-electronic and radio-optical complexes for recognizing space objects, as well as means for direction finding of spacecraft radiation. The creation of specialized CCP tools has made it possible to significantly improve the efficiency and effectiveness of spacecraft recognition.

Optical-electronic station from the OEC "Window"

In 1986, more than 4 thousand spacecraft and their elements were accompanied by means of the SKP at altitudes of up to 3500 km.

In 1988, a space control unit was formed, designed to ensure operational control of all forces and means that would allow for comprehensive control of outer space, and to timely detect the beginning of military operations in space.

The KKP unit includes a command post, a Space Control Center, and specialized radar and optical-electronic complexes. The Space Control Center is entrusted with the task of continuously maintaining the Main Catalog of the space situation and issuing operational data about it to the main command posts of the country.

In 1999, the first stage of the optical-electronic complex “Okno” (Nurek, Tajikistan) was put into trial operation. In 2000, tests were completed and the first stage of the radio-optical complex “Krona” was completed and put into operation by the troops (Zelenchukskaya station, Karachay-Cherkess Republic).

Currently, work to improve the Space Control System continues.

The words in the title may seem strange to some. Do they really fight in space? Aren't space-based strike weapons prohibited? Yes, fortunately, there are no combat missiles or laser cannons in orbit yet. However, as the experience of recent years shows, preparations for a military conflict or large-scale maneuvers begin with the regrouping of reconnaissance and communications spacecraft. So you need an eye and an eye for space.

Objects of the optical-electronic space surveillance complex located near the city of Nurek (Tajikistan).

Oleg Makarov

Nowadays, having operational information about changes in the space situation is no less important than having early warning means for a missile attack. And although space powers, in accordance with international treaties, notify each other about spacecraft launches, their purpose is not always completely transparent.

Here is an example: one of the states is launching an artificial Earth satellite, which, as is officially announced, will be used to monitor the surface of our planet, say, in the interests of the weather service. But then strange metamorphoses occur with the device: the satellite is divided into three separate blocks, which diverge into different orbits, forming an equilateral triangle in the sky, and begin work, the results of which will most likely be of interest not to meteorologists, but to the military. Here, as they say, trust, but verify. How can you check this?

Objects of the optical-electronic space surveillance complex located near the city of Nurek (Tajikistan).

Waiting for battles in orbit

Our country has such means. 25 years ago, then still part of the USSR Air Defense, the Space Control Corps was formed. In those years, the topic of countering strike weapons created within the framework of the American Strategic Defense Initiative was considered very relevant, and therefore the tasks of the corps included not only control of the surrounding space, but also the organization of counteraction to the space forces of a potential enemy. A special unit was created within the corps, which was to be armed with satellite fighters (IS): this system was tested and successfully hit eight training targets in orbit. Then different times came, the Cold War ended, and according to the relevant agreements between the USSR and the USA, ISs had to be abandoned, which, however, did not make orbital monitoring a less important task. The corps, stationed in the Moscow region, in the Noginsk region, was transformed into a division, and then into the Main Center for Space Situation Intelligence. Of course, several countries have separate tools for monitoring near space, but only Russia and, as you might guess, the United States, have comprehensive systems for monitoring outer space. The effectiveness of such systems directly depends on both the quality and quantity of surveillance equipment, and on the geography of their location.

Ensuring the safety of air and outer space requires round-the-clock attention and complex analytical work.

On the last point, it is difficult for us to compete with the Americans: having bases and dependent territories around the globe, the United States is able to provide continuous monitoring of a larger number of sectors of near-Earth space. It is interesting that one of the most important elements of the American system was the so-called space fence, which was created in the early 1960s. The "fence" consisted of rows of transmitting and receiving VHF antennas stretching across the entire United States - from California to Georgia at approximately 33 degrees latitude. Last August, this unique structure was turned off at the command of the American government, which decided that the “fence”, capable of distinguishing objects with a diameter of 10 cm at an altitude of up to 30,000 km, was too expensive for American taxpayers. True, this does not mean at all that the United States has abandoned space reconnaissance: firstly, it has other means, and secondly, since 2009, leading American defense companies have already received $500 million to develop the “fence” new generation. What do we have?

Closer to the stars

The main center for reconnaissance of the space situation of the Russian Aerospace Defense Forces operates around the clock and makes about 70,000 measurements per day. Its catalog contains about 10,000 objects - from the ISS to nanosatellites and small fragments of “space debris”. Data comes to the Center both from its own funds and from other services monitoring the sky. Among them, the first thing worth noting is the missile attack warning system (MAWS), which includes the Voronezh, Volga, Dnepr, and Daryal radars. The Center also receives information from the radar equipment of the missile defense position area created around Moscow - these include the Don-2N and Danube-3U radars. Data is used from space tracking stations built on the basis of the Sazhen-T quantum optical system. It is a telescope equipped with equipment for laser measurements of slant range and angular coordinates using reflected solar radiation. The Center also receives information from institutions of the Russian Academy of Sciences.

The more technical means of all kinds are at the disposal of the Russian Aerospace Defense Forces, the more information about the space situation can be obtained in real time. The main RKO center uses data not only from its own assets, but also from the radar of the missile attack warning system. The photo shows the construction of a new generation over-the-horizon radar of the Voronezh-M type.

The RKO Main Center's own facilities include optical, radar, and radio engineering instruments that allow listening to space in a passive mode. Optical and radar means make it possible, first of all, to monitor the movements of objects in near-Earth orbits, and radio engineering helps to learn something about the functioning of spacecraft.

“Thanks to radio equipment,” says the head of the Center, Colonel Alexander Logvinenko, “we can judge the state of the spacecraft - whether it is on or off. Suppose the official authorities of a certain state announce that such and such a satellite has been put into reserve. We listen to it on the radio, and it turns out that the device is turned on at full power. This means they are not telling us something.”

The unique radio engineering complex "Moment", working in the interests of the Center, is located here, in the Moscow region, but optical and radar equipment aimed at the equatorial region (the orbit of any spacecraft inevitably passes through the equator) are located closer to the south, in the mountains, where The sky is dark at night, there is rarely rain and the air is unusually clear. One of the optical and radar surveillance complexes is located in Karachay-Cherkessia, near the village of Zelenchukskaya. The equipment installed here makes it possible to observe the sky in the optical range even in daylight. Another complex operates in the Pamirs near the city of Nurek (Tajikistan). After the collapse of the USSR, the facility became the property of a new independent state, but since 2005 the stations and command post have been transferred to Russia, and the land under them is rented to the Russian military for a symbolic rent.

Of course, to increase the efficiency of the Center, the number and geography of surveillance equipment must be expanded. After all, the more sectors of the sky are under observation, the more often this or that spacecraft falls into their field of view. As Colonel Logvinenko said, in the period until 2020, space reconnaissance specialists expect to receive more compact and efficient quantum optical instruments. A chain of such stations will stretch across the entire country from Kaliningrad to Nakhodka. With their help, it will be possible to look deep into space not 40,000 km, as now, but 70-80 thousand.

On combat duty

The command post of the Main Space Situation Intelligence Center is like a miniature mission control center. The same concentrated faces of people behind the monitors, the same large screens on the wall: they show the trajectories of spacecraft. Work here goes on seven days a week and 24 hours a day, but this does not mean, of course, that every second every space object larger than a football is under close attention. Typically, Center officers are given the task of tracking the movements of specific objects of interest to certain authorities. These could be foreign reconnaissance vehicles or North Korean rocket and space experiments. Of particular interest is the rapidly developing Chinese space program.

True, there is an object that is under constant control. This is the International Space Station. In order not to put the ISS crews at risk, it is necessary to promptly detect threats to the station from “space debris” and issue recommendations for adjusting its trajectory. Truly serious threats do not arise so often (about once every few months), but “space reconnaissance” has no room for error. In particular, last year the option of emergency evacuation of the crew from the ISS was seriously considered due to a possible collision of the station with a fragment of spent rocket technology. However, the Center’s specialists carried out calculations that showed: the station is safe, there will be no collision. There are also funny cases. One day, surveillance equipment discovered an object of unknown origin near the ISS. He appeared as if out of nowhere; no one noticed his approach to the station. Soon this mystery was solved: the UFO was played by a box lost by astronauts while working in outer space. Due to the difference in mass, the orbits of the station and the box diverged slightly, and both objects continued to fly at some distance from each other.

Another priority area for the Center is monitoring the deorbit of large space objects that pose a potential danger. For example, from November 2011 to January 2012, an orbital control and analysis of the state of the unsuccessfully launched Phobos-Grunt space probe (carrying 8 tons of toxic fuel) was carried out. As a result, an accurate forecast of the date and location of the spacecraft crash was given.

The analytical division of the Main Center of RKO looks just like the office of some company: tables, partitions, displays with a keyboard and mouse. But this is where the most important thing happens: highly qualified analytical officers evaluate changes in the space situation online and report their findings to their superiors. Of course, computer technology helps analysts. The local computer center, built, according to the Center’s employees, entirely on domestic components (the Elbrus platform is used), is equipped with special software that processes a large array of incoming data automatically. But for a final assessment of events in low-Earth orbit, the constant presence of experienced analytical officers is required.

These people, despite the purely intellectual nature of their work, are on combat duty and even carry weapons. An order to issue an urgent assessment of the space situation in a particular region can be received at any time of the day or night. For example, last summer the leadership of the Russian Ministry of Defense announced a sudden check of the combat readiness of the troops of the Eastern Military District. Just as suddenly, the Center was given a command to assess changes in the activity of foreign spacecraft in connection with exercises unprecedented in modern Russian history. In response to a question about what was seen in space during the execution of the order, Colonel Alexey Rudenko, assistant to the head of the Main Center of the RKO, said the following: “I can only say that the territory of the Russian Federation is under the control of foreign intelligence systems almost 100% of the time.” space-based. As for our work during the exercises in the Eastern District, all the tasks assigned to the Center were successfully completed. The details are classified information."