Initially, it was very archaic: at its head were kings, whose power still resembled the power of a leader. The kings led the city militia, performed the functions of the supreme judge and priest. An important role in the management of Ancient Rome was played by senate - council of elders of clans. The full-fledged inhabitants of Rome - patricians - gathered for popular meetings, where kings were elected and decisions were made on the most important issues of the city's life. In the VI century. BC e. plebeians received some rights - they were included in the civic community, were allowed to vote and received the opportunity to own land.

At the end of the VI century. BC e. in Rome, the power of the kings was replaced by an aristocratic republic, in which the patriots played a leading role. Despite the fact that the state structure of Rome was named republic, that is, the "common cause", real power remained in the hands of the most noble and wealthy part of Roman society. During the period of the Roman Republic, the nobility was called nobles.

The citizens of ancient Rome - nobili, horsemen and plebeians - formed a civil community - civitas... The political system of Rome during this period was called a republic and was built on the principles of civil self-government.

Comitia (supreme power)

The supreme power belonged to the assembly of the people - comitia. All citizens who reached the age of majority were members of the people's assemblies. The commissions passed laws, elected collegia of officials, made decisions on the most important issues in the life of the state and society, such as the conclusion of peace or the declaration of war, exercised control over the activities of officials and in general over the life of the state, introduced taxes, and granted civil rights.

Masters (executive branch)

The executive power belonged to master's degrees. The most important officials were two consul who headed the state and commanded the army. Below them were two praetor who were in charge of legal proceedings. Censors carried out a census of the property of citizens, that is, they determined belonging to a particular class, and also exercised control over the rights. Tribunes of the people, elected only from among the plebeians, were obliged to defend the rights of ordinary citizens of Rome. The tribunes of the people often put forward draft laws in the interests of the plebeians and, in this regard, opposed the senate and the nobles. An important instrument of the tribunes of the people was the right veto - a ban on orders and actions of any officials, including consuls, if, in the opinion of the tribunes, their actions infringed upon the interests of the plebeians. There were also other master's degrees in which master-you engaged in a variety of current affairs.

Senate

In the state system of the Roman Republic, the Senate played a very important role - a collective body, which usually consisted of 300 representatives of the highest Roman aristocracy. The Senate discussed the most important issues of state life and made decisions for approval by the people's assemblies, heard reports from officials, and received foreign ambassadors. The significance of the senate was great, and in many respects it was he who determined the internal and foreign policy Roman Republic.

Principate

After the establishment of imperial power in Ancient Rome in the first, early, period of the Roman Empire, it began to be called principate.

Dominat

After the crisis of the Roman Empire, Diocletian took the place of the emperor. The unlimited monarchy he established was named dominate.

In the late Roman Empire, the central power was weakening more and more. The change of emperors often took place by force - as a result of conspiracies. The provinces were out of the control of the emperors.

Romulus is credited with organizing the Roman community (from the Latin civitas). The population of the city at that time consisted of two main groups: proper Roman citizens, the so-called patricians, and non-citizens - plebeians. The plebeians were not part of the community of full citizens and constituted a free, but deprived of political rights, stratum of the population, burdened with various duties, however, they carried out military service on an equal basis with the patricians. During the conquest of neighboring communities, the Romans seized part of their land for a public fund, but the plebeians were not allowed to use this land. In the hands of the plebeians, mainly commercial and industrial wealth was concentrated: the proud patricians considered any occupation humiliating except agriculture, political activity and military service. The patricians were full citizens. They split into three tribes (tribes). Three tribes - Ramna, Titia and Lucera - made up the "Roman people". Each tribe consisted of 100 clans. Every 10 genera formed a curia. The curiae formed the general popular assembly of the Roman community - the curiae comitia. The People's Assembly adopted or rejected the bills proposed to it, elected all senior officials, acted as the highest court of appeal in deciding the issue of death penalty, declared war, together with the Senate, elected the king, dealt with the most important court cases, etc. So, speaking about the origin of the Roman estates, one should take his "complex theory" as a basis:

the patricians were truly indigenous citizens. They were a full-fledged "Roman people";

clients were in direct contact with the patricians, they received from them land, livestock, enjoyed their protection at court, etc. For this they had to serve in the military units of their patrons, provide them with money, perform various work;

plebeians stood outside the patrician tribal organization, i.e. did not belong to the "Roman people", did not have access to communal land and were deprived of political rights.

The Roman patrician community was a primitive city-state with the typical features of "military democracy." Another organ of democracy was the Council of Elders - the Senate. Its members were called "fathers" (from Lat. Patres - fathers). The competence of the Roman Senate included matters of direct administration, the development of bills, the conclusion of peace. It consisted of elders of all 300 clans, therefore it was called the Senate (from Lat. Senex - old, elder). The elders constituted the hereditary aristocracy of the Roman community, as the custom took root according to which they were chosen from the same family of each clan. According to legend, Romulus created a Senate of 100 senators, Tullus Hostilius added another 100, and Tarquinius the Ancient brought them to 300. Over time, the patricians turned into a closed group of nobility, opposing the broad mass of the plebeians. The strengthening of the role of plebeians in the economy, with their numerical superiority, led to a struggle between plebeians and patricians, the first stage of this struggle ended with the reforms of the social system attributed to Tsar Servius Tulius. Along with the previous division of the population by genders, a new division of the population was introduced according to property and territorial characteristics. In the course of the reform of the "military democracy", all Roman citizens, both patricians and plebeians, were "evaluated" according to their available property (land, livestock, inventory, etc.) and divided into 193 hundreds - centuria. That is, according to the reform, a division was made into 5 property categories or classes:

the first class included persons with a fortune of no less than 100,000 asses (ass is a copper coin, originally weighing 1 pound, its value for the early period of the history of Rome has not been established);

in the second - 75,000 asses;

in the third - 50,000 asses;

in the fourth - 25,000 asses;

in the fifth - 12.500 asses.

Those who had very little fortune were "below the class" and were called "proletarians" (Latin proletarii, from the word proles - offspring), i.e. people who only had children. Each category of the population exhibited a certain number of its representatives - wax units - centuries (literally - a hundred). The centuries now began to vote in the popular assembly; each century had one vote. Proletarians, i.e. completely deprived of the recorded property, made up only one century. In the coordinated voting of the first two categories, the votes of the rest did not matter. Instead of the old tribes, division into territorial tribes was introduced. The reforms of Servius Tulia's "military dictatorship" dealt a crushing blow to the outdated clan system and laid the foundation of the state, i.e. a society based on consanguinity was destroyed, and a state system based on property differences and territorial division was created in its place. The position of the soldiers in the ranks of the legion was also determined by the property status. The richest citizens of the 1st class served in the cavalry and were called horsemen. The rest of this class were to carry the full heavy armament of an infantryman and stand at the forefront of the legion.

Citizens of other classes had light weapons and took a seat in the back rows. The soldiers of the V class were lightly armed in the ranks, and the proletarians did not serve in the ranks at all. Servius Tullius admitted to the army and the plebeians, endowing them with some political rights through the organization of a new form of popular assembly. Both classes took part in it. It was called the Century Assembly. The Centuria (Hundred), being a military tactical unit, has also become a voting unit. The most important functions of the old assemblies were transferred to the centuriate assemblies - the declaration of war, the election of officials, the court, etc. At that time, these reforms were a progressive form of government. The fall of military democracy in Rome, as evidenced by the data of scientists, occurred at the end of the 6th - beginning of the 5th centuries. BC. in the form of the violent overthrow of the last king and the transfer of his power to two elected officials. They could only get out of the patricians and were called consuls. Thus, the transition to the republic was carried out.

Rome's political growth

The growth of Rome takes place in three concentric circles corresponding to three state forms.

In the internal structure of the Roman state, with the help of which a huge agglomerate of cities, regions and peoples was connected to the center, the Romans turned out to be remarkable architects, who originally solved the problem of the transition from city to state. In its earliest period, the city of Rome (urbs) was also a state (civitas) - in other words, the Roman state had urban forms. If at this time the power of Rome extended over neighboring communities, then this happened either through the absorption of the community itself by Rome and the acceptance of its citizens into the number of Roman citizens, or through the destruction of a hostile city (Vei); despite the conquests, Rome remained the only city on its territory. But very early on, the need forced the Romans to withdraw to the conquered land or even to the conquered cities, in order to consolidate their power, colonies of Roman citizens, who, constituting a military garrison there, remained citizens of Rome. As a precaution, Rome initially settled in the colonies no more than 300 citizens, so that the colony did not become dangerous for the metropolis. And since Rome at that time was a member of the Latin Union, then in the conquered areas - for example, in the territory of Wei - common colonies of Roman and Latin citizens were also withdrawn, under the name of the Latin colonies. The newly founded cities, in turn, became members of the Latin Union. B. 381 BC e. The Romans took a measure important in their consequences: having conquered the city of Tusculum, they attributed its citizens to the R. tribe, that is, gave them the right to vote in the R. people's assembly, but at the same time left Tusculum its urban autonomy. The inhabitants of Tusculum thus became citizens of two cities: politically they belonged to Rome, lived in its legions, cast a vote in the forum, but independently disposed of their local city affairs, electing, for example, local magistrates.

The city, which was at the same time in union with Rome, and in political subordination to it, was called the municipium. Thus, Rome found a convenient formula for introducing cities that merged with it politically, but retained their autonomy so important for local interests and prosperity. The Romans did not immediately grant all municipalities the rights of Roman citizenship: the inhabitants of the Etruscan city of Ceres, alien in language and customs, at first gave only citizenship without the right to vote (cives sine suffragio) and thus created a new category of cities; the citizens of such cities of the "Ceritanian Law" were real municipes, that is, they bore obligations without using their rights. Citizens of this kind were, according to Polybius, before the second Punic war 100,000, out of 173,000 full Roman citizens. Thanks to the municipalities, ager romanus, that is, the "Roman land", could grow, embracing numerous, well-populated and freely governed cities spread throughout Italy and at the same time constituting one political body with R., since their citizens were tribes of the Roman people, and only at the Roman forum could they show their participation in the rule of the people. Thus, Ager romanus, representing at the beginning of the republic a space of 98275 hectares, to the beginning of lat. war tripled (309 thousand hectares); the dissolution of the Latin Union and the transformation of many independent cities of the Latins into municipalities again doubled the size of the R. of the land (603 thousand); the unification of Italy, that is, the victory over the Samnites, Etruscans, Gauls of central Italy; brought the area of ​​Roman land to 2,700,000 hectares; the reorganization of Italy after the victory over Hannibal added another 1,000,000 hectares; the conquest of Gaul by northern Italic, colonization in it expanded the Ager romanas to 5,500,000 hectares, which is one third of the area of ​​the whole of Italy (16 million hectares). Another cement that rallied the R. power was the "treaty" (foedus), thanks to which the defeated city became R.'s ally. The formula of the treaty was different: if the treaty was concluded on the principle of equality (foedus aequum), then it gave the ally full autonomy. In fact, however, equality was also accompanied by dependence on Rome: the union city followed the policy of Rome, and not vice versa. The dependence was even greater when the formula majestalem populi romani comiter conservare was included in the contract, that is, the obligation to kindly observe the greatness (supremacy) of the Roman people. Through such treaties, which assigned each of the allies a special place, Rome linked the 135 free cities of Italy with itself as allies (socii). The middle between Rome and the allies is lat. colonies (socii ac nomen lalinum - in Libya). After the termination of lat. Union, the Romans began to withdraw colonies, whose citizens, unlike the previous R. colonists, lost the right of R. citizenship and became citizens of the seven old Latin colonies, but for that they enjoyed full autonomy and retained the right to return to Rome and re-enroll in their tribe if a family member was left in the colony to process the allotment they received. With such colonies with a large number of citizens (from 3 to 6 thousand; even 20,000 colonists were brought to Venusia), Rome Latinized southern and northern. Italy. All Latin colonies, including 7 old ones, were 35, with a space of 830,000 hectares. and with 85,000 citizens called up for military service (in 225, when only 28 colonies were withdrawn). The entire territory of the allied cities of Rome in Italy was 10,500,000 hectares. - twice against the Roman; as for the military forces, the allies could put forward almost twice as much to help Rome (with the inclusion of the Latin colonies) (in 225 - 497,000, against 273,000). Thus, after the conquest of Italy by Rome, this country was a federation of cities, under the supremacy of one reigning city; it is a single state by the cohesion of its parts and by the subordination of a single power, but by its structure it has a municipal character, that is, it consists exclusively of cities, not only self-governing, but also possessing a controlled territory. Upon the entry of Rome into the third concentric circle, its state. the structure had to change: Rome was no longer at war with cities, but with kings; the result of his victories was the acquisition not of allies (socii), but of subjects (dediticii or stipendiarii - tribute). Only in exceptional cases did the Romans grant cities, with which they were previously on friendly terms, freedom by treaty, another similar category is represented by cities that were granted a privileged position (civitates liberae et immunes) on the basis of not a mutual treaty, but a decree of the Senate or law. Most of the city was surrendered to the Romans at the mercy; according to the formula of surrender (deditio) they were given back the land and self-government, under the condition of various in kind and monetary obligations. An element of the state structure was, therefore, here the urban self-governing territory, under the supervision or authority of the regional Roman military leader, who interceded instead of the king (for example, in Macedonia). But all this was possible until the Romans left the boundaries of Greek and Phoenician culture, with its urban life. The situation was different for the provinces in areas that did not know urban culture. Here the Romans were the conductors of this culture, great builders and organizers of cities, with the help of which they Romanized the barbarians. The organization of cities was accomplished through the settlement of veterans, that is, soldiers who had served their time; other cities were formed from the camps of the Roman legions; the locals were also sometimes organized by the Romans into cities. Gaul, the Danubian regions, and especially Africa, were covered by a network of Roman colonies and municipalities; numerous inscriptions testify to this civilizing mission of the Romans, which constitutes the best page in the history of Rome.

Patricians and plebeians

The expansion of the power of Rome, introducing new elements into it, created two layers in the population - the dominant and the subordinate. Such dualism appears to us already in ancient, prehistoric Rome, manifesting itself in the antagonism between patricians and plebeians. The struggle between patricians and plebeians is a fact dominating the history of state structure, social life and legislation of ancient Rome, and therefore the question of their origin has always attracted special attention of researchers. Already antiquity gave us two different answers to this question. Livy produces patricians from patres, that is, senators, and considers them the descendants of the first hundred senators appointed by Romulus; Dionysius, familiar from the history of Greek cities with the role of noble families, suggests the existence of such families from time immemorial in Rome. From the testimony of Livy, it is clear that in the era of R. historiography, a clear idea of ​​the nature of the ancient patriciate had already been lost, but it was preserved to some extent among lawyers who (Gaius) found the definition: plebs gentem non habet (plebeians do not have a genus, that is, a generic everyday life or building). Consequently, the main feature of a patriciate is his clan structure. What it consisted of, about this we have only late and fragmentary news (for example, from Cicero), from which, however, it is clear that the main sign of the tribal system in Rome, as well as in Greece, is the sacred connection between relatives, their belonging to a special a religious cult, probably in connection with ancestor worship; this includes the existence of a clan grave on a site belonging to the clan. All relatives bear one common name (nomen gentilicium), which remains, even if the genus is divided into branches (Cornelii Rufi and Cornelii Scipiones). That the clan in antiquity had ancestral property can be judged by the later inheritance law; about the existence of common gatherings among the relatives, at which measures obligatory for all were taken, says the news of Cicero that after the betrayal of one of the Manlis, this clan forbade to call him by the name of any of the relatives. A reliable and important sign of patricianism is the existence of clients of every kind, that is, obedient people bearing the same generic name; taking part in the ancestral cult and having the right to a place in the ancestral grave. From one single news of Libya about Claudius, one can think that the patricians endowed clients with plots of land; there is no doubt that the patricians helped them at the trial, hence the later special meaning of the word client, and that, on their part, the clients, by analogy with the vassals of the Middle Ages, provided the patron with monetary assistance in certain customary cases - they ransomed him from captivity and from non-payment debts. Outside of this close bond between the patricians and their clients stood the plebeians; consequently, there was no connubium between patricians and plebeians, that is, marriages between them were not considered legal. Whether there was a legal separation between them of another kind, as Niebuhr thought, is more difficult to say; for example, were marriages through the confarreatio (the ceremony of introducing the bride and groom with spelled grains) the patrician form, and marriage through the coemptio (the rite of imaginary purchase) the plebeian form? Professor Moscow univ. Kryukov in the 40s (who wrote his research in German under the name "Pellegrino") even suggested a religious difference between patricians and plebeians. There was a time when the plebeians stood outside the political organization of the patricians, that is, they were not full-fledged R. citizens. Only by the law of Licinius and Sextius, in 367 BC. e., one of the consular places was given to the plebeians. That the plebeians were not admitted to the Senate at first, this can be concluded from the formula for the appeal of the presiding magistrate to the senators - patres conscripti, that is, actually patres et conscripti or "patricians and listed." The plebeians did not participate in the election of the interrex either. That the plebeians were not part of the most ancient popular assembly, Niebuhr deduced from the fact that the plebeians were not assigned to the curiae (Mommsen holds a different opinion). This is confirmed by the fact that, along with the popular assembly for the curia (comitia curiata), another appears later - according to the military hundreds (comitia centuriala), in which citizens were distributed on the basis of a property qualification, and then the third, purely plebeian (comitia tributa), according to tribes or the volosts into which the territory of the R. was divided.

Niebuhr also assumed that the plebeians stood outside the economic organization of ancient Rome, since they were deprived of the right to use public land - ager publicus (see below). On this complete disunity and dualism of patricians and plebeians, Niebuhr's theory of the origin of plebeians is also based: he saw in patricians the indigenous inhabitants of ancient Rome, formed on 7 hills from synekism, that is, the voluntary merger of the two communities that emerged there, Latin and Sabine, and in the plebeians - the fruit of the first expansion of Rome, that is, the landowners of the communities adjacent to Rome, who were attached to it by force of arms or who moved there voluntarily. Be that as it may, the struggle of the plebeians with the patricians on political, legal and economic grounds constitutes the internal history of Rome; but since it strongly influenced the history of R. magistracy and the national assembly, it is more convenient to consider it in connection with these issues. The critical moment of the struggle is attributed to 493, the departure of the plebeians to the sacred mountain (mons sacer) in the vicinity of Rome, with the intention of settling there; the last link in the struggle is the secession, in a third, settled by the law of the dictator Hortense in 287 BC. e. Its result is the political equality of the plebeians, expressed in the equation of the plebiscite with the law, that is, in the right of the plebeian people's assembly to issue decrees that have the force of a general law and are therefore obligatory for patricians. Even earlier, plebeians were granted the right to occupy all magistracy, as well as priestly positions (lex Ogulvia, 302 BC), except for some that did not have political significance. In the field of civil relations, the equality of plebeians with patricians was ensured by the law of the tribune of Canuleus, who established back in 445 BC. e. connubium between both estates. The economic struggle early loses its purely estate character in Rome, due to the emergence of a plebeian aristocracy, in solidarity with the patricians. The Hortense law, which concludes the struggle of the plebeians with the patricians, coincides with the end of the conquest of Italy by Rome, causing a new dualism, namely, the Roman citizens and allies.

At first, this dualism was not associated with any strife: the allies did not seek closer rapprochement, content with the benefits that the alliance with Rome provided them; their merchants could now, under the protection of Rome, freely trade throughout the world, and their soldiers could acquire land and booty in the wars of Rome. But that gradually changed. Under the monarchy of Romania, its power made itself increasingly difficult for allies to feel, and when, since the time of the Gracchi, the era of the distribution of land and bread and popular amusements (panem et circenses) began in Romania, the right of Roman citizenship became a bait for the allies. After the attempts of the Roman tribunes (K. Gracchus and Livy Druse) to satisfy their desire were in vain, the allies took up arms in 88. Seeing the danger, the Romans hastened, by the law of Julius, to divide the allies and give citizenship to those of them who had not yet rebelled (Etruscans); but the Samnites and mountaineers of southern Italy managed to arm themselves and in a two-year bloody war fought with Rome not for the right of citizenship, but for their independence. How deeply, however, the political idea of ​​Rome - a federation of cities under the rule of a city common to all citizens - took root in the minds of the Italians, is evident from the fact that the Allies decided to create a new Rome in southern Italy and chose for this the town of Corfinium, renamed Italy: the forum was to serve as a general forum, the senate as the general senate, and the consuls and praetors (according to the number of Roman ones) as general supreme magistrates. Rome was forced to call on all its forces under the banner, put at the head of their best commanders, Maria and Sulla, and still end up with a concession. By the law of Plautius and Papirius, Roman citizenship was granted to all who lay down their weapons within 60 days. The Italics - with the exception of a part of the Samnites who continued to resist until their extermination - became part of Rome, but from that time the fall of devastated Italy began. The dualism between Romans and Latins or allies in Italy disappeared (with the exception of the inhabitants of Transpadan Gaul, who received citizenship only from Julius Caesar in 49); but in the Roman state, as a result of the conquests, another dualism was already revealed. Roman Italy was surrounded by provinces, and the strife between Romans and provincials (peregrines) was much deeper than between Romans and Latins. Nevertheless, this dualism began to gradually smoothed out and went out without the terrible shock that the allied war had been. This happened because a common state power was established over the Romans and the peregrines.

The process of convergence took place in two ways: the emperors gave the right of citizenship to individuals or categories of persons (for example, Caesar gave citizenship to all doctors and science teachers in Rome; by decrees of subsequent emperors, the right of citizenship was given as a privilege to encourage the construction of houses and ships, for marriages rich with children, etc.) etc.), or citizenship was granted to entire cities and regions. The (fictitious) Latinism played an important role in this. When the Italic Latins merged with the Romans, the latter began to grant some cities in Gaul the rights of former Latin colonies. Latinism thus became a transitional stage to Roman citizenship; in this sense Vespasian granted Latin law to all of Spain. Finally, Caracalla gave all free people of the empire the right of Roman citizenship; in orbe romano qui sunt, cives romani effecti sunt. However, the political significance of this measure should not be exaggerated: when a province rose to the level of Rome, Italy turned to a province. Her privileges - freedom from land taxes and from military service - disappeared; self-government of its cities was subordinated, as in the provinces, to the imperial bureaucracy. The supreme power of the Roman citizens passed to the Roman emperor, the Roman citizen from the lord of the flocks to the subjects, like a provincial. In the Roman Empire, only one dualism survived, but not exclusively Roman - between master and slave.

Formation of the republic and empire

The imperial power, which completed the political development of Rome, was not an alien element for him; it is rooted in its original organization. Polybius, who was well acquainted with the structure of Rome in the house of Scipio, defined this structure as a government mixed of monarchy, aristocracy and democracy, meaning by this the interaction of the magistracy, the senate and the popular assembly. All three of these elements date back to prehistoric times in Rome, when it was ruled by kings. The royal period is inaccessible to the immediate historical research, but kingship so strongly influenced Roman institutions that it can be studied in its reflection. Until a later time, two posts remained in Rome, which were in the closest connection with the royal power: the rex sacrificulus, who brought in the republican era those sacrifices that lay with the duties of the king, and interrex, who was elected by patrician senators from among them, when, due to an accidental disaster, the continuity of power was interrupted and there was no official under whose chairmanship the election of new supreme magistrates could take place. In addition, the royal power was preserved in the attributes and in the very nature of the magistracy, which replaced the kings. Consuls are nothing more than the possessors of a bifurcated and reduced to the limits of one year of royal power: regio imperio duo sunto, says Cicero in his work on the state (De republica). The symbol of the "imperium" was the rods and axes of the lictors who passed from the tsar to the consul: this is the power to command, punish and execute. It is characteristic of a people who achieved dominion over the world that, having expelled the tsar, he retained his power not as an executive power, in the sense of the theorists of the 18th century, but as an administrative power, governing, limiting it to short-term and collegiality; soon the Romans even began, in case of need, to strengthen it by temporarily abolishing collegiality (dictatorship). The further history of the state organization of Rome lies in the limitation and fragmentation of the magistracy and in the development, to its detriment, of the power of the Senate and the People's Assembly.

So, to the very beginning of the republican history, Valery Poplikola's law de provocatione, which forbade the magistrate to whip and execute a citizen (outside military service), in addition to provoking a convicted person to a popular assembly, belongs to the very beginning of the republican history. The main changes in the position and composition of the R. magistracy took place under the influence of the struggle of the plebeians with the patricians. there was a special plebeian magistracy, along with the patrician and in opposition to it. Classical dualism was thus introduced into the magistracy itself. The R. tribunate played such an outstanding role in R. history and acquired such worldwide fame that its name and concept penetrated into the ideas of civilized peoples even deeper than the consulate. In R. history, the tribunate is the most original political institution; his historical development marks the growth and triumph of the plebs, and then the development and fall of R. democracy. The original position of the tribunes was modest and their role was insignificant. Their duty was to intercede (auxilium ferre) for individual plebeians against the severity or injustice of the patrician magistrates, at recruitment or at trial. The means provided to them for this consisted in the right to suspend consular orders (veto), and for the exercise or protection of this right they were not given power (imperium) or material strength, but only a defensive weapon - "immunity", by analogy with other sacred , that is, persons and objects dedicated to the deity (sacrosanctitas). Relying on this shield, the strongest among the Romans, the tribunes soon went on the offensive, assuming an ever wider role for themselves. From intercessors for individual plebeians, they became leaders and guardians of the interests of the entire estate, accused and punished its enemies and passed laws useful for it; becoming the head of the plebeian assemblies, they rose with them, and when the plebeian people were identified with the R. people, the tribunes became magistrates of the people. Once they sat modestly on their benches outside the Senate door, listening to his debate; in the end, they received the right to convene the Senate and carry out their policies in it. All attempts at reforms are connected with their name; the development of demagoguery in Rome is also associated with it. Arose out of opposition to the "imperium", the tribunate became a foot for the emperor, who combined the consul's imperium and the potestas of the inviolable tribune. The plebeians, however, were not satisfied with the important advantages that the tribunate brought them, and sought participation in the imperium. An interesting but dark episode along the way is decemvirate (451 BC). In Libya, the goal of the decemvirate is set to determine the consular power by precise laws, and then another goal is indicated - the drafting of written laws; Greek historians who wrote about Rome speak of equalizing the rights of the patricians and plebeians (Dion Cassius) or granting them "general laws" (Dionysius). The historical result of the decemvirs' activity is the compilation of the laws of the 12th table. But since there were no consuls or tribunes under the decemvirates, and the plebeians are mentioned in the second decemvirate, Niebuhr believed that the decemvirate was established as a permanent general government institution, which should have included both patricians and plebeians, with the abolition of other estate magistrates. In any case, after the decemvirate (445), an important change took place in the direction indicated by Niebuhr: the senate was given the right to replace consuls with consulartribunes, that is, military tribunes (commanders of legions) with consular power, of which there were more than 2 (3 and up to 6) and in the number which there could be plebeians. In fact, however, the plebeians began to get into the consular tribune only from 400, then only until 395, and then in 379. At the same time and for the same purpose, the number of quaestors was doubled (from 2 to 4), that is military treasurers. The introduction of the tribune consular was, in addition, the reason for the creation of a new magistracy, elected every five years - censors, whose duty, separated from the consular authority, was to draw up lists of citizens by property (qualification) and a list of senators. Since this duty gave censors an important moral authority, censorship, over time, became the most honorable magistracy. Finally, the law of Licinius and Sextius (387-367) restored the consulate as a permanent magistracy, granting the plebeians one of the consular seats. At the same time, the judicial function was separated from the consulate, given to a special official - the praetor - and at first inaccessible to the plebeian. With the increase in the number of court cases, the number of praetors was doubled; one of them (praetor urbanus) was in charge of the affairs of the citizens, the other (peregrinus) was in charge of the affairs of the allies; with the emergence of provinces, the number of praetors began to increase until Sulla determined 10, and the number of quaestors at 20. At the same time, the plebeians were given, like the patrician (curule) aediles, two positions of plebeian aediles. Within 30 years, after the acquisition of the consulate, the plebeians became available to the dictatorship (356), censorship (351), and finally the praetor (337). The further development of the R. magistracy took place under the influence not of the class struggle, but of the world situation occupied by Rome. As the number of provinces increased, the Romans found it inconvenient to accordingly increase the number of praetors (who had the right to a seat in the senate) and resorted to prorogation, that is, to extend the power of consuls and praetors for a year, sending them to the provinces as proconsuls and propraetors. On provincial grounds, the power of these officials has become completely different. The proconsul not only takes the place of the king in the provinces in relation to the people "taxable" to Rome: he also loses specific traits R. magistracy. In Rome, the consul is limited by the power of a comrade; provocation of the people and the veto of the tribune turned his military "imperium" into civilian power. In the provinces, the power of the proconsul is single, unlimited and indivisible. He is in one person a military commander, a ruler, a chief judge and, in a sense, a legislator, since he issues a praetor edict for the provinces, that is, establishes the principles that he intends to follow in the administration of justice. Since he is entrusted with the protection of the province, and the Senate is far away, he can start an offensive war without the knowledge of the Senate; since, in order to maintain the army, he was given extensive powers to collect the necessary provisions and fodder from the provincials, then in his hands - the ruin of the province or its individual cities. Extortions and gifts already permitted by law or custom (aurum coronarium - a golden wreath offered by cities) can enrich it; what to say about the unlawful? However, no matter how great the authority and role of R. magistracy, the supreme power in the republican era belonged not to her in Rome, but to the Senate and the R. people: the formula S. P. Q. R. (Senatus populusque romanus) is a symbol of this power. Both of these institutions could not help but benefit from the abolition of the royal power. From a deliberative meeting under the kings, the senate becomes the governing one; this is especially facilitated by the way it was drawn up according to the law of Obinius (the date of publication of this law is unknown), by virtue of which the former magistrates could not be bypassed when the censor compiled the list of senators. This prevented antagonism between the magistracy and the senate. The consul and praetor knew that at the end of their term of office they would become members of the senate. This also determined the estate composition of the Senate: at first, a purely patrician institution, it becomes, since the plebeians acquire the right to a consulate and a praetor, the focus and organ of the new aristocracy - nobility, nobility, descended from persons who acquired nobility, that is, fame (nosco ), occupation of the curule position. Since the magistrates were electoral, the Senate became, in a sense, a representative assembly: it consisted of the highest statesmen of Rome, who owed their rise to the vote of the popular assembly. The way in which the senate was composed also explains its political experience, that ability to govern, which the ambassador of King Pyrrhus aptly characterized, saying that the senate seemed to him a collection of kings. R. Senate was an aristocratic corporation that took in everything that was promoted to the top political life; in it lived the political tradition of the past, supported by ancestral tradition, but constantly tested personal experience and familiarity with government practice. The legislature and the holder of the supreme power was the people's assembly. The Senate conclude (senatus consultum) never had the force of law (lex), which belonged only to the decision of the popular assembly (comitium - actually the gathering). Classical dualism has influenced the organization and history of the Comitia even more than the Senate; them, as well as the conservatism of Rome, explains the significant fact that in Rome there were not one, but three popular assemblies: two purely estate and one common. The oldest of them - for the curiae - was purely patrician and, together with the patricians, lost, over time, all real meaning: it atrophied, ceased to be a gathering of citizens and turned into an institution, the presence of officials - curions, who knew only generic matters: arrogation (transition from generation to generation), the approval of wills, etc. Until later, it retained only one, although formal, but politically important function - the transfer of his power to the magistrate elected in the comitia, by means of lex curiata de imperio. Even during the civil war between Pompey and Caesar, the inability to comply with this formality entailed important political consequences. The second popular assembly in Rome, the centuria - according to the military hundreds - marks the characteristic militant organization of Rome: the initial identity of the people and the army. The Centuriate People's Assembly is nothing more than an army lined up in hundreds to answer the commander's question, should there be a war, or should such and such be elected as commander for the next year? The place in the military order was determined by the armament, and the armament - by the property. According to the property, Roman citizens were divided into 5 classes, not counting the horsemen, who made up a special category of 18 hundred. The definition of both the property qualification for each class and the number of hundreds in each of them that has come down to us, the tradition of attributing to the time of Servius Tullius, to whom the very establishment of the centuriate assembly is attributed, may not be more justified than the construction of the so-called Servius wall. The definition of the qualification in money indicates a later era than the time of the kings, since even in the early republican era, judicial penalties were determined by the number of heads of cattle or small livestock. Later on the centuriate there was a popular assembly in tribes, the exact time and reason for its occurrence are unknown to us. This is a plebeian assembly, led by tribunes, while the centuria was led by a curule (patrician) magistrate, consul or praetor. In view of the later news of tributary committees chaired by consuls and praetors, some modern scholars have come to the unlikely assumption that, in addition to the well-known plebeian tributary committees, there were also special tributary committees with the participation of patricians. In the relationship of the tributary assembly to the centuriate, a remarkable political dualism is manifested, which penetrated the state structure of Rome thanks to the special position of the plebeians in state structure: the centuria comitia represent the whole people, the populus, the tributary comitia represent the plebs. Plebs by acquiring everything greater importance , becomes a people in the political sense of the word, that is, it is equated to populus. This equation finds expression in the fact that the decree of the plebs, plebiscitum, receives, by decree of the centuria comitia, the meaning of a law obligatory for all citizens, ut quod tribatim plebs jussiset populum teneret (lex Valeria Horatia, 449 BC). this was confirmed by the law of Publius (339 BC) - ut plebiscita omnes Quiriles tenerent, and by the law of Hortensius (284) - ut quod plebs jussisset omnes Qairites teneret. Whether these three laws are identical and why, in this case, a threefold legalization was needed, or they are different in meaning, as Niebuhr wittily explained in one of his hypotheses, we do not know. In any case, in the historical era, the tributary comitia in the legislative relationship took a place along with the centuria and differed from them only in the sphere of competence: the solution of military issues was naturally left to the assembly that had been in charge of them from time immemorial and was under the leadership of magistrates with an "empire". In the judicial sphere, the advantage of the popular assembly to which, according to the ancient law, the provocation was addressed, was also preserved: the law of the decemvirs formally retained the right to decide the question of the life or death of a citizen for the centuriate assembly, at the same time designating it with the expression maximus comitiatus. Electoral activity was more extensive in the centuriate assembly, but the tribune commissions elected tribunes, the importance of which grew more and more. Having come closer in meaning, these two national assemblies also drew closer formally, as a result of the transformation that the centuriatkomitia underwent in a democratic sense, probably around 241 BC Xp., That is, after the number of tribes reached its maximum - 35. This transformation represents a compromise between the principle of centuriate comitia, that is, the distribution of citizens by property, and the principle of tributary comitia, that is, the distribution of citizens according to their place of residence, and the first principle makes a significant concession to the second. The identity of the military system with the political one had already disappeared by that time; as a result, the granting of 80 centuries to the first class (so that with the addition of 18 equestrian centuries, it had a majority of votes in the comitia - 98 to 95) lost its meaning in the face of the more democratic spirit of the tributary committees. In view of this, each of the five classes was given an equal number of centuries or votes, namely 35, according to the number of Roman tribes, and each century was also divided into two - for citizens older and younger than 45 years old. As for the question of the authority of the Assembly of the People, Rubino, in his remarkable study (), proved that the role of the assembly of the people under the tsars was insignificant. The tsar collected the comitia not so much in order to get the law from them, as in order to enlist their support. After the abolition of tsarist power, the importance of the people's assembly increased: it more often had to apply its electoral right to business; the provocation law made him the supreme judge over the life and death of citizens; finally, with the complication of political. life began to develop and the legislative power of the comitia. In the latter respect, however, they were for a long time under the tutelage of the Senate, which was expressed in two institutions - patrum auctoritas and senatus auctoritas. The first dates back to the time of the patrician senate and represents the right of the senate to approve, approve, the decisions of the popular assembly (however, according to Niebuhr and his school, patrum auctoritas should be understood as the consent of the patricians given by them in the assembly of the curia). Senatus auctoritas corresponds to the Greek expression probouleuma and denotes the right of the senate to give preliminary consent to the submission of a draft law to the popular assembly by the magistrate, and therefore to refuse this consent. When the comitia were freed from these constraints, we do not know; on this issue, as well as on the importance of the institutions mentioned, there are many conflicting opinions in the scientific literature. In any case, the assembly of the people in Rome, even when it became powerful and autocratic, retained its former forms, which made it dependent on the magistrate who convened it. It never had the right to meet on its own; it had neither legislative initiative nor freedom of debate; it only answered the questions put forward by the presiding magistrate (rogation); the very office work was furnished with such religious formalities, which easily gave a reason to recognize the decree, with the help of the priestly college, illegal. The private assemblies of the people, the concilia and cautiones, were of a freer character, at which debate was also permitted; but these preparatory meetings, which did not decide anything, were convened only by the magistrate, and served as a means for him to set up and direct the people in the sense he desired. Finally, neither the centuriatomitsii, after their transformation in the democratic sense, nor even the tributary comitia, were democracies in the full sense of the word, since it was not the individual votes of citizens that were taken into account, but the number of centurias or tribes that expressed themselves in one sense or another, and the vote of the by lot, the centuria or tribe (praerogativa) was almost always decisive. It is not for nothing that the fenced-in place on the Champ de Mars, where citizens were called to cast their votes, was called ovile (sheepfold). Due to the world growth of Rome, the decisions and orders of the Roman comitia acquired more and more worldwide importance; but it was precisely in this era that the composition of the People's Assembly changed significantly and its moral and state significance decreased, under the influence of a deep shock of the economic life of the People's Assembly, in connection with its political growth.

Economy

The influence of the growth of Rome on its economic life. R. historians portrayed the first Romans as shepherds and vagabonds, but history from the very beginning knows the Romans only as sedentary peasants. The Roman, both patrician and plebeian, is a type of peasant, tenacious and greedy for the earth: a typical hero of ancient Rome - Cincinnatus, a dictator taken from a plow. Therefore, the land question is the basis of R. history: because of the land, the Romans are at war with their neighbors, they are bringing more and more settlements to the acquired land; the forum worries about the earth; agrarian law is the sore spot of republican Rome, the science of the land surveyor (agrimeusor) is its national science. One of the most important and other achievements of Niebuhr was the clarification of the question of ager pablicus and agrarian laws. If the socialists of the XVIII century. (Babeuf) flaunted the name of Gracchus, then because they saw in the agrarian laws of the Romans a means of struggle against private land property. It was only thanks to the elucidation of the concept of the "public field" that the history of land relations and laws received correct coverage. Niebuhr found the ager publicus in the area of ​​Dietmarschen (in Holstein), where the historian spent his childhood; later research indicated its existence almost everywhere. Ager publicus was called state land by the Romans, as opposed to that which was privately owned. The R. state used its land in three ways: it gave its plots at auction for pastures, or allocated small allotments from it to citizens (originally 2 yugers - half a tenth) into private ownership (assignatio), or, finally, provided citizens to occupy separate plots (occupatio ), for unlimited use. Such loans could be inherited or sold, plantings and buildings could be made on them, but they did not enter the Qirite property and were legally distinguished from it by the term possessio. Thanks to the allotments of public land, the colonies were withdrawn into the cities that had already existed, the number of R. citizens constantly grew, and Rome became stronger; but land ownership was undermined in Rome from the earliest times, as in Greece, by a dangerous disaster — debt. The debt law was among the ancient Romans, as well as among other peoples, extremely harsh; the identity of the debtor and often his family served as security for the creditor. We can judge the enormous importance of debt obligations in ancient Rome not with the help of historians who used it to depict dramatic scenes, but on the basis of the laws of XII tables, the most lengthy and archaic passages of which determine the fate of an insolvent debtor. On the verdict of the judge, the creditor takes him to his house; the law precisely determines the weight of the chain that can be put on him, the amount of food that should be given to him; sets the time frame when it should be displayed on the forum, in case relatives or clients want to redeem it; finally, it gives the creditor the right to sell him into slavery, but not otherwise than for the Tiber, that is, in the country of the Etruscans, and not on Roman soil and not in the country of friendly Latins. Providing for the case of a dispute between several creditors, the law resolves it literally in the same harsh, symbolic formulas as Scandinavian law: the creditor who cuts off more or less part of the debtor's body from the debtor's body (Si plus ve minus ve secuerit se ( sine) fraude esto). Debt obligations, however, were not always resolved by this punishment, but led to the establishment of a long-term relationship between the creditor and the debtor (like bondage). These relations are little known to us, for they were already prohibited by the law of Petilia, in 326 BC. e. Debt continued, however, to weigh on the Roman landowners, as is evident from the often-cited measures against the usurers for violating the laws of growth; so on a penalty fee, recovered from the usurers, was erected by the aedile of Prince. Flavius ​​is the bronze temple of Concordia on the forum, with the designation of the time of construction - "204 after the consecration of the temple of Jupiter Capitoline" (the oldest known mention of this era). In addition to debts, small landholdings suffered from slavery, which supplanted free labor. In ancient R., the number of slaves was apparently very limited, as can be inferred from the names of the slaves - Quintipar, Marcipar, that is, puer (small) Quintus or Mark. But as the Roman warriors began to seize the areas of the barbarians outside Italy, slaves became cheaper and began to appear more often on the market, as a result of which the large landowners stopped giving their small neighbor work on their land. Traditional history dates the law that determined the quantitative ratio of bonded and free workers to 367 BC. e. Having multiplied in Rome, the slaves not only began to take away the earnings of the peasants from the R., but, entering the number of the R. citizens by their masters through the liberation of their masters, significantly changed the composition and character of the R. people. Already in 312 BC. e. Rome is concerned about the placement of freedmen in all tribes or only in 4 city tribes. At the same time when the Roman legions are giving Rome domination over the world, in the heart of Rome, the conquered slaves are gaining more and more influence on its fate. Nothing contributed so much to the perversion of the Roman demos as the ease of liberation and the receipt by slaves of the right of R. citizenship. Already the destroyer of Carthage, Scipio Emilian, considered himself entitled to contemptuously reproach the crowd at the forum for having recently brought it to Rome in chains. But the Roman wars in an even more direct way undermined the core of the Romanian people — the peasantry; assuming ever greater proportions, moving away from Rome and becoming more and more prolonged, wars for a long time tore a soldier from his land. Livy, in one of his dramatic stories, brings the centurion Sp. Ligustin, the owner of a plot of land in one yuger, who spent 22 years in military service away from the inherited field. However, a certain balance between the decline from the war and the growth of the sedentary peasant population was maintained as long as the Romans had the opportunity to produce allotments in Northern Italy. When, by the middle of the 2nd century, the supply of free public land was depleted, the landlessness of Roman citizens went even faster. The change in agriculture of the Romans dates back to this time, which was fatal for small land tenure. As a result of the expansion, under Roman rule, of trade relations in the Mediterranean, bread began to be brought to Italy en masse not only from Sicily, but from Numidia and Egypt; this competition killed agriculture in Italy and forced landowners to start arable land and livestock. We know about this change from the words of Cato, who was an excellent owner and to the question, what is the most profitable way of farming? answered - bene pascere (good cattle breeding); and then? poor cattle breeding; and then? arable farming (arare). First of all, the peasants who could not find work from the landowners and who, due to the insignificance of the plots, did not have the opportunity to switch to cattle breeding, had to suffer. They had to sell their allotments - and in this one should look for the source of those latifundia, about which Pliny said that they had destroyed Italy. As the core of the Romanian people — the agricultural class — thins, the trading activity of the Romans develops. Ancient Rome knew only a bulky copper coin, and only since the unification of Italy and the subjugation of the Greek trading cities in the south of the peninsula began to mint silver coins. The development of trade led to the accumulation of capital, which resulted in a change in the meaning of the word equites. The most sufficient citizens who served on their own horse were formerly called riders; in the second century, this word denotes a class of capitalists engaged in trade and leasing in the provinces, in contrast to the Senate aristocracy, which the law of Claudius 219. BC e. forbade trading on his own behalf and keeping ships, with the exception of only coasters for transporting products of his own economy to the capital.

The culture

The influence of the growth of Roman rule on the culture and social spirit of the Romans. Simultaneously with the economic upheaval in Rome, an even more important cultural and moral upheaval took place. The rapid growth of Rome directly and without transitions brought the simplicity and rudeness of the Romans face to face with the Hellenic education and refined luxury of the East. In the field of religion, the Romans had long been under the influence of the southern Italic Greeks; now the deities of the East began to penetrate into Rome. Even before the second Punic war, the consul Aemilius Paul had, by order of the senate, to personally begin to destroy the temples of Isis and Serapis, since no one dared to break their doors. The Senate banned, on pain of death, the secret cult of Bacchus, and for violating this prohibition hundreds of people died at the hands of the executioner in Italy - especially many women who participated in the night orgy. The new pantheon pushed into the background the primitive Roman gods, who held the ancient Roman piety. Together with the east. Gods and superstitions in Rome was a doctrine that equally undermined faith in both the old and the new gods: Eugemer's work, explaining gods and heroes with flat rationalism, was one of the first books translated into Latin. At the same time, stage performances borrowed from the Greeks exposed the tricks of the gods, borrowed from naive myths, to ridicule. The family life of the Romans, based on unconditional paternal authority, has undergone significant changes even earlier. Already the decemvirs found it possible to emancipate, that is, independently deliver adult sons, through a fictitious sale into slavery by their father. At the same time, the woman, who was always subject to the guardianship (manus) of a father or husband, was given the opportunity to marry without personal and property subordination to her husband and his relatives, through the so-called trinoctium, that is, a three-day stay outside the home. The release of a woman in terms of property indicates that the time of homeless women has passed for the Romans, when only one silver thing could be found in a sufficient household - a salt shaker, from which they sprinkled salt on a sacrifice to the gods. A few years later after the conquest of Italy, one of Sulla's ancestors, Cornelius Rufinus, who was a dictator and twice consul, was struck off the list of senators by the censor because he had 10 lb. silver dishes in his house. weight. An old saying condemned the hostess who bought in the market what she could get from her garden; each household baked its own bread; there were no bakeries in the city. Only during the war with Syria did R. generals become acquainted, according to the story of Libya, with the art of cooking; 100 years later, Lucullus has become world famous for his exquisite sumptuous dining. The rapid enrichment of the Romans evoked luxury, and luxury developed a passion for enrichment; on this basis, the two national traits of the Romans took on monstrous proportions - lust for power and greed. Already in the second Punic War, the degat of Scipio, Pleminius, who commanded in southern Italy, so shamelessly plundered the allied cities and even their temples that the Senate was forced to send a whole commission southward, sending Pleminius in chains to Rome. With provincials it was possible to act more unceremoniously: for example, the pro-praetor of Spain Sulpicius Galba unawares attacked a peaceful tribe of Lusitanians, who asked him for land, and sold 30,000 of them into slavery. Power provided wealth; therefore, all paths to power seemed suitable. In Rome, a special class of laws appeared - leges de ambitu - designed to restrain the ambition of candidates for magistracy. The very history of these laws, with their increasing severity, indicates the growth of evil and the futility of fighting against it. The oldest of these laws are also marked by the naivete of morals; the first law was forbidden to become on the forum in a bleached (Candida) toga, in contrast to the usual (hence the name of the candidate); then the law of Petilia in 358 prohibits visiting neighboring villages and towns in order to recruit votes, the law of Menia prohibits electoral clubs, the law of Bebiya 181 - agents (divisores) who distributed money among voters. But bribery is growing; in vain, the law of Aurelius in 70 threatens a candidate who has resorted to bribery with a 5-year deprivation of the right to be elected to office. There was also another indirect way to bribe voters: the organization of games for the people, which became more expensive, longer and more frequent.

- (lat.patricii, from pater father). 1. In ancient Rome, a person who belonged to the original Roman families, which constituted the ruling class and held public lands in their hands; ant. plebeian. 2. In the Middle Ages in German cities, a person ... ... Wikipedia

- - neglect of the ceremony; ignoring the rules of decency; liberty; excessive swagger that goes beyond the boundaries of politeness, reaching the point of insolence; shamelessness; familiarity; obscenity; insolence. See also * Amikoshonstvo (from French ... ... Wikipedia

D. as a poetic genus Origin D. Eastern D. Antique D. Medieval D. D. Renaissance From Renaissance to Classicism Elizabethan D. Spanish D. Classical D. Bourgeois D. Ro ... Literary encyclopedia

ANCIENT GREECE- the territory in the south of the Balkan Peninsula (see also the articles Antiquity, Greece). The history of D. G. covers the period from the beginning. II millennium BC to the beginning. 1st millennium A.D. Geography and ethnography Phaistos disc. XVII century BC (Archaeological Museum in Heraklio, ... ... Orthodox encyclopedia

Europe- (Europe) Europe is a densely populated highly urbanized part of the world named after the mythological goddess, which together with Asia forms the continent of Eurasia and has an area of ​​about 10.5 million km² (about 2% of the total area of ​​the Earth) and ... Investor encyclopedia

State- (Country) The state is a special organization of society, ensuring unity and integrity, guaranteeing the rights and freedoms of citizens The origin of the state, signs of the state, form of government, form of state ... ... Investor encyclopedia

- (lat. Germania, from Germans, German. Deutschland, literally the country of Germans, from Deutsche German and Land country) a state in Europe (with the capital in Berlin), which existed until the end of World War II 1939 45. I. Historical outline ... Great Soviet Encyclopedia

Democracy- (Democracy) The concept of democracy, the emergence and forms of democracy Information about the concept of democracy, the emergence and forms of democracy, the development and principles of democracy Contents The term "democracy" comes from the Greek word ... ... Investor encyclopedia

Kingdom of Belgium, state in West. Europe. The state in Belgium (French Belgique, Flemish Belgie) was proclaimed in 1830, named after it was formed in 27 BC. e. Rome. prov. Belgica (Gallia Belgica), which was named after the Celts, the Beli tribe. ... ... Geographical encyclopedia

Contents Ancient Rome, foundation Ancient Rome, foundation Political structure Daily life Political structure Daily life Entertainment of the Romans Entertainment of the Romans Army of the Romans Army of the Romans Caesar Dictionary Dictionary Sources of information Sources of information

Ancient Rome Approximately in the X century. BC e. the first Romans settled on the hills near the Tiber River. By 264 BC. e. they already controlled the entire territory of modern Italy, and by 220 had created a huge empire. They were skilled engineers who built beautiful cities and magnificent roads. The Roman Empire controlled vast territories and lasted until 476. Approximately in the 10th century. BC e. the first Romans settled on the hills near the Tiber River. By 264 BC. e. they already controlled the entire territory of modern Italy, and by 220 had created a huge empire. They were skilled engineers who built beautiful cities and magnificent roads. The Roman Empire controlled vast territories and lasted until 476.

Founding of Rome The legendary date of the founding of Rome is 753 BC. However, settlements on the site of Rome existed long before this date. On the left bank of the Tiber, on the elevated hills, there were settlements, which later united into one city. Quirinal VimalCapitolius Aventine Palatine Celius Esquiline

Founding of Rome The earliest Romans lived in primitive houses made of willow twigs coated with clay. There was a garden and a vegetable garden nearby, and outside the city there were fields and pastures. As a result of constant wars with neighboring cities, the Romans expanded their territory.

Founding of Rome The inhabitants of Rome were skilled artisans: blacksmiths, weavers, potters. Baking reached a huge scale - mills and bread ovens were scattered throughout Latinia. Several of the oldest mills have survived to this day in working order.

The royal period of Roman history (BC) Rome was ruled by seven kings: 1. Romulus 2. Numa Pompilius 3. Tullus Hostilius 4. Ancus Marcius 5. Tarquinius the Ancient 6. Servius Thulius 7. Takvinius the Proud

The Royal Period of Roman History During the reign of the kings, Rome became a real city. A market square - a forum - appeared in the city. On the steepest hill, the Capitol, a fortress was erected, in which the main temples were located. For protection from enemies, the city was surrounded by strong walls. Rome from a bird's eye view

Roman Republic: 2 consuls 2 consuls In 509 BC the expulsion of the last king from Rome took place. A republican system was established in Rome - i.e. the state was ruled by officials elected to their posts. 1. Declared war and made peace; 2. Supervised the day-to-day policy of the state;

Dictator - the leader of the people Dictatorship is an extraordinary position in ancient Rome, introduced at critical moments for the state - during wars or civil strife. This word comes from the Latin verb dictare (to repeat, to prescribe). At first, the dictator ("leader of the people") was elected from among the patricians, but in 356 BC. a plebeian became a dictator for the first time.

The highest power the Romans called supreme authority in the state of the empire. This term comes from the verb imperare - "to rule", "to rule" and literally means "order", "punishment". Initially, the empire was ruled by the king. With the fall of the royal power and the establishment of the republic, the Romans had the idea that the supreme bearer of the empire was the Roman people themselves. It is curious that within the limits of his own economy, any citizen of Rome possessed a "domestic empire", that is, absolute power over all family members.

The ancient Roman people were divided into several social classes. Only men could obtain citizenship status. During the period of republican rule, citizens were divided into patricians (nobles) and plebeians (lower classes). Women took care of the home and family, but some noble ladies had a certain degree of power and influence. The fate of the Roman slave depended entirely on the will of the master, but for faithful service the slave could be freed. Roman society was divided into several social classes. Only men could obtain citizenship status. During the period of republican rule, citizens were divided into patricians (nobles) and plebeians (lower classes). Women took care of the home and family, but some noble ladies had a certain degree of power and influence. The fate of the Roman slave depended entirely on the will of the master, but for faithful service the slave could be freed.

Daily life of the Romans Many Romans lived in cities. Political meetings were also held in large forums that were used as markets. In addition, the Romans often attended theater and running. Since there was little space, the poor lived in apartments in tall and narrow houses.

Roman Forum At the center of every Roman city was a square called a "forum". In the great forum in Rome, there was a basilica - the building in which the Senate met. Nearby were temples, shops and a market. At the forum there were statues and triumphal arches, erected in honor of the glorious deeds of the emperor. In this place, the Romans made appointments, listened to speakers, and made important public decisions.

In Rome, all power was held by men. The man was the head of the family, had the right to attend meetings and participate in the management of the city. The women stayed at home and raised their children. The boys went to school, and the girls stayed at home, learned to weave and spin, and farm. All children were considered adults from the age of 14.

Trade in Ancient Rome The Romans understood the importance of trade. Thanks to her, the empire flourished. Craftsmen sold their wares to merchants and townspeople. And food could be purchased in numerous markets, eateries and small shops. Coins were in use, the minting of which was controlled by the emperor himself. This money was used to pay salaries to the soldiers, and they were circulated throughout the empire, which simplified trade.

Roman Baths Only the wealthy townspeople had home baths. Most Romans used public baths - thermal baths. After the dressing room, people passed through a series of rooms, each hotter than the last. People sweated, all the dirt was "melted" from the body, and then scraped off with a metal or bone instrument called a "shear". The ablution was completed by immersion in a pool of cold water.

Roman Aqueduct The Romans learned how to deliver water to their cities through aqueducts - stone bridges with closed gutters that led running water through deep valleys and gorges. Roman engineers had a wealth of experience in the construction of arches and bridges, which enabled them to erect powerful and elegant aqueducts. Some of them have survived to this day.

Roman Fashion Most Romans wore linen and wool. Many Romans made it themselves: they spun wool and twisted linen, weaved on a loom. Mostly the Romans wore simple tunics. Roman citizens had the right to wear a toga - a loose robe worn over a tunic. The togas were almost always white, but they could have a colored border, indicating the status of the owner. Only the Roman emperor could wear a purple toga. Romans wore loose dresses over their tunics. They were usually white, but often decorated with designs or embroidery.

Circus Maximus One of the favorite pastimes of the ancient Romans was chariot racing. The largest competition venue was the Circus Maximus in Rome. It was designed approximately for the audience. During the race, 12 chariots had to complete seven laps. The chariot drivers, mostly slaves, were divided into four teams, each with its own color - white, blue, red and green.

Roman Colosseum In order to gain popularity among the people, the emperors arranged games and festivities for the Romans. In 72, the emperor Vespasian ordered the construction of a huge amphitheater - the Colosseum. Crowds of Romans came to watch the gladiators fighting with each other and with wild animals. And sometimes the central arena was flooded to depict a naval battle.

Colosseum translated from Roman means "huge". The Flavian Amphitheater was built during the reign of Emperor Vespasian. The amphitheater in ancient times was 500 meters in circumference and up to 50 meters in height. The stands of the Colosseum could hold up to 50 thousand spectators. In bad weather, under the arena, with the help of a special mechanism, the canvas roof was stretched. The floor of the arena made it possible to see the underground chambers in which wild animals were kept. The hungry, enraged animals were pushed upward with the help of lifting mechanisms.

The Colosseum was almost a fully mechanized building. Thanks to clever devices, islands "grew" out of the blue, between which water splashed, and warships floated out of the niches arranged under the spectator tiers. All the efforts of the technicians were aimed at amusing compatriots with a bloody spectacle. Approximately equal in strength warriors were released into the arena, who uttered the traditional greeting to the emperor: "Those who go to death greet you, Caesar!" Not all gladiators found death in the arena. Some freed themselves from slavery and, becoming freedmen, opened their own schools of fighters. Among them was Spartak. Today, the Colosseum is considered the most magnificent ancient building.

There is no reliable information about the origin of Roman numerals. In Roman numbering, traces of the five-fold numbering system are clearly evident. In the language of the Romans, there are not any traces of the fivefold system. This means that these numbers were borrowed by the Romans from another people (most likely the Etruscans). This numbering prevailed in Italy until the 13th century, and in other countries of Western Europe until the 16th century. This is probably the most famous numbering after Arabic. We often encounter her in everyday life. These are the numbers of chapters in books, indication of the century, numbers on the dial of hours, etc. This numbering originated in ancient Rome. It was used for the additive alphabetic number system I - 1, V - 5, X - 10, L - 50, C - 100, D - 500, M Previously, the M sign was represented by the F sign, therefore 500 began to depict the D sign as "half "F. The pairs L and C, X and V are also constructed. Roman numbering

Numerical designations in ancient Rome resembled the first method of Greek numbering. The Romans had special designations not only for the numbers 1, 10, 100 and 1000, but also for the numbers 5, 50 and 500. The Roman numerals looked like this: 1 - I, 5 - V, 10 - X, 50 - L, C , D and M. Perhaps the sign V meant an open hand, and X - two such hands. But there is also another explanation. When the count was in dozens, then, having drawn 9 sticks, they crossed them out on the tenth. And in order not to write too many sticks, they crossed out one stick and wrote ten like this: hence the Roman numeral X. And the numeral 5 was obtained by simply cutting the digit for the number 10 in half. Roman numbering

An interesting system of fractions was in ancient Rome. It was based on dividing by 12 parts of the unit of weight, which was called ass. The twelfth part of the ass was called an ounce. And the way, time and other quantities were compared with a visual thing - weight. For example, a Roman might say that he walked a seven-ounce path, or read a five-ounce book. This, of course, was not about weighing a path or a book. It meant that 7/12 of the way had been passed or 5/12 of the book had been read. Due to the fact that in the duodecimal system there are no fractions with denominators 10 or 100, the Romans found it difficult to divide by 10, 100, etc. When dividing 1001 ases by 100, one Roman mathematician first received 10 ases, then split the ace into ounces, etc. But he did not get rid of the remainder. To avoid having to deal with such calculations, the Romans began to use percentages. Since the words "one hundred" sounded in Latin "about a centum", the hundredth part was called a percentage. Roman numbering

Roman conquests TIME by whom the Romans fought What was annexed Consequences of the VI-IV centuries. BC. Etruscans, Italic tribes (Samnites, Latins, etc.), Greeks from colonies in Italy Apennine Peninsula (Italy) Rome is involved in the struggle for domination in the Mediterranean in the 3rd - 2nd centuries. BC. Carthage, Macedonia, Greece, Syria, northern Africa, Spain, Greece, Macedonia, Asia Minor, southern Gaul Rome became the largest power in the Mediterranean in the 1st century. BC. Celts of Gaul, the Pontic and Egyptian kingdoms, the Germans of Gaul, Egypt, Syria, Thrace, the banks of the Rhine The influence of Rome spread to all developed regions of Europe and the Middle East in the 1st - 2nd centuries. AD Parthians, Dacians, Celts of Britain, Germans and other "barbarians" of the land south of the Danube, Judea, Dacia, Britannia, Armenia Rome went over to the defense of its borders along the Rhine, Danube and Euphrates. The empire is "overeat"

The Roman states were often at odds. Every free citizen was a soldier and learned the art of war from childhood. The armies consisted of hoplite infantry, led by strategists (generals). The troops entered the battlefield in dense units - phalanxes.

ORGANIZATION OF THE ARMY In the early republic, any Roman between the ages of 17 and 46 who owned property could be drafted into the army. The service life was years. Entering the service, the recruit took an oath of loyalty. Every day the warriors practiced swimming, running, jumping, darting, and swordsmanship. Three times a month the army made marches 30 km. The warriors walked at a fast pace at a speed of 6-8 km / h. Legionnaires learned to build and dismantle a military camp. The guilty were subjected to corporal punishment. The Legion's diet was reduced for disobedience. Decimation - execution by lot of every 10th warrior.

ORGANIZATION OF THE ARMY Wealthy citizens could acquire horses, and therefore they served in the cavalry. The Romans fought victoriously on foot, united in detachments and armed with swords, spears, daggers and shields. The poorest citizens fought at the very beginning and end of the battle. Their weapons are stones and agricultural implements.

The Roman infantry was divided into several parts. The basis of the army was a legion, usually consisting of five thousand soldiers. The legion was divided into 10 cohorts, about 500 people each, and the cohort consisted of six centuries. There were 80 to 100 legionnaires in the century, commanded by the centurion. Legion centurion centurion Legion centurion centurion Roman legion The armament of the Roman legionnaire consisted of melee weapons - pugio (dagger) and gladius (short sword). At one time, the legionnaires were armed with spears, but later this weapon was replaced by a pilum (dart). Abandoned skillful hand, the pilum could penetrate a sturdy shield. During the siege, the legionnaires used ballistae and catapults - siege machines with which they threw stones, arrows, logs, etc.

Roman military camp Roman legionnaires built their camps according to a standard quadrangular layout. The camp consisted of a headquarters, stables and barracks, in which a specific place was assigned to each century. The camp was surrounded by a high wall with watchtowers and strong gates. The legionnaires had camp camps that could be set up at a halt, and then quickly assembled.

Troops on the march Usually, during the march, the army was on the way for 7 hours a day, passing up to 30 km. The soldiers were forced to carry all their property and weapons on themselves. Ahead were scouts, who were obliged to survey the area, collect information about the enemy, and choose a place for the camp. Then came the advance detachment (vanguard), which consisted of cavalry and light infantry; behind him moved the main forces of the army. They marched in one column, each legion was followed by a baggage train belonging to it, and lightly armed troops formed the rearguard. If the enemy was close, the main forces of the troops moved in a battle formation, with the entire convoy following behind and part of the army serving as a cover (rearguard). When retreating, the convoy was sent forward with a detachment of troops, and the rest followed them.

Legion in battle During the Republic period, the legion was formed for battle in three lines of maniples. Each maniple was built in the shape of a square, with equal gaps between neighbors along the line. Manipules Before the formation of the legion were archers, slingers, and dart throwers. In the first line of the formation were the hastats, in the second - the principles, in the third - the triarii. The cavalry was located on the flanks. The Legion quickly drew close to the enemy, showering them with spears. The outcome of the battle was usually decided by hand-to-hand combat. BC. the legion began to build up along the larger cohorts, becoming in three lines in a checkerboard pattern.

The assault and siege of fortresses The fortress was taken: with a sudden attack right from the road, they tried to break down the gates under the cover of shields. In case of impossibility of an attack, they began a siege of the fortified point: they surrounded it on all sides with an army. If this place was too fortified and supplied with provisions in abundance, then they took it by attack with the help of siege structures and battering machines. Assault Legion Ballista Siege Tower Battering Ram

Ships of the Romans To make their ships faster, the Romans used both sail and oars. Some ships had multiple rowing rows. In order for the ship to go at maximum speed, the rowers were positioned so that they could row at the same time. A ship with two rows of oars was called a bireme, with three - a trireme.

KVINKVEREMA (PENTERA) - warship of the Carthaginians and Romans During the first Punic War, it became necessary to quickly build a navy. The Romans found a military ship abandoned by the Carthaginians and in 60 days built 100 exact copies of it. Soon their fleet numbered over 200 ships.

Guy Julius Caesar was an outstanding statesman and politician, commander and writer. Forced under Sulla to leave for Asia Minor, he returned to Rome after the death of this emperor in 78 BC. e. and immediately joined the political struggle. After the expiration of the term of the consulate, Caesar achieved an appointment to the post of governor in Cisalpine, and then Narbonne Gaul. During the Gallic campaigns. BC e. he conquered the entire trans-Alpine Gaul from Belgica to Aquitaine. Caesar

Caesar made changes in the organization of the Roman army and in the methods of warfare. Each legion included siege engines: light ballistae, as well as onagers and catapults that threw heavy stones. Light auxiliary troops of archers and slingers began to play an important role. The cavalry of Roman citizens was replaced by mercenaries: the Germans, the Spaniards, the Numidians. Caesar's troops moved very quickly, and this largely determined their success. In battles, Caesar preferred to be the first to attack the enemy. His legions marched at the enemy with an even step, which then turned into a run. First, spears were launched, and then swords, the warriors tried to push back the enemy in hand-to-hand combat. The cavalry completed the rout of the enemy. Fortified points Caesar's army took by siege or by storm. During a siege, field fortifications were erected around the enemy's fortress: ramparts, ditches, wolf pits, redoubts, etc. Siege towers were widely used, and excavations under the wall were carried out. Caesar was considered a great commander A. Suvorov and Napoleon. His martial arts were studied at military academies until the 19th century.

Dictionary Legion is a large unit of the Roman army (from 4.5 to 7 thousand people). Legionnaire is a warrior of the legion. Centurion - a detachment of one hundred (from the 1st century BC - 80) legionnaires Centurion - a junior officer of the Roman army, the commander of a centuria or manipula Manipula - a detachment that includes 2-3 centuries. Until the 1st century. BC. the Roman army was built in 3 rows according to the maniples of the Cohort - from the 1st century. BC. the main unit of the legion of 6 (less often 10) centuries. The cohort was commanded by the military tribune Ballista - a throwing weapon in the form of a large horizontal bow, reinforced with a pair of vertical twisted ropes. Throwing arrows, stones, metal balls. Used on ships and during the siege of fortresses.

Dictionary Gastaty (spearmen) - young warriors who fought in the first line of the legion's formation. They began the battle by throwing spears at the enemy from a long distance, and then attacked with swords in their hands. Principles are experienced second-line warriors in the legion's formation. We entered the battle at the most decisive moment, deciding its outcome. Triarii - warriors of the third line of the formation of the legion, veterans. They entered the battle only in the most extreme cases. Concubine is a group of soldiers (8-10 people) who live in one tent and jointly prepare food while resting in the camp. It was headed by the ten's manager (decurion). The legate is the consul's assistant, the commander of the legion.

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NON-STATE EDUCATIONAL PRIVATE INSTITUTION OF HIGHER EDUCATION

"ECONOMIC AND ENERGY INSTITUTE"

ESSAY

By discipline: "Political science"

On the topic: "The state structure of Ancient Rome "

Is done by a student:

Polyakov Stanislav Olegovich

Supervisor:

Romanova Svetlana Andreevna

Moscow 2016

Table of contents

• Introduction
• Conclusion
• Literature

Introduction

Throughout its history, Rome underwent development from the Kingdom to the Empire, in which features of the development of almost all European countries are manifested and the study of the topic of the abstract gives the most complete picture of the complexity of spiritual processes and the phenomena that took place in the development of mankind. The theoretical foundations of the study are presented by the fundamental works of domestic and foreign scientists, experts on the state structure of Ancient Rome. The literature on the development of the state structure of Ancient Rome is enormous.

State structure of Ancient Rome in the Period of Kings

The oldest type of communal structure in Rome, as in Italy in general, was a clan, whose members considered themselves descended from one ancestor - the eponym, united by a common cult, common land tenure, legal proceedings, etc. There are many theories of the origin of the Roman people, one of them was expressed by I.V. Alferov: "The Roman people consisted of three tribal communities: Ramnes, Romans and Latins in general, Tities, Sabines, and Luceres, most likely Etruscans."

The earliest bearer of supreme power in the community of Rome, according to legend, was the king, initially, probably, a representative of one of the most noble and powerful families, with a patriarchal power, and later an elective dignitary with extraordinary powers.

The election of the king was attended by: elders, representatives of clans (senators) and citizens. After the death of the king, the interregnum period required for elections was observed. Power passed to the senators, who from among themselves appointed a temporary ruler (interrex). After the expiration of the term (usually 5 days), he chose his successor, the second interrex, and this (or one of the following) already indicated a candidate for the king.

The king's powers were great. His power was lifelong (although not hereditary) and consisted of:

the supreme government of the state: the right to convene the Senate and the people, to preside over these meetings, to carry out their laws in them;

the supreme military power: the right to recruit troops and lead them in war, declare war (by the decision of the community) and make peace;

supreme jurisdiction: the rights of court and punishment of subjects - up to and including the death penalty;

supreme religious authority: as the spiritual head and representative of his community, the king had the right to "communicate with the deities" through certain rituals;

irresponsibility of the authorities, as the supreme government authority.

The tsar was assisted by (appointed by him) officials, secular and spiritual. Secular military: the tribune of horsemen - the king's closest assistant in the war, in particular the chief of the cavalry, and several military tribunes of the heads of individual infantry detachments. Secular civilians: the prefect of Rome - the mayor who replaced the king during his absence in Rome, mainly to protect the city; duumvirs - two judges (prosecutors) for crimes against the state (community); quaestors, - two investigators for special important matters of a criminal nature, especially on charges of murdering a relative or fellow citizen.

Slaves are a class of people deprived of both personal freedom and political rights, who were the property of their master, which he could dispose of at his discretion and over which he had the right to life and death.

To take part in management, citizens gathered at popular assemblies, comitia. The most ancient type of comitia were the above-mentioned assemblies of full citizens, that is, patricians, by curiae. They were convened by the tsar or an official at his order. During the period of the Republic, first of all, the rights of the citizen, the role of individual estates, are more clearly defined. The range of actions of the authorities is becoming more definite. Legislation is developing, various aspects of management, etc.

State structure of Ancient Rome in the Period of the Republic

The main citadel of the nobility and the governing body of the republic was the Senate. There were usually 300 senators. The right to appoint senators belonged first to the tsar and then to the consuls.

Before the outbreak of civil wars, the Senate enjoyed great prestige. This is mainly due to its social composition and organization. Initially, only the heads of patrician families could enter the Senate. But very early, probably from the beginning of the republic, plebeians began to appear in the Senate. As they conquered the higher magistrates, their number in the Senate began to increase rapidly.

The government of the Roman community during the Republican period was based on the will of the people. Therefore, all the most important issues of governance were resolved on the basis of one or another expression of the will of the community, the "people of Rome." He owned:

legislative power - the right to issue laws;

judicial power - the right to conduct a court;

electoral power - the right to elect magistrates;

decisive power - in matters of peace and war.

The reason for the fall of the republic was that it was a state form that developed on the basis of a city-state and which could not ensure the interests of a wide circle of slave owners within the framework of a vast empire. Under these conditions, the ruling classes saw the only means of maintaining their power in a dictatorship based on the army.

State structure of Ancient Rome in the Period of the Empire

The Roman Empire differed from the republic also by the very organization of the ruling class. In connection with the territorial growth of the Roman Republic, the state was transformed from a body representing the interests of the largest Roman landowners and slave owners, such as the republic, into a body representing the interests of the ruling classes of the entire Roman state.

This presupposed the involvement of slaveholding circles not only in Italy, but also in the provinces, in the government of the state, and in the long term - the equalization of Italy and the provinces.

Under Caesar and Augustus, only the foundations of the development of the Roman Empire were laid. The difference between the parts of the empire was still enormous. All disparate areas were united by political power and held together by its military power.

The emperor also possessed spiritual power. As the supreme pontiff and a member of all the principal priestly colleges, the emperor had supreme supervision over the cult and over the property of the spiritual colleges and temples.

In addition to the republican-type magistrates dependent on the emperor, they appointed a number of special officials for various branches of government: to govern the provinces of procurators, legates of Augustus; for individual parts of the management of curators, prefects.

The death of Rome also means the death of the great ancient culture as a whole. As T. Mommsen figuratively noted: “A historic night fell over the Greco-Latin world, and human beings could not turn it away, but Caesar nevertheless allowed the exhausted peoples to live out the evening of their development in tolerable conditions. a new historical day and new nations rushed to new, higher goals - for many of them the seed sown by Caesar gave a splendid bloom, and many owe their national identity to him. "

state structure ancient rome

Conclusion

Based on the above, we can conclude that throughout its existence, Ancient Rome underwent development in its state development from the so-called tsarist period, when the king was the bearer of supreme power, it was during the tsarist period that the Roman community received that characteristic appearance that so distinguishes it from other communities of the ancient world. Further, the Roman community develops into a Republic, some strata acquire rights, for example, the right to land tenure, the right to legal marriage and commerce among themselves, a limited right to legal proceedings, the right to vote and serve military service. The Republic is replaced by the Empire, in which the fragmented republican power is concentrated in the hands of the Emperor.

The formation on the territory of Italy of a kind of Roman statehood and culture, the creation of a world power that covered the entire Mediterranean and Western Europe, and its long (about 4 centuries) existence, the birth within its boundaries of a syncretic Mediterranean antique civilization as a prototype of the future European civilization, the emergence and spread of a new world religion - Christianity - all this gives Ancient Rome a special place in world history.

Literature

1. Alferova I.V. Roman Antiquities: A Brief Sketch. - Smolensk: Rusich, 2000, - 384 p.

2. Badak A.N. and other history the ancient world... Ancient Rome. - Minsk: Harvest, 2000 .-- 864 p.

3. Elmanova N.S. encyclopedic Dictionary young historian. - M .: Pedagogika-Press, 1999 .-- 448 p.

4. Kovalev S.I. History of Rome. Publ .: Leningrad University, 1986 .-- 744 p.

5. Shtaerman E.M. Social foundations religions of ancient Rome. - M .: Nauka, 1987 .-- 320 p.

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