In recent years, the Middle East has become the scene of significant world events. The Arab Spring, the collapse of dictatorships, wars and the ongoing confrontation between influential players in the region have become the most important topics of international relations. Recently it became about the largest losses of the Arab coalition since the beginning of hostilities in Yemen. Political and military battles often overshadow one of the main aspects of centuries-old contradictions - religious strife. Lenta.ru tried to find out what impact the split between Sunnis and Shiites has on the situation in the region and what are its causes.

Shahada

“I testify that there is no God but Allah, and I testify that Muhammad is the Prophet of Allah,” is the shahada, “witness,” the first pillar of Islam. These words are known to every Muslim, in whatever country of the world he lives and whatever language he speaks. In the Middle Ages, saying the Shahada three times “with sincerity in the heart” in front of an official signified the adoption of Islam.

The controversy between Sunnis and Shiites begins with this brief declaration of faith. At the end of their shahada, the Shiites add the words "... and Ali is a friend of Allah." The true caliph Ali ibn Abu Talib is one of the first leaders of the young Islamic state, the cousin of the Prophet Muhammad. The murder of Ali and the death of his son Hussein became a prologue to a civil war within the Muslim community, which split the single community - the Ummah - into Sunnis and Shiites.

Sunnis believe that the caliph should be elected by the vote of the ummah among the most worthy men of the Quraysh tribe, from which Muhammad came. The Shiites, in turn, advocate the imamate, a form of leadership in which the supreme leader is both the spiritual and political leader. Imam, according to the Shiites, can only be relatives and descendants of the Prophet Muhammad. In addition, according to Alexander Ignatenko, president of the Institute of Religion and Politics, the Shiites consider the Koran used by the Sunnis to be falsified. In their opinion, the verses (verses) were removed from there, which speak of the need to appoint Ali as Muhammad's successor.

Photo: Unknown / Brooklyn Museum / Corbis / EastNews

“In Sunnism, images are forbidden in mosques, and in the Shiite “Husseiniyah” there are a lot of images of Hussein, the son of Ali. There are even movements in Shiism whose followers are forced to worship themselves. In their mosques, instead of walls and a mihrab (a niche that indicates the direction to Mecca - approx. "Tapes.ru") mirrors have been installed,” Ignatenko said.

Echoes of a split

Religious divisions were superimposed by ethnic ones: Sunnism is primarily the religion of the Arabs, and Shiism is the religion of the Persians, although there are many exceptions. More than once, murders, robberies and pogroms were explained by the desire to punish heretics. In the 18th century, for example, Sunni Wahhabis captured the holy Shiite city of Karbala and massacred it. This crime has not yet been forgiven and forgotten.

Photo: Morteza Nikoubazl / Zuma / Global Look

Today, Iran is the stronghold of Shiism: the ayatollahs consider it their duty to protect the Shiites of the whole world and accuse the Sunni countries of the region of their oppression. 20 Arab countries - with the exception of Bahrain and Iraq - are predominantly Sunni. Sunnis are also mainly representatives of numerous radical movements fighting in Syria and Iraq, including militants of the Islamic State.

Perhaps if Shiites and Sunnis lived compactly, the situation would not be so confusing. But in Shiite Iran, for example, there is the oil-bearing region of Khuzestan, populated by Sunnis. It was there that the main battles took place during the eight-year Iran-Iraq war. The Arabian monarchies call this region none other than "Arabistan" and are not going to stop fighting for the rights of the Sunnis of Khuzestan. On the other hand, Iranian leaders sometimes publicly refer to Arab Bahrain as a province of Iran, implying that Shiism is practiced by the vast majority of the population there.

Yemeni crisis

But Yemen remains the hottest spot on the line of the Sunni-Shia confrontation. When the Arab Spring began, dictator Ali Abdullah Saleh voluntarily resigned, Abd-Rabbo Mansour Hadi became president. The peaceful transition of power in Yemen has become a favorite example of Western politicians who argued that authoritarian regimes in the Middle East can be replaced overnight by democratic ones.

However, it soon turned out that this calmness was imaginary: in the north of the country, Shiites-Houthis became more active, who were forgotten to be taken into account when concluding a deal between Saleh and Hadi. Previously, the Houthis had repeatedly fought with President Saleh, but all conflicts invariably ended in a draw. The new leader seemed too weak to the Houthis and unable to resist the radical Sunnis from Al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula (AQAP), who were active in Yemen. The Shiites decided not to wait for the Islamists to take over and cut them down like apostate apostates and strike first.

Photo: Khaled Abdullah Ali Al Mahdi / Reuters

Their operations developed successfully: the Houthis detachments united with troops loyal to Saleh, and swiftly passed the country from north to south. The capital of the country, Sana'a, fell, and the fighting unfolded for the southern port of Aden, the last stronghold of Hadi. The president and government fled to Saudi Arabia. The Sunni authorities of the oil monarchies of the Gulf saw the Iranian trace in what was happening. Tehran did not deny that it sympathizes with the cause of the Houthis and supports them, but at the same time stated that it does not control the actions of the rebels.

Frightened by the success of the Shiites in Yemen, Riyadh, with the support of other Sunni countries in the region in March 2015, launched a large-scale air campaign against the Houthis, along the way supporting forces loyal to Hadi. The goal was proclaimed to return the fugitive president to power.

By the end of August 2015, the technical superiority of the Arab coalition allowed it to part of the occupied lands from the Houthis. Government Foreign Minister Hadi said the attack on the capital would begin within two months. However, this forecast may turn out to be too optimistic: so far, the success of the Sunni coalition has been achieved mainly due to significant numerical and technical superiority, and if Iran seriously decides to help its co-religionists with weapons, the situation may change.

Of course, it would be wrong to explain the conflict between the Houthis and the Yemeni authorities solely by religious reasons, but they play a significant role in the new “big game” in the Gulf - a clash of interests between Shiite Iran and the Sunni countries of the region.

Allies reluctantly

Another place where the Sunni-Shia conflict largely defines the political landscape is Iraq. Historically, in this country, where the majority of the population is Shia, ruling posts were occupied by people from Sunni circles. After the overthrow of the regime of Saddam Hussein, a Shiite government finally stood at the head of the country, unwilling to make concessions to the Sunnis, who found themselves in a minority.

It is not surprising that when radical Sunnis from the Islamic State (IS) appeared on the political scene, they managed to capture the province of Anbar, populated mainly by their fellow Sunnis, without any problems. To retake Anbar from IS, the army had to resort to the help of the Shiite militias. This did not sit well with the local Sunnis, including those who had previously remained loyal to Baghdad: they believed that the Shiites wanted to seize their lands. The Shiites themselves are not particularly worried about the feelings of the Sunnis: for example, the militias called the operation to liberate the city of Ramadi "We serve you, Hussein" - in honor of the son of the righteous Caliph Ali, who was killed by the Sunnis. After criticism from Baghdad, it was renamed "Serve You Iraq". Often there were cases of looting and attacks on local Sunnis during the liberation of settlements.

The United States, which provides air support to Iraqi units, is not particularly enthusiastic about the participation of the Shiite militia in operations, insisting on its complete control by the Baghdad authorities. The United States fears the strengthening of Iran's influence. Although Tehran and Washington found themselves on the same side of the barricades in the fight against ISIS, they carefully pretend that they have no contact with each other. Nevertheless, American planes attacking ISIS positions have earned the Sunnis the nickname "Shia aviation." And the idea that the United States is on the side of the Shiites is actively used in Islamist propaganda.

At the same time, it is significant that before the American invasion of Iraq, confessional affiliation played a secondary role in the country. As Veniamin Popov, director of the Center for the Partnership of Civilizations at the Institute for International Studies at MGIMO(U) notes, “during the Iran-Iraq war, Shiite soldiers actually fought each other, the issue of citizenship, not faith, was in the first place.” Already after the Sunni officers of the army of Saddam Hussein were banned from serving in the armed forces of the new Iraq, they began to join the ranks of the Islamists en masse. "Until that time, they did not even think about whether they were Sunnis or Shiites," Popov stressed.

Middle Eastern tangle

The complexity of the politics of the Middle East is not limited to the confrontation between Sunnis and Shiites, but it has a significant impact on what is happening, and without taking into account this factor it is impossible to get a complete picture of the situation. “We can talk about the interweaving of contradictions - religious, political, historical and geopolitical conflicts,” Ignatenko notes, “you can’t find the initial thread in them, and it’s impossible to resolve them.” On the other hand, there are often opinions that religious differences are just a screen to cover up true political interests.

While politicians and spiritual leaders are trying to unravel the tangle of Middle Eastern problems, the region's conflicts are spilling over its borders: on September 7, it became known that up to four thousand IS militants (the terrorist group "Islamic State", whose activities are banned on the territory of Russia) have entered Europe under the guise of refugees.

14.12.2011

Digital (electronic) map of the world - a detailed electronic map of the settlement of Sunni and Shiite Muslims (map of the distribution of the Sunni (sunni islam) and Shiite (shia islam) branches of Islam).

In recent decades, Islam has risen to the forefront of the international political process as not only a religion, but also an ideology. And so seriously that today it is perceived as one of the most important factors in world politics. As the second largest religion in the world, Islam is not homogeneous. We have tried to clarify some of the main components of Islam, the names of which are on everyone's lips.

Who are the Sunnis?

sunnism the dominant branch of Islam. Sunnis - in the literal sense of the word - Muslims who are guided by the "sunna" - a set of rules and principles based on the example of the life of the Prophet Muhammad, his actions, statements in the form in which they were transmitted by the companions of the prophet. Sunnism is the dominant branch of Islam. "Sunna" explains the holy book of Muslims - the Koran - and complements it. Therefore, the traditional followers of Islam consider following the "Sunnah" the main content of the life of every true Muslim. Moreover, we are often talking about the literal perception of the prescriptions of the holy book, without any modifications.

In some currents of Islam, this takes extreme forms. For example, under the Taliban in Afghanistan, special attention was paid even to the nature of clothing and the size of a beard for men, every detail of life was regulated in accordance with the requirements of the Sunnah.

Who are the Shiites?

Shiite religious processions are inherently dramatic. Unlike the Sunnis, the Shiites can interpret the instructions of the prophet. True, only those who have a special right to do so.

The Shiites are the second branch of Islam in terms of importance and number of adherents. The word itself in translation means "adherents" or "Ali's party". This is how the supporters of the transfer of power in the Arab Caliphate called themselves after the death of the Prophet Muhammad to one of his relatives - Ali bin Abi Talib. They believed that Ali had the sacred right to be caliph as the closest relative and disciple of the prophet.

The split occurred almost immediately after the death of Muhammad. The struggle for power in the caliphate eventually led to the assassination of Ali in 661. His sons Hasan and Hussein were also killed, and the death of Hussein in 680 near the city of Karbala (modern Iraq) is still perceived by Shiites as a tragedy of historical proportions.

In our time, on the so-called day of Ashura (according to the Muslim calendar - on the 10th day of the month of Maharram) in many countries, Shiites hold mourning processions, accompanied by a violent display of emotions, when the participants in the procession strike themselves with chains and sabers.

How are Sunnis different from Shiites?

There are more Sunnis than Shiites, but during the Hajj all differences are forgotten. After the death of Ali and his sons, the Shiites began to fight for the return of power in the Caliphate to Ali's descendants - the Imams. The Shiites, who believed that the supreme power has a divine nature, rejected the very possibility of electing imams. In their opinion, imams are mediators between people and Allah. For Sunnis, this understanding is alien, since they adhere to the concept of direct worship of Allah, without intermediaries. The imam, from their point of view, is an ordinary religious figure who has earned the authority of the flock with knowledge of Islam in general and the Sunnah in particular.

So much importance given by the Shiites to the role of Ali and the Imams, calls into question the place of the Prophet Muhammad himself. The Sunnis believe that the Shiites allowed themselves to introduce "unlawful" innovations into Islam and in this sense oppose themselves to the Shiites.

Who is more in the world - Sunnis or Shiites?

The dominant force in the 1.2 billion "Ummah" - the Muslim population of the world - are the Sunnis. Shiites represent no more than 10% of the total number of Muslims. At the same time, the followers of this branch of Islam make up the absolute majority of the population of Iran, more than half of the population of Iraq, and a significant part of the Muslims of Azerbaijan, Lebanon, Yemen and Bahrain. Despite their relative small numbers, the Shiites represent a serious political force, especially in the Middle East. Analysts say that within the Islamic world - despite calls for Muslim brotherhood - there are real conditions for sectarian divisions, as the Shiites see themselves as unfairly bypassed in history.

Who are the Wahhabis?

Wahhabism- a doctrine that appeared in Islam relatively recently. This doctrine within the framework of Sunnism was created in the middle of the 18th century by the religious leader of Saudi Arabia, Muhammad bin Abd al-Wahhab.

The basis of Wahhabism is the idea of ​​monotheism. Adherents of this doctrine reject all the innovations introduced into Islam - for example, the worship of saints and imams, as the Shiites do - and demand strict worship exclusively of Allah, as was the case in early Islam.

Despite the extreme views, the Wahhabis preached the brotherhood and unity of the Muslim world, condemned luxury, sought social harmony and adherence to the principles of morality.

The teachings of al-Wahhab were supported at one time by many Arabian sheikhs. But with the support of the Saudi family, who fought for the unification of the Arabian Peninsula under their rule, Wahhabism became a religious and political doctrine, and later - the official ideology of Saudi Arabia, as well as a number of Arab Emirates. Many radical Wahhabis participated in the war in Chechnya.

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Overview of the situation of religion in Iran, religious minorities in Iran and their rights in comparison with Muslims .

We will also talk separately about Shiism - its features, about caliphs and Shiite righteous imams, including Ali. Let us touch on the topic of the past and present day of Zoroastrianism, and in this regard, let us recall the story of the notorious Abu Lulu, the slave who killed the second Muslim Caliph Omar (Umar).

This review consists of three parts, namely:

Shiism is the state religion of Iran (P. 1.), including materials based on Iranian foreign broadcasting;

Religious Minorities of Iran: From “Dhimmi” to… (P.2.);

Zoroastrianism - the religion of pre-Islamic Iran and a lost symbol of resistance to Islam (P.3.).

In the first and second parts of this review, you can also listen to the transmissions of the Russian edition of the Iranian foreign broadcast of recent years on the topic of ashura - as part of the Shiism cult, and the relationship of Islam to Jesus and the religion of Christians. And in the third part you can listen and read in the text a program about the traditional pre-Islamic religion of Iran - Zoroastrianism - by the American broadcasting station "Radio Liberty", Russian program, dated 12/14/1974 and the program of the Iranian foreign broadcast about Zoroastrians from 03/09/2017 - archive site

Shiism is the state religion of Iran

In illustrations on the topic "Religion in Iran": The religious majority of Iran are Shiite Muslims, who make up about 93% of the country's population.

Also, the religion of Islam in Iran is practiced by about 5% of the Sunni population.

Here, in the illustration, Iranian Shiites are shown during the ashura ceremony (the name comes from the word "ten", i.e. the 10th day in the month of Muharram, the first Islamic month (approx. November-December according to the Western calendar) - an annual action commemoration of Imam Hussein...

A young Shiite beats copper cymbals on ashura...

Remembering the martyrdom of the grandson of the Prophet Muhammad - the third Shia Imam Hussein in 680 AD. during the Karbala battle with the Umayyad troops (for more about Hussein and Shiism, see this review), the Shiites beat themselves during the ashura until they bleed with special whips (right).

In Iran, however, in recent years, men have not stripped themselves to the waist during self-flagellation, as happens in Shia communities in Iraq, Afghanistan, Pakistan, or India. The Iranian regime severely suppresses the manifestation of any naturism, but at the same time encourages religious ecstasy.

Also during the ashura, theatrical costumed performances are arranged, playing out the events related to the life of Imam Hussein (left). Note that Sunni Muslims around the world do not celebrate ashura. (Illustration from the Iranian agency IRNA and foreign broadcasting of the IRI).

AT audio file #1 you can listen to the Russian broadcast “Voice of the Islamic Republic of Iran” from 05/31/2016 of the ashura ceremony, when Shiites are engaged in self-flagellation, remembering the martyrdom of the grandson of the Prophet Muhammad - the third Shiite Imam Hussein in 680 AD. during the Battle of Karbala with the Umayyad troops:

• audio file #1

And more about Hussein, among other things, in this part about Shiism of this review about religions and religious minorities of present-day Iran.

So, The officially declared state religion in Iran is Shiite Islam.. Shiites are in the minority in countries such as India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Kuwait, but in Iran, Iraq, Bahrain, the Republic of Azerbaijan and Lebanon are the majority.

But only Iran is the only state in the world where Shiism is the state religion. Of the above countries with Shia communities, India, Azerbaijan and Lebanon are secular states, while the rest are ruled by Sunnis.

Sunnis and Shiites are in a rather tense relationship. Former Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak once remarked during his reign:

"The Shiites of the Arab states are fans of Iran rather than their homeland."

These words of his were indignantly quoted at the time by the Iranian foreign broadcast, noting that the Shiites are devoted to the cause of the unity of all Muslims.

In Article 12 of the current Iranian constitution, the status of the state religion is formulated as follows:

“The official religion of Iran is Jafarite Islam, which recognizes the existence of 12 imams, and this principle will forever remain unchanged. Other Islamic beliefs, in particular Hanafi, Shafi'i, Maliki, Hanbali and Zaidi, are fully respected.

Let us note that the Jafarite interpretation is on behalf of Jafar al-Sadiq, the sixth of the twelve righteous Shiite imams.

About imams below, but for now there are a few definitions of Shiism according to Iranian sources.

“Shiism is an Islamic sect that considers the Holy Quran as the main source of religious knowledge, and along with this, pays special attention to the school of the family of the Prophet and emphasizes the inalienability of these two liberating elements.

This belief is based on the famous prophetic hadith« Sacalane» (about two most valuable things), in which the great Prophet says:« I leave you the two most valuable things, the Book of Allah and my family. They will never separate until they unite with me at the spring of Kavsar in paradise.» . Undoubtedly, Shiites and Sunnis have a lot in common in many issues. However, they diverge on some minor Sharia law.”

Shiites, like the Sunnis, recognize the Koran in full, but to the hadiths - stories and teachings from the life of the prophet, which all Muslims recognize, in Shiism they add hadiths about the instructive stories of the descendants of the prophet, which the Sunnis do not recognize. The Jafarite sense, accepted as official in Iran, is now the main trend in Shiism. In addition to the Qur'an, sunnahs (hadith), the opinions of theologians, the followers of Jafarite Shiism also include aql (mind) among the sources of Islamic law.

And here are some definitions about Shiism from the book “A Brief Introduction to Shiism in Islam” by the modern author Muhammad Ali Shamali, published in 2003 in Iran in Russian:

“The word 'shi'a' in Arabic basically means one, two or a group of followers. This word occurs several times in the Qur'an with the same meaning. For example, in the 15th verse of the 28th sura, the Almighty refers to one of the followers of His Grace Musa (peace be upon him!) Using the word “shia”. In another verse, Ibrahim (peace be upon him!) represents Nuh (peace be upon him!) as a Shiite (sura 37, verse 83) (Musa is Moses, Nuh is Noah. Approx. site).

At the beginning of the history of Islam, the concept of "shi'a" was used in its original or lexical meaning, that is, as a follower of various personalities ... But gradually this word acquired a second meaning and began to be used only in the meaning of "followers of Ali (peace be upon him!)" thus acknowledging his leadership.

When did the history of Shiism begin? There are ... hadiths where the prophet (may Allah bless him and his family!), Addressing Ali (peace be upon him!), Uses the expression "our Shiites." This expression corresponds to what was mentioned earlier: “Shiites are those who, according to the teachings of the prophet (may Allah bless him and his family!), And not because of an individual decision, follow Ali (peace be upon him!). And in fact, the Shiites of Ali are the Shiites of the prophet .. .

Sources of Shiism: The Holy Quran, the Sunnah of the Prophet (may Allah bless him and his family!), The family of the Prophet (peace be upon him!) ” .

Shiites and the history of Islam: Shia criticism of the personalities of the caliphs and the praise of the twelve righteous imams

Who is closer to the family of the Prophet: Ali and other Quraish

The Prophet Muhammad came from the tribe of the Quraysh (or, in other words, the Quraysh). He belonged to the Hashemites. The fourth caliph, Ali, also came from the Hashemites.

The first three caliphs belonged to the Quraysh tribe, but to other clans. The first Caliph Abu Bakr came from the Banu Taimi clan; the second Caliph Omar (Umar) belonged to the Banu Adi clan; the third caliph Osman - to the Umayyad clan. Muawiya, who later fought with the fourth Caliph Ali, also belonged to the Qureish tribe, but was from a different clan - the Umayyad clan, like Osman.

The second Arab Abbasid dynasty belonged to the Hashemites, but opposed the descendants of Ali.

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Recognition of the so-called. twelve righteous imams - members of the family of the prophet - one of the main differences between Shiism. The first imam of the Shiites was Ali (Ali ibn Abu Talib) - the son-in-law of the Prophet Muhammad, married to his daughter Fatima, and his cousin. Ali was brought up in the family of the prophet and became the first Muslim child.

After the death of Muhammad (632 according to the Western calendar), four caliphs successively ruled: Abu Bakr (r. 632-644), Omar (Umar, r. 634-644) and Osman (r. 644-656 ).

By the reign of these companions of Muhammad, whom the Sunnis recognize as the so-called. righteous caliphs, the Shiites are critical, especially the first two, because they believe that these rulers removed the rightful heir from the family of the prophet - Ali from power.

At the same time, these caliphs can also be attributed to the relatives of the prophet, who entered his family during the life of Muhammad. Abu Bakr was Muhammad's father-in-law (he married his daughter Aisha to Muhammad), and Osman was nicknamed "Dhun Nurayn" ("Possessor of the Two Luminaries"), because. He was married at different times to two daughters of the Prophet at once - to Ruqayya, and after her death - to Umm Kulthum.

Also in Sunni historiography, it is believed that the second caliph Omar (Umar) took Umm Kulthum bint Ali, the daughter of Ali ibn Abu Talib, as one of his nine wives.

The Shiites do not recognize the fact of the marriage of the second caliph and Ali's daughter as reliable, they also accuse Omar (Umar) of beating the daughter of the prophet Muhammad Fatima in the last months of her life (in 633 AD), after the death of Muhammad, when Abu was the caliph Bakr. Shiites consider Fatima a saint, along with twelve righteous imams, unlike the Sunnis, who simply respect her as the daughter of a prophet.

After the death of Osman at the hands of disaffected Muslims, Ali became the fourth caliph of all Muslims (r. 656-661).

Note that Sunni historiography usually emphasizes that Ali under Omar (Umar), Osman, as before and under Muhammad, was their closest associate; under Omar (Umar) and under Osman, Ali served as the highest judge (qadi) of the caliphate in Medina (the posts of qadi were introduced under Omar). Sunni stories also emphasize that Ali helped Uthman in every possible way in the fight against groups of disgruntled Muslim rebels, whose representative was able to later kill Osman.

Sunni historiography notes that Ali did not seek power, but, in turn, Abu Bakr (r. 632-644), Omar (Umar, r. 634-644) and Osman were elected legally - collectively, with taking into account the will expressed on the deathbed by the previous ruler.

Shia historiography agrees that Ali did not seek power, but does not believe that Muhammad expressed his will to see Abu Bakr as his successor, nor that the election of Omar (Umar) and Osman as caliphs by a narrow circle reflected the will of the Muslims.

Imam as head all Muslims in Shiism and Sunnis

“In Arabic, the word “imam” means “leader”. According to its lexical meaning, the word "imam" can be used in relation to both a good and a bad leader, but for the Shiites, the concept of "imam" has a special meaning, according to which, the imam is the one who is endowed by the Almighty with the duty of political and religious management of the Islamic society.

Shiites:

In other words, an imam is a person chosen by the Almighty to lead an Islamic society, to interpret and protect religion and Sharia law. The management of various aspects of people's lives is carried out by prophets or imams. Imams are caliphs chosen by God and successors of the prophet (may Allah bless him and his family!). The Imam is protected from sins and has complete external and spiritual perfection.

Shiites who recognize twelve imams make up the majority of the Shiite world and are convinced that after the prophet (may Allah bless him and his family!) There are twelve imams

Sunnis:

Sunnis associate the concept of "imam" with caliphs. In Arabic, "caliph" has a meaning « successor, deputy. It was applied to all those who held a high position and ruled Islamic society after the death of the prophet (may Allah bless him and his family!). According to this meaning, the governing of an Islamic society is an important criterion.

The Caliph may be elected by the people, or confirmed by a predecessor, or elected by a group of men, or even may attain power by military force.

It is not necessary that he be protected from committing sins, and that such qualities as piety and perfection predominate in him.

(From the book "A Brief Introduction to Schism in Islam" by the modern author Muhammad Ali Shamali, published in 2003 in Iran in Russian).

« After the assassination of Osman, the third caliph, the people turned to Imam Ali (Peace be upon him!), and yielding to his perseverance and perseverance, Ali (Peace be upon him!) took power.

(Before) no one could answer the questions of scholars and theologians who came to Medina the way Ali did (Peace be upon him!) ...»

And about the holiness of Ali:

“(There is a hadith) with the statement of Ibn Abbas, who retold the saying of the Messenger of God (May Allah bless him and his family!):

“Whoever wants his life and death to be like mine and take a place in the paradise of the Almighty, let Ali follow after me, be with Ali’s associates (Peace be upon him!) And after me will follow the imams who will be from my family and descendants...

Shafi'i also writes in the book« Faraid-ol-Samtein» conveying the sayings of the prophet (may Allah bless him and his family!):

« I am the leader of the prophets, and Ali ibn Abitalib (Peace be upon him!) is the leader of the successors. My successors are twelve persons, the first of them is Ali ibn Abitalib, and the last is Mahdi (may Allah hasten his coming!)» ...

The reign of His Grace Ali (Peace be upon him!) was disproportionately (for the better) different from the reign of previous caliphs.

Those who entered into an alliance with Ali (Peace be upon him!), because of the love of power and high position, realized their mistake and realized that they could not unjustly occupy one or another place in the government of Ali (Peace be upon him!). him!). Therefore, the opponents have risen to enmity with Ali."

Ali was killed by one of the Kharijites (Kharijites are a radical Sunni movement in Islam that advocated the unity of Muslims, being critical of all Muslim rulers after Caliph Omar (Umar), including Ali, the Umayyads, the Abassids, accusing all of them of departing from Islam and in a split. Now it has split into moderates - Ibadis and several other currents. Islam of the Ibadi persuasion is the state religion in modern Oman).

The Sunni dictionary "Islamic Encyclopedic Dictionary" (published in Russian in 2007) writes about Ali's rule as follows:

“In 35 AH / 656 AH, Ali became the fourth Righteous Caliph.

Ali came to power in the most difficult and difficult period of the Caliphate. A civil war had already actually begun in the state, and, despite all his efforts, he could not stop this process. The people and companions of the prophet, outraged by the murder of Osman, demanded from Ali the immediate punishment of the rebels.

On the other hand, the rebels also had sufficient military forces, and it was not so easy to deal with them. Therefore, Ali found himself between two fires and tried to solve the problem gradually. First of all, he tried to gain the trust of all the companions and leaders of the provinces.

However, in the year 36, events occurred in Basra that crossed out all Ali's hopes for resolving the situation in the state. Representatives of various forces began to flock there, demanding revenge for the murder of Osman. There was also the wife of the Prophet Muhammad - Aisha, who arrived there with a caravan from Mecca. In order to prevent unrest, Ali marched with his army to Basra.

But he did not want bloodshed and negotiated with Aisha, as well as other influential associates - Talha and Zabair.

It seemed that the conflict would be resolved peacefully. However, the rebels who were in the city, who participated in the assassination of Osman, were not interested in a peaceful outcome of the conflict and provoked a common domestic conflict between the parties, which led to a major battle, which was called "Camel" (Jamal). Despite the victory of Ali's troops in this battle, the political situation in the state after this victory became even more complicated.

Various groups in Egypt and Iraq also opposed the power of Ali.

However, Caliph Ali met the most serious resistance in the person of the ruler of Syria, Muawiyah ibn Abu Sufyan from the Umayyad family, who by that time had become quite an influential and popular person. He refused to recognize Ali as caliph.

In response, Ali moved on him and the parties met in a decisive battle at Siffin in 37. Muawiya's army found itself in a difficult position and began to lose its positions. Then the Syrians strung the sheets of the Koran on the tips of the copies and called Ali to God's judgment. Ali went to meet them and also leaned towards a peaceful solution to the problem at the arbitration court.

However, this trial ended in vain. Moreover, some of Ali's supporters, dissatisfied with this decision, left him and formed a sect of Kharijites, who opposed both Ali and Muawiyah. In the year 38, Ali opposed the Kharijites and defeated them at the battle of Nahrawan.

However, this defeat did not solve the problem of liquidating this rebellious group.

Moreover, the Kharijites became popular among a certain part of the society in the Caliphate. Representatives of this group penetrated into all spheres of public and political life.

There were many of them in the army of Caliph Ali himself. Gradually, they began to use the tactics of guerrilla warfare, conspiracies, and commit terrorist and sabotage actions. This problem turned into a serious destabilizing factor for many generations of subsequent Muslim rulers.

Taking advantage of the split in Ali's camp, Mu'awiya turned to action. In 38, his commander Amr ibn al-As captured Egypt.(For the first Arab conquest of Egypt, see . Note. website). In 39, the Syrians had already attacked Iraq. In the year 40, Muawiyah's troops entered and Yemen. But then the army of Caliph Ali managed to stop this offensive and push the Syrians back. But during the fighting, they received news of the tragic death of Caliph Ali ibn Abu Talib, who fell at the hands of a Kharijite assassin.» .

Ali's son Hasan was unable to retain power in competition with the Umayyads, a dynasty founded after the death of the Prophet Muhammad by one of his commanders in Damascus.

Mu'awiya was one of the commanders of the Arab Islamic army in Sham, i.e. Syria, where he waged wars with Byzantium.

Syria was conquered in 636, but battles, in particular at sea (and Mu'awiya organized the Arab fleet) continued later. By 640, instead of the deceased brother, Muawiya became the governor of Syria.

The fourth caliph Osman, like Muawiya, also belonged to the Arab family of the Umayyads, but it was Muawiya who was the founder of the first Islamic monarchical dynasty, she reigned for a certain time in all the territories of Islam, the Umayyad dynasty. After the death of Osman, Mu'awiya continued to rule in Syria. He did not recognize the power of Ali and waged wars with him.

After Ali's son Hasan came to power, six months after the beginning of the reign of the latter, Muawiyah's troops took control of Mecca and Medina. Hasan renounced power, he was later poisoned. Shiites believe that on the instructions of the Umayyads.

The policy of oppression of the branch of the twelve Shiite imams was continued by the second monarchical Islamic dynasty of the Abbasids, who overthrew the Umayyads after more than a hundred years and ruled from Baghdad. In the Abassid dynasty, unlike the Umayyads, there were also blood relatives of Muhammad.

“After His Lordship Ali (Peace be upon him!) the imamat was headed by his son Hassan (Peace be upon him!). His Grace, with his virtues and learning, revived the memory of the Prophet (May Allah bless him and his family!) and Ali (May peace be upon him!). The period of leadership of Imam Hassan, in which Imam Hussein (Peace be upon him!), was also present, was an extremely critical time. Being next to each other, these two brothers revived in their memory the words of the prophet (May Allah bless him and his family!), Who once said:

"These two of my children are imams, whether they will rise or rule peacefully."

Imam Hasan (peace be upon him!) made continuous efforts to restore the truth and overthrow the useless system, eliminating the distortions introduced by the heresy that appeared at that time in religion, and thus saved Islam.

After the martyrdom of Imam Hassan (Peace be upon him!) began the period of leadership of Imam Hussein (Peace be upon him!). Imam Hussein (Peace be upon him!) was the talk of the town because of his courage, modesty and good nature. The Messenger of God (May Allah bless him and his family!) at one time introduced people to Imam Hussein (Peace be upon him!) As a light of guidance and a ship of salvation.

But in the era of this Imam, the throne of the Caliphate was occupied by Yazid by deceit(son of Muawiyah. Approx. site) , despotic and cruel Omayyad ruler. Yazid, in order to give his power a legal form, asked Imam Hussein (Peace be upon him!) to enter into an alliance with him.

However, His Lordship, having been raised by Ali and Fatima, knew that o reconciliation with Yazid means the death of Islam. So he didn't go for it. As a result, he, along with his few associates, was surrounded by the army of Yazid in Karbala. and martyred

(The Battle of Karbala took place in the town of Karbala. Now Karbala is a city in modern Iraq, a holy place of memory for Shiites. There is a mosque and the grave of Imam Hussein. Every year, on the day of the death of Hussein in Karbala (and around the world in Shiite communities) ashura Shiites - a ceremony in memory of the imam with self-flagellation of participants and memorial processions. Approx. site) and martyred (Hussein was killed with a sword by one of the Umayyad warriors. Approx. site).

This happened despite the fact that most of the people and even the warriors of Yazid heard the prophet (may Allah bless him and his family!) say:

“Hussein is from me, and I am from Hussein. God loves everyone who loves Hussein and considers anyone who harms him as an enemy.”

When Imam Sajjad (peace be upon him!), the son of Imam Hussein, led the reign of the Imamate, his spirituality and loftiness filled the atmosphere of society with fragrance. His Serene Highness Imam Sajjad, because of his constant worship, was called Zein-ol-abedin - that is, the decoration of the worshipers. In the form of a prayer, he explained to Muslims various educational and social issues. "Sahif Sajjadiya" and "Treatise Right" are a valuable memory of the speeches of His Grace.

Imam Muhammad Baqir (Peace be upon him!) and Imam Jafar Sadiq (Peace be upon him!) were also shining stars who revived Islam with their knowledge and wisdom and taught their followers the rich lessons of Islamic knowledge. The dissemination of different ideas and thoughts during their Imamate provided them with the opportunity to establish a great Islamic university and engage in the education of Islamic scholars.

In subsequent times until the era of concealment, the rest of the descendants of the prophet, for example, Imam Musa Kazim (May peace be with him!), Imam Reza (May peace be with him!), Imam Javad (May peace be with him!), Imam Hadi (Yes peace be with him!) and Imam Hasan Askari (Peace be upon him!) also led the imamat. Of course, these leaders, paying attention to the conditions and requirements of the time, at different times chose different methods for leading people, but with their wisdom and awareness they showed that they are a single ray that accompanies generations of people to light and salvation.

And finally, the turn of the Imamat came to the last member of the family of the prophet (May Allah bless him and his family!).

At this time, a new time has come in the history of mankind. His Grace Mahdi (May Allah bring his coming closer!) - the son of Imam Hassan (Peace be upon him!) and the last Divine symbol on earth, by the will of God, disappeared from the eyes to rise by order of the Creator, when the conditions for this are ready. His Grace Mahdi (May Allah bring his coming closer!) is the savior of earthlings. He will eradicate violence and lawlessness and establish true justice throughout the world. We send greetings to Muhammad and his family and hope that we will continue their great path» .

So, the Shiites believe that the branch of the righteous Imams will be continued by the Messiah, who is now in "hiding"., unlike the first, elected by the people. The Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran (art. 5) says so, in particular, about the faqih who rules in anticipation of the Messiah, i.e. Wali-e-Asr.

“During the absence of Vali-e-Asr (may Allah bring his appearance closer!) In the Islamic Republic of Iran, the management of the affairs of the faithful and the imamate in the Islamic Ummah is entrusted to a just and pious, broad-minded, courageous and organizational faqih.”

Iran is an Islamic republic.

Article 2 of the Iranian Constitution states the following about the Islamic Republic adopted in the country:

“The Islamic Republic is a system of government based on the belief in:

1. One God (La illahi illa-llah), that He establishes Sharia law and that a person must obey his will;

2. Divine revelations and their fundamental role in the interpretation of laws;

3. The Last Judgment and its constructive role in human perfection on the way to God;

4. Divine justice in the Creation and establishment of Sharia law;

5. The succession of imams (imamat) and their guardianship over society and the fundamental role of this principle in the continuation of the Islamic revolution;

6. Nobility and the highest value of man and freedom and his responsibility before God, which ensures equality, justice and political, economic, social and cultural independence, as well as national unity and solidarity through:

a) the continuous implementation of Sharia law, which meets all the requirements of the faqihs on the basis of Scripture and Sunnah 14 Immaculate. (Prophet Muhammad, his daughter Fatima and 12 imams);

b) the use of advanced human knowledge and experience and efforts aimed at their development;

c) the denial of oppression by and by others, as well as hegemony over oneself and others" .

On the about non-Islamic minorities in the Islamic Republic of Iran, whose fate is not easy.

Shiism and Sunnism are the two largest movements in Islam. Over the centuries, they have repeatedly been drawn into confrontation with each other, and not only because of religious differences.
According to the World Christian Encyclopedia, Islam is practiced by 1.188 billion people (19.6% of the world's population); of them Sunnis - 1 billion (16.6%); Shiites - 170.1 million (2.8%); Kharijites - 1.6 million (0.026%).

two branches

The split in Islam occurred shortly after the death of the Prophet Muhammad in 632, when a wave of apostasy swept the Muslim East. The Arabs plunged into the abyss of unrest and discord. Among the followers of the prophet, a dispute arose over who should have spiritual and political power in the Arab Caliphate.

Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law, the Righteous Caliph Ali ibn Abu Talib, became a key figure in the division of the Muslims. After his assassination, part of the believers believed that only the descendants of Ali had the right to become hereditary caliphs, since they were connected by blood ties with the prophet Muhammad. As a result, the majority won, which supported the elected caliphs.

Since then, the name "Shiites" ("followers of Ali") has been attached to the first. The second began to be called "Sunnis" (following the sacred tradition - "Sunni").

This radically affected the distribution of power: the Sunnis dominated the Arab East for centuries, while the Shiites were forced to remain in the shadows.

Sunnis are primarily the history of such powerful states as the Umayyad and Abbasid caliphates, as well as the Ottoman Empire. The Shiites are their eternal opposition, obeying the principle of "takiya" ("prudence" and "prudence"). Until the end of the 20th century, the relationship between the two branches of Islam did without serious armed clashes.

contradictions

The differences between Sunnis and Shiites primarily concern not dogma, but religious law. Discrepancies in the positions of the two Islamic movements affect the norms of behavior, the principles of some legal decisions, are reflected in the nature of holidays and attitudes towards non-Christians.

The Koran is the main book for any believing Muslim, but for the Sunnis, the Sunnahs are no less important - a set of norms and rules based on examples from the life of the Prophet Muhammad.

According to the Sunnis, exact adherence to the prescriptions of the Sunnahs is the credo of a faithful Muslim.

However, some Sunni sects take this literally. So among the Taliban of Afghanistan, every detail of the appearance is strictly regulated, up to the size of the beard.

Sunni dogmatism is unacceptable to Shiites. From their point of view, this gives rise to various radical movements, such as Wahhabism. In turn, the Sunnis consider heresy the tradition according to which the Shiites call their ayatollahs (religious title) the messengers of Allah.

Sunnis do not recognize the infallibility of people, while Shiites believe that imams are infallible in all deeds, principles and faith.

If the main Muslim holidays of Eid al-Adha and Eid al-Adha are celebrated by all Muslims according to the same traditions, then there are discrepancies on the day of Ashura. For Shiites, the day of Ashura is a memorial event associated with the martyrdom of Hussein, the grandson of Muhammad.

At present, in some Shiite communities, the practice has been preserved when, accompanied by mourning chants, believers inflict bleeding wounds on themselves with a sword or chains. For Sunnis, this day is no different from any other day of mourning.

Sunnis disagree with Shiites in the assessment of temporary marriage. Sunnis believe that a temporary marriage was allowed by the Prophet Muhammad during one of his military campaigns, but he soon canceled it. But Shiite preachers, referring to one of the verses, recognize temporary marriages and do not limit their number.

currents

Each of the two main Islamic directions is heterogeneous within itself and has many currents that differ markedly from each other.

So, Sufism, which arose in the bosom of Sunnism, due to dilution with Hindu and Christian traditions, is considered by orthodox Muslims to be a distortion of the teachings of Muhammad. And some practices - the veneration of dead teachers - or the concept - the dissolution of the Sufi in God - are completely recognized as contrary to Islam.

Wahhabis also oppose the pilgrimage to the graves of saints. In 1998, as part of a campaign to destroy idols, Wahhabis razed the grave of the mother of the Prophet Muhammad to the ground, which caused a wave of protests throughout the Islamic world.

Most Muslim theologians refer to Wahhabism as the radical wing of Islam. The struggle of the latter to purify Islam from "foreign impurities" often goes beyond the scope of true teaching and acquires an openly terrorist character.

Shiism could not do without radical sects. However, unlike Wahhabism, they do not pose any serious threat to society. For example, the Ghurabites believe that the cousins ​​Muhammad and Ali were outwardly similar to each other, and therefore the angel Jabril erroneously gave a prophecy to Muhammad. And the Damites even claim that Ali was a god, and Muhammad was his messenger.

A more significant trend in Shiism is Ismailism. His followers adhere to the concept that Allah instilled his divine essence in the earthly prophets - Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jesus and Muhammad. The arrival of the seventh messiah, according to their beliefs, will bring universal justice and prosperity to the world.

Alawites are considered one of the distant branches of Shiism. Their dogmas are based on a variety of spiritual traditions - pre-Islamic religions, Gnostic Christianity, Greek philosophy, astral cults. The family of current Syrian President Bashar al-Assad belongs to the Alawites.

Escalation of the conflict

The Islamic revolution of 1979 in Iran radically influenced the relationship between Sunnis and Shiites. If in the 50s and 60s of the 20th century, after the gaining of independence by the Arab countries, a course was taken for their rapprochement (for example, marriages between Sunnis and Shiites were considered the norm), now the Arabs were drawn into an open armed confrontation.

The revolution in Iran contributed to the growth of the religious and national identity of the Shiites, who significantly strengthened their positions in Lebanon, Iraq and Bahrain.

This was regarded by the Sunni majority in Saudi Arabia as "Iranian expansion" and the Saudis immediately entered into rivalry with post-revolutionary Iran.

The caliphate that Sunnis and Shiites once fought over is long gone, and their theological differences are so minor that they cannot be a cause of war. It was obvious that the Shiite-Sunni confrontation had finally turned from a religious channel into a political one.

Thus, the Iran-Iraq conflict was viewed from the perspective of a “war of Persians and Arabs”, and for the United States, which invaded Iraq in 2003, it was a matter of supporting the Shiite minority “oppressed” by the Sunni regime of Saddam Hussein. Time will pass and already Shiite Iran will be the main threat to the US State Department.

But the growing popularity of Shiism and the influence of Iran primarily worried Saudi Arabia. Its political elites, linked to the West by military and financial ties, were not shy about choosing means to solve their problems. The split flywheel was started. Shiite-Sunni contradictions turn into large-scale terrorist attacks in Lebanon, an uprising in Saudi Arabia, and a civil war in Syria.

At one time, Imam Khomeini remarked: “The enmity between Sunnis and Shiites is a conspiracy of the West. Discord between us is beneficial only to the enemies of Islam. Anyone who does not understand this is neither a Sunni nor a Shia.”