Catherine's reforms 2 periods of government. Reforms of Catherine II

Provincial reform:
"Institution for the administration of the provinces of the All-Russian Empire" was adopted on November 7, 1775. Instead of the former administrative division into provinces, provinces and counties, territories began to be divided into provinces and counties. The number of provinces increased from twenty-three to fifty. They, in turn, were divided into 10-12 counties. The troops of two or three provinces were commanded by the governor-general, otherwise called the governor. At the head of each province was a governor appointed by the Senate and reporting directly to the empress. The vice-governor was in charge of finances, the Treasury Chamber was subordinate to him. The chief officer of the county was the police captain. The centers of counties were cities, but since there were not enough of them, 216 large rural settlements received the status of a city.

Judicial reform:
Each class had its own court. The nobles were judged by the zemstvo court, the townspeople - by magistrates, and the peasants - by reprisals. Conscientious courts were also established from representatives of all three estates, which performed the function of a conciliatory instance. All these courts were elected. The higher courts were the judicial chambers, whose members were appointed. And the highest judicial body of the Russian Empire was the Senate.

Secularization reform:
It was held in 1764. All monastic lands, as well as the peasants who lived on them, were transferred to the jurisdiction of a specially established College of Economy. The state took over the maintenance of monasticism, but from that moment on it received the right to determine the number of monasteries and monks necessary for the empire.

Senate Reform:
On December 15, 1763, Catherine II issued a manifesto “On the Establishment of Departments in the Senate, Justice, Votchinnaya and Revision Collegiums, and on Separation According to These Cases.” The role of the Senate was narrowed, and the powers of its head, the Prosecutor General, on the contrary, were expanded. The Senate became the highest court. It was divided into six departments: the first (headed by the Prosecutor General himself) was in charge of state and political affairs in St. Petersburg, the second - judicial in St. Petersburg, the third - transport, medicine, science, education, art, the fourth - military land and naval affairs, the fifth - state and political in Moscow and the sixth - the Moscow Judicial Department. The heads of all departments, except for the first, were chief prosecutors subordinate to the prosecutor general.

City Reform:
The reform of Russian cities was regulated by the "Charter on the Rights and Benefits of the Cities of the Russian Empire", which was issued by Catherine II in 1785. New elective institutions were introduced. At the same time, the number of voters increased. Residents of cities were divided into six categories according to various property, class characteristics, as well as merit to society and the state, namely: real city dwellers - those who owned real estate within the city; merchants of three guilds; guild artisans; foreign and out-of-town guests; eminent citizens - architects, painters, composers, scientists, as well as wealthy merchants and bankers; townspeople - those who were engaged in needlework and handicrafts in the city. Each category had its own rights, duties and privileges.

Police reform:
In 1782, Empress Catherine II introduced the "Charter of the Deanery or Policeman". According to it, the deanery council became the body of the city police department. It consisted of bailiffs, a mayor and a police chief, as well as townspeople determined through elections. The court for public violations: drunkenness, insults, gambling, etc., as well as for unauthorized building and bribes, was carried out by the police authorities themselves, and in other cases a preliminary investigation was carried out, after which the case was transferred to court. The punishments applied by the police were arrest, censure, imprisonment in a workhouse, a fine, and in addition - the prohibition of certain activities.

Education reform
The creation of public schools in the cities laid the foundation for the state system of general education schools in Russia. They were of two types: the main schools in the provincial towns and small ones in the county ones. These educational institutions were maintained at the expense of the treasury, and people of all classes could study in them. The school reform was carried out in 1782, and earlier in 1764 a school was opened at the Academy of Arts, as well as the Society of Two Hundred Noble Maidens, then (in 1772) a commercial school.

Monetary reform
In the reign of Catherine II, the State Bank and the Loan Office were formed. And also, for the first time in Russia, paper money (banknotes) was put into circulation.

The reign of Catherine 2 is sometimes called the time ʼʼenlightened absolutismʼʼ. This concept is commonly understood as the desire to rule in accordance with the ideals of the European Enlightenment. The policy of enlightened absolutism was expressed in the destruction from above and the transformation of the most obsolete feudal institutions (certain class privileges, the subordination of the church to the state, the implementation of some reforms - courts, schooling, mitigation of censorship, etc.) These measures were aimed at strengthening the position of the nobility, as well as contributed to the development of the emerging bourgeoisie. An important feature of the policy of enlightened absolutism was the desire of the monarchs to ease the sharpness of social contradictions by improving the political superstructures(the system of public administration, the formation of legal proceedings, etc.). There is no unity among historians about whether she was really a “philosopher on the throne” and was really committed to enlightenment ideals, or she skillfully played the role and wore the mask of an enlightened ruler, wanting to look worthy in the eyes of an enlightened Europe.

Probably, at the beginning of her reign, she was committed to educational ideals. At the same time, pursuing a policy of enlightened absolutism, Catherine successfully used it to strengthen her authority. Having taken away power from her husband and son Pavel, not having sufficient rights to the throne, she sought to show herself as the savior of Russia, a knight of ʼʼfreedom and legalityʼʼ. The Empress actively corresponded with the European enlighteners Voltaire, Diderot, ordered the arrest of the cruel serf-owner Daria Saltykova, who had tortured dozens of serfs, encouraged the sciences and arts, wrote herself, instilled smallpox in herself, etc.

The largest event in the policy of enlightened absolutism was convocation in 1767ᴦ. Commission on the drafting of a new code (Layed Commission). As the guiding document of the Commission, the empress prepared the ʼʼInstructionʼʼ, written on the basis of enlightenment ideas. In it, autocracy was affirmed as a form of government in view of the vast territory of Russia. The governing bodies must be a guarantee against tyranny. This document of recommendation rejected torture and limited the use of the death penalty. The main issue was the question of the attitude towards serfdom. Catherine treated him negatively. The first version spoke of the desire to soften the serfdom, ĸᴏᴛᴏᴩᴏᴇ was expressed in a ban on the establishment of additional duties and the transfer of serfs to a special board that would collect duties in favor of the landowners. At the same time, only a few deputies from the composition of the Legislative Commission approved this proposal. Realizing that the landowners did not want to change anything, Catherine 2, taking advantage of the outbreak of war with Turkey in 1768, dissolved the Commission. The policy of enlightened absolutism was curtailed by the Peasants' War led by E. Pugachev (1773-1775), as well as by the bloody events of the Great French Revolution (1789-1794).

More successful were the transformations of the outdated system of public administration.

a) She rejected the Count's idea N. Panina about the creation of the Imperial Council, which was supposed to actually rule the country, and did not give up autocratic power.

b) But she spent reform of the Governing Senate, dividing it into 6 departments. At the same time, the Senate lost its former political role, turning into a bureaucratic superstructure over all the institutions of the empire.

c) changed the system of local self-government in Ukraine. The hetman was replaced by a governor-general.
Hosted on ref.rf
Ukraine finally lost its autonomy.

d) in 1763 - 1764ᴦ. Catherine carried out the canceled after the overthrow of Peter 3 secularization of church lands. This replenished the treasury and made it possible to stop the unrest of the monastery peasants.

To manage the former monastic peasants, the College of Economy was created, and the peasants began to be called economic. The number of monasteries in Russia decreased from 881 to 385. Dudin Amvrosiev Nikolsky Monastery, located near modern Dzerzhinsk, was also deprived of state subsidies, which largely predetermined its future decline. The clergy lost in many respects their property independence, having been supported by the state. Thus was completed, begun by Peter 1, the process of turning the clergy into a special detachment of officials.

e) in 1775 was held provincial reform. The provinces were liquidated. In order to improve management efficiency, the number of provinces increased from 23 to 50, their population decreased to 300-400 thousand. Each was headed by a governor appointed by the empress. In county towns, power also belonged to the appointed mayor. In uyezds, executive power belonged to the lower zemstvo court, headed by a police captain, elected by the local nobility.

Τᴀᴋᴎᴍ ᴏϬᴩᴀᴈᴏᴍ, the nobility played the predominant role in local government, which was natural at that time.

Especially among all the innovations of Catherine 2, it should be noted ʼʼ Complaint to the nobility ʼʼ (1885). The letter confirmed the rights granted to the nobility earlier: freedom from corporal punishment, poll tax, compulsory service, the right of unlimited ownership of estates and land with its subsoil, the right to trade and industrial activities. The decision of noble dignity could be made only by decision of the Senate with the highest approval. The estates of convicted nobles were not subject to confiscation. The nobility was henceforth called the noble class. In addition, the powers of the noble class institutions were expanded. The nobility received class self-government: meetings of the nobility headed by provincial and district marshals. The nobility could make representations to the authorities about their needs. It is no coincidence that the reign of Catherine 2 is often called the ʼʼgolden age of the Russian nobilityʼʼ. Having received the rights, the nobles got rid of public duties. In this regard, V.O. Klyuchevsky wittily remarked: “Rights without duties are a legal absurdity, as a result without a reason - a logical absurdity; an estate with only rights without duties is a political impossibility, and impossibility cannot exist. Alas, the impossible became possible. This order lasted until the abolition of serfdom in 1861.

True, in the Letter of Complaint no mention was made of the nobles' right to own souls. Probably, Catherine wanted to show by this that this right would not be forever reserved for the nobility.

Russian peasants responded to the one-sided, historically incongruous granting of liberties to the nobility by actively participating in the Pugachev uprising of 1773-1775. What were the social thoughts and aspirations of the peasant masses? They found a particularly vivid reflection in the manifesto of E. Pugachev dated July 18, 1774ᴦ. It was a ʼʼcharter to the whole peasant worldʼʼ, or ʼʼcharter, on the basis of which a new, peasant kingdomʼʼ was to be created. Pugachev urged ʼʼ all who were previously in the peasantry and the citizenship of the landowners to be loyal slaves to our own crownʼʼ, and then bestowed ʼʼan ancient cross and prayer, heads and beards, liberty and freedom and forever Cossacks, without requiring recruitment kits, head taxes and other monetary taxes , possessions of lands, forest and hay lands and fishing, and salt lakes without purchase and without quitrent, and we free all the nobles and city bribe-judges who were previously committed from villains and city judges to the peasants and the whole people of imposed taxes and burdens ʼʼ. The peasants, therefore, sought to be freed from serfdom, they wanted to get all the lands and lands, to be freed from all duties and taxes, to arrange communal self-government in the Cossack way.

But this was not destined to come true.

The ʼʼCharter to the citiesʼʼ (1785) was aimed at creating a third estate. She confirmed the rights and freedoms previously given to the wealthy merchants: exemption from the poll tax, recruitment duty. Eminent citizens and merchants of the first two guilds were exempted from corporal punishment and some other duties. The urban population was divided into six categories that make up the urban society. It elected the mayor, members of the magistrate and vowels (deputies) of the ʼʼcommon city dumaʼʼ. The ʼʼGeneral City Dumaʼʼ elected a six-headed Duma - an executive governing body consisting of representatives of all categories of citizens.

The reforms remained unfinished due to serfdom; Moreover, the peasants did not have any civil rights and were excluded from the class structure of society. But destroy serfdom Catherine couldn't. On the contrary, under her, about 900 thousand state peasants were transferred to serfdom.

Reforms of Catherine 2. - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Catherine's reforms 2." 2017, 2018.

Katerina Druga, great empress, ruled our country for exactly 34 years. Tse majestic period of history, stretching out like a lot of the most manipulative podia.

In the mass community, the ruler is associated with a lady who is insatiable in love. Well, Catherine II, knowing her love interests, in rich historical novels you can read that the empress changed her favorites constantly. But let's marvel at the truth in our eyes: is it possible that all 34 fates of the bula were occupied exclusively by the tsim? Singingly dumb: the period of the reign of all Russian historians vvozhayut hour razkvitu vіtcheznyanoy literature, science and painting - the same thing "is the Russian opera and theatrical art develops at a slow pace.

Katerina 2 herself, the reforms that were thought out, important, and therefore protected, left a deep trace in the history of patrimonial diplomacy and legislation.

Do not forget about the bright victories. As long as the autocracy occupied the throne, Russia did not recognize the annual defeat of the war, in the wake of the previous periods. For example, in 1812 the troops defeated the French, although before that the victory on the battlefield lay with them. The hour of Katerina is characterized by the arrival of Krim, as well as by harsh "lessons" for the Polish gentry. Nareshti, guessing the reforms of Katerini 2.

Domestic policy

What was going on at that hour in the middle of the country? Podіy bulo chimalo, so like Katerina, on the vіdmіna vіdmіn іn thе richness оf thеіr successors, came tо power wіth thе ready-made program dіy, thаt hаd allowed іy tо conduct an effectively effective policy. She herself positioned herself as “a faithful successor of philanthropists in the era of Enlightenment.” To be honest, Katerina was able to understand which of their theories are suitable for real life, and which are not.

So, in 1773, the famous Denis Diderot arrived in Russia on a visit, whom the reforms of the management of Katerini 2 had called forth. . If the philosopher asked some objections, why is this so, Katerina said: “Paper can endure everything, but I can’t be brought to my mother on the right with people, the skin of which is much thinner than paper linen.”

Another important thought її hung up on the fact that, be it as if it were initiated, the next reform would be carried out step by step, allowing the state to succeed until they were accepted. It was obvious that Katerina was considered as the ruler of the patrimonial rulers, and so it was the case of the European monarchs, as it was in the interests of their followers that they practically didn’t get into such a diet.

Otzhe, what exactly did Empress Katherine 2 say? Reforms should be started to describe from the provincial.

provincial reform

Її it began to carry out without a hitch after the Pugachev rebellion, which shook the very foundations of the Empire and z "was a sort of slinger of the coming tragic podiums. On the front line of Mikoli II, Katerina Visnovki robited.

First of all, the very name of the transformation is absolutely incorrect. Everything is right in the fact that the essence of the reforms was much richer, being the creation of a practically new administrative system “on the missions”.

Bulo zaproponovano new podіl kraїni. There were 50 provinces in total, moreover, in a practically unchangeable appearance, it was saved right up to the collapse of the Empire in 1917. What does it mean? It seems simpler, in the country, a few more places of "federal" significance were born, but it was still a feast. For specific populations, the point of appointment is the governor, there is a direct mass of energetic, illuminated people. As a result, a quiet and "musty" povitovoe place without a hitch turned into a mystic center of a suspenseful and political life.

Response to Pugachev's rebellion

Here, a respectful reader can ask a question as a whole: “Is it here that I have poured into Pugachev’s rebellion”? It's simple: after all, Katerina wanted to, that the greater part of the majestic power was recruited from the natives of the city. It seems simpler, in the history of the house of Romanovs, the people having taken away the possibility of independently choosing quietly, who will govern them. Non-flowing rivok for quiet hours! The axis of which Katherine II became famous.

Vinikli organi self-rendering, like zvichni for our hour, ale buli marvelous for this era. Let’s immediately reconsider: everything theoretically came up to Katerina. Ale worked not purposefully, but only through the marriage of metropolitan officials, who could be established in the cities and villages of the non-assertive empire. The real improvements of all these organs were not small, obmezhuyuchis only the right to collect taxes and other mechanical operations. If you draw parallels with the latest hours, then the internal reforms of Katerini 2 were aimed at rebuilding the new ones.

All these transformations were later changed by the Empress in the fact that all rebellions are blamed due to the lack of recognition of official officials to quickly “understand” the problems at the missions and virishuvati їх. In principle, such namіsnikіv and bazhannya did not have such a thing: it was important for them to say about the reach of the "people's p" yatirіchki "and the collection of tribute. They did not need any other kind of them, but the initiative of the head of the bula was punishable.

It is important to respect that after the fate of 1775, if the reform was carried out, there was no such (!) repetition of the Pugachov rebellion. Mіstseva vlada, even though they were awake for an hour all the same pragnennyam to swindle, all the same, they were more richly zatsіkavlenі in order to enrich the life of their native land. To put it simply, the sovereign reforms of Katerini 2 were effectively directed for the benefit of the country.

Vinnyknennya Gromadyanskaya self-confidence

A lot of historians agree on thoughts that from quiet fir they started to be weak, but still remember the figures of the hromada community and self-confidence. tsі koshti gymnasiums, libraries, temples and other things about social and spiritual spheres.

Until quiet fir such uzgodzhennosti and unity it was impossible to reveal. How far away was Didro's guesswork from the real solution of the future problems!

Senate reform

Obviously, Katerina 2 (the reforms that we describe here) was far from being a “chain of democracy”. Vaughn could not admit a nasty thing about those who want to encircle their power and weaken the institution of sovereign absolutism. So, bachachi, that the independence of the Senate was emboldened, the pani virishila took yoga “under the mistress of the sovereign wing”, in every possible way encircling whether the authority of the important authority was real.

In the beginning of 1763, the structure of the Senate was recognized as "not consistent with realities." Bula was given the role of the prosecutor general, which was appointed by the empress herself.

A. A. Vyazemsky was hung on the floor. In general, the people tse bov_domy: he was honored to make enemies for incompetence, honesty and jealousy in the right service of the Batkivshchyna. I recently informed Katerina about the work of the Senate, ordered all the provincial prosecutors, and also single-handedly passed a lot of functions, which until that time had been divided in the Senate. Zrozumilo, the role of this body gradually fell, although formally everything was not so.

All the functions of the Senate were suddenly divided between absolutely autonomous departments, which, in fact, were less than puppets and could no longer carry out a charitable sweeping policy.

Changing the structure of the community administration

At the same hour, more and more, the beginning of the beginning of the old system of Moscow's administration began to appear more and more inconsistently with the new powers of the state. The provincial reform of Katerini 2, which we have already described, shattered the skin of an absolutely independent administrative unit. For cherubanya їm vіdpovіdav mayor, whose status vіrіvnyanno virіs.

The wines were assigned to serve the military service of the nobles and the majesty of majesty. The police officers, and not only managerial functions, “hung” on this township person, and the man in this township is to blame for being enviable pracovity. The reform of the municipal administration of Katerini 2 immediately succeeded in restoring order in the municipalities.

Navpaki, town halls and magistrates have practically spent all their administrative significance, transforming into ship organ for merchants and industrialists. After the creations of a new magistrate, people were recruited for the recommendations of merchants and craftsmen. The management of this organ is the function of the human head. In addition, in the places there were hromadas and Syrian judges. From the very beginning, a lot of self-alignment was formed, on the creation of some sort of bulge of rich reforms of Katerini 2. Obviously, it was under constant supervision from the side of the central government, but all the same, it also broke through in the field of social and administrative sphere. In the meantime, there was no other way out for the government: the places grew intensively, there were no personal businesses, communities, lighting and other institutions. Katerini's reform 2.

The judiciary reform of Katerini

All of the above can be reduced to a whole simple visnovka: such a boisterous development of the social sphere would be impossible without normal court organs, as if it would be possible to correctly virishuvat inevitably blame the rubbish and superwomen, as well as among the okreme members of the society, and among the big groups.

It is also necessary that the court reform of Katerini 2 was based on a similar one initiated by Peter I, the axis of only the empress could know a better solution, and the program was not only instilled in life, but it gave even more results.

1775 rotations of publications have the first grade of official status. A lot of administrative judges were drawn up and fully formed. Nareshti buli clearly separated two gіlki vlady: the court and the administrative, as before, they were united. More than that, the administrative authorities preserved their unity of command, at that hour, as the courts, the bodies were treated collegially.

Understandably, the reforms of Katerini 2 were not famous. Briefly, their main significance for the ship system is described below.

respectful respect

The most important thing is to come to the city, call the civil and criminal divisions. In its own time, the very “atavizm” having taken over the administration of a normal justice, it was so coherent to adequately separate the guilt for administrative damage and just serious action. The lower instance became a district court. Razbiralis in the new help tribnі і neznachnі. Tim himself significantly lowered his interest in judgement, as he was engaged in something very important.

Despite the results of Katerini's reforms 2 in all areas, however, there was a sharp increase in the efficiency of the work and the richness of the galleys. Tse and at once zmushu venerate the empress for her extraordinary managerial talent. Ale, let's turn to the judges.

The povitovy body having examined the serious statements. On the vіdmіnu vіd vyscheopisannogo zemstvo, vіdmі і іn іdzhіdі sіdatelі recruited already zіmіshchikіv. The meetings were held exactly three times in the river, moreover, the prosecutor had already suspected that the work of this body had included the function of the “internal police”, so as to fix the violations of the law by the judges themselves and add about those “upstairs”.

On the equal provincial level, the head body of the ієrarchy became the Higher Zemstvo Court, which at the moment is located not only in the provincial, but also in the county district. Vіdteper in the dermal administrative center could have found a few sprats of such organs. At the dermal one, there were already ten judges each. Heads were elected exclusively by the Senate, and the head of the state was especially concerned with their decisions.

But not only were the reforms of Katerini 2 marked: briefly, judges became more specialized.

Structural subdivision of courts

The Upper Zemstvo Court fell on the criminal and administrative court. This was an important authority for the "young" organizations. In addition, yogo judges mali the right to look at folding documents. On the right, in the fact that even though the legislator had already enshrined the list of rights, representatives of the lower zemstvo and county courts, as well as members of the magistrate, could not see. Everything changed the development of nepotism at the missions.

The Provincial Court also had a public and criminal chamber. The skin buv has a bright head, as well as a pair of radniks and an assessor. The stench could also be selected exclusively by the Senate and confirmed by the Supreme Power. The whole court court instance was silent hours, in which the most folds were looked at, and all the hardest and unsafe mischiefs were also sorted out.

In a word, Katerini's reform of the courts 2 was big and big.

secularization reform

Before her, Katerina started in 1764. All the lands of the monasteries were officially transferred to the management of the Economic College. In the course of the reform, Katerina followed in the footsteps of Peter I, who did not favor the clergy. From one side, now the power of the bula goiters "was supposed to take over the Church ... but at the same time, the svіtsk vlada was already from the very beginning, how many monasteries and clergymen are needed in the country. The Collegium also has a small right to add "zayvі" lands to the fund of the state.

Transformation in the illuminating sphere

Vіdoma is also the reform of the illumination of Katerini 2. Golovne її zavdannya - the creation of vyhovennyh budinkіv, vyhovantsі yah otrimuvali penny security, povny zmіst i osvіtu. As a result, the country added to the ranks of its hulks a great number of illumined and sensible young people, as if they were recognized by the powers and vihovani in the necessary moral and ethical soul.

Police reform

In 1782, the rozі buv affirmations "Statute of the Deanery". The council became the official government of the Moscow police department. At the warehouse there were: police officers, the police chief and the mayor, as well as the commissariat of the hulks, the warehouse, which was designated as a way of voting. The body of this moment imposes a fine or a condemnation, as well as the right to fence off certain types of activities.

What were the most important reforms of Katerini 2? The table will give us a clue to the food chain, and also add a sprat to mark the quiet entry, as we already looked at in this article.

Axis of other reforms of Katerini 2. The table is to report on the essence of the story.

results

Without further ado, we can say that all the events that took place were pretty good. Why did the reforms of Katerini 2 get hidden? Briefly (the table at this point is broken), apparently, the stench was directed at reaching two goals:

Remembrance of autocracy.

Economic freedom of the population, the ability to rise from the lower levels of the building people.

In the period of її rule, the threat of rebelliousness from the side of the Cossack freemen was practically completely liquidated. How else can you name the legacy of Katerini's reforms 2? The church was residually ordered by the will of the state, the ship's galuz became more of a bunny. Citizens, anyway, took away the opportunity to participate in the share of the powerful place to win the province.

The axis of what the reforms of Katerini 2 were meant to be.

Introduction…………………………………………………………………..……..3

1. short biography Catherine II………………………………………4

2. The beginning of the reign………………………………………………………6

3. Reforms of Catherine II……………………………………………….…….7

Conclusion……………………………………………………………………..17

References………………………………………………………….........19

Introduction

Among the autocrats of the Russian Empire there are many strong, strong-willed personalities whose political and legislative activities had a huge impact on the growth of not only Russia as a whole, but also individual social strata, the life and culture of society. The gradual modernization of life in Russia, the main impetus of which was given by the European policy of Peter I, was continued by other monarchs, whose era played an equally important role in the formation of a powerful Russian Empire. Russian empress Catherine II was an imperious legislator; in her government, she strove for reforms and made an invaluable contribution to the development and strengthening of Russia. The era of her reign is distinguished by historians as a separate stage in the development of the empire, since it was Catherine II who carried out a course of reforms in the socio-political life of Russia, aimed at modernizing it and strengthening state power in the country. This legislative activity of the empress corresponded to the spirit of the time, new European trends and ideas that the Enlightenment brought with it in the 18th century. The policy of enlightened absolutism of Catherine II, as the main reflection of the principles of the Enlightenment in Russia, is interesting not only for its innovations, but also for the combination of Western trends with the originality of Russia.

1. Brief biography of Catherine II

Catherine was born in 1729 in the German seaside town of Stettin. Born Sophia Frederick Augusta of Anhalt-Zerbst came from a poor German princely family.

Ekaterina Alekseevna was a rather complex and, of course, an outstanding personality. On the one hand, she is a pleasant and loving woman, on the other, she is a major statesman.

In 1745, Catherine II adopted the Orthodox faith and was married to the heir to the Russian throne, the future Peter III. Once in Russia as a fifteen-year-old girl, she quickly mastered the Russian language and customs. But with all the ability to adapt Grand Duchess it was hard: there were attacks from the empress (Elizaveta Petrovna) and neglect from her husband (Peter Fedorovich). Her pride suffered. Then Catherine turned to literature. Possessing remarkable abilities, will and diligence, she acquired extensive knowledge. She read a lot of books: French enlighteners, ancient authors, special works on history and philosophy, works of Russian writers. As a result, Catherine learned the ideas of the enlighteners about the public good as the highest goal of a statesman, about the need to educate and educate citizens, about the primacy of laws in society.

In 1754, Catherine had a son (Pavel Petrovich), the future heir to the Russian throne. But the child was taken from his mother to the apartments of Empress Elizabeth Petrovna.

In December 1761, Empress Elizaveta Petrovna died. Peter III came to the throne.

Catherine II was distinguished by her great capacity for work, willpower, determination, courage, cunning, hypocrisy, unlimited ambition and vanity, in general, all the features that characterize a strong woman. She could suppress her emotions in favor of developed rationalism. She had a special talent to win general sympathy.

Catherine slowly but surely advanced to the Russian throne, and, as a result, took away power from her husband. Soon after the accession of Peter III, unpopular among the tribal nobility, relying on the guards regiments, she overthrew him.

From the first days of her reign, Catherine wanted to be popular among the broadest masses of the people, she defiantly visited pilgrims, went to worship at holy places.

In the first years of her reign, Catherine II was intensely looking for ways to establish herself on the throne, while showing extreme caution. Deciding the fate of the favorites and favorites of the previous reign, she showed generosity and condescension, being careful not to cut from the shoulder. As a result, many really talented and useful people for the state remained in their former positions. Catherine loved and knew how to appreciate the merits of people. She knew that her praise and rewards would make people work even harder.

2. The beginning of the reign

At the beginning of her reign, Catherine had not yet mastered her new role and either continued to implement the policy outlined in the previous time, or completed it. Separate innovations of the empress were of a private nature and did not give grounds to classify Catherine's reign as an outstanding phenomenon in Russian history.

Catherine, not without reason, pointed out the rather difficult circumstances under which she began to reign. Finances were depleted. The army did not receive a salary for three months. Trade was in decline, for many of its branches were given over to a monopoly. Did not have right system in the state economy. The War Department was plunged into debt; the marine was barely holding on, being in utter neglect. The clergy were dissatisfied with the taking away of his lands. Justice was sold at a bargain, and the laws were governed only in cases where they favored the strong person.

Immediately after the accession of Catherine, a vigorous activity in the state body was noticeable. At the same time, in all respects, the personal participation of the Empress in resolving various issues was shown.

From the moment of accession to the throne and before the coronation, Catherine participated in 15 meetings of the Senate, and not without success. In 1963, the Senate was reformed: it was divided into six departments with strictly defined functions and, under the leadership of the Prosecutor General, appointed by the monarch, became the body of control over the activities of the state apparatus and the highest judicial authority. The Senate lost its main function - the legislative initiative, it actually passed to the Empress. The death of Ivan Antonovich freed Catherine from fear for the future of her throne. Now her ambition could be satisfied by the realization of her own plans. It has accumulated a certain management experience, there were plans to implement innovations.

3. Catherine's reforms II

"Instruction" and the Commission 1767 - 1768

In January 1765, Catherine began work directly on a legislative project.

In July 1767, over 500 locally elected deputies gathered in Moscow to form a "Commission on drafting a new code", which worked for seven years. On June 30, the Commission began its work, the "Order" was officially promulgated, and all deputies received the texts of the Code of Legal Principles.

The official text of the "Order of the Commission on the drafting of a new code" consisted of 20 thematic chapters and 526 articles. Most of the text was apparently borrowed. However, in the end, Catherine came out with an independent creation in terms of design and political principles. The postulates of laws developed by her were aimed at strengthening the unlimited power of the monarch, legality based on "reasonable indulgence", guaranteeing civil rights in the form of privileges to estates, and general reforming of the legal system in the spirit of these principles.

The first five chapters recorded the most important principles of power state government in Russia as indisputable, "fundamental" principles of the life of society in general. One of the very first articles of the "Nakaz" proclaimed Russia a European power. This provision had an important political implication: following Montesquieu's criteria, all the patterns of European statehood are inherent in Russia, despite its special vastness. The main of these patterns is “The sovereign in Russia is autocratic; for no other, as soon as the power united in his person, can act similarly to the space of such a great state. And "any other government would not only be harmful to Russia, but also ruinous in the end." However, the new, legal, monarchy has a new goal: to direct all the actions of people towards obtaining the greatest good from all, to promote the prosperity of society, to guarantee the rights of citizens-subjects. The sovereign cannot and should not rule everywhere himself, although it was he who relied on the legal source of all power in the state. This shows that Nakaz fully preserved the absolutism of the monarchy.

Chapters 9 and 10 established the principles of legislation in the field of criminal law. Correctly constructed criminal law was proclaimed the most important guarantee of civil "liberties". "Nakaz" categorically forbade any cruel form of punishment, reduced the possible cases of the death penalty. The court is also an institution not so much a punitive one as a body for the protection of society and the citizen. And since the court operates in a real estate society, then in it the guarantees of judicial justice should consist in the participation of elected representatives from the estates in the consideration of cases.

Chapters 11-18 were devoted to legislation in the social and legal sphere and civil law. Society is divided into three estates, based on the natural and historical differences in occupations. The more honorable place of the nobles guaranteed them special privileges in the service, in property. But it is also important for the peasantry to "establish something useful." The law should protect everyone, but civil rights are granted according to class.

The last, 19th and 20th chapters of the "Nakaz" established some rules in certain issues of legislation. Freedom of religion was declared, courts not provided for by law were prohibited.

Despite the complete failure of the Commission, it still had important consequences for the subsequent activities of Catherine II. In this regard, the assembly of deputies of 1767-1768 played an important role. The deputies brought a lot of mandates, their speeches were left in the archives of the Commission, thus the opinions of both the estates and the persons individually elected by them on subjects that were of interest to the empress were expressed. Huge factual material was collected, reflecting the picture of the views, moods and interests of the then society. In addition, Catherine managed to make the Russians think about state liberty, political rights, religious tolerance, and the equality of all subjects in the face of the law. The Commission has shown exactly what needs to be corrected and to what these principles need to be applied. After the dissolution of the Commission of the Code, Catherine II began her own development of a series of legislative acts that constituted the reform of "enlightened absolutism", the basis for which were the principles and rules of the previously issued "Instruction". The reform of local self-government was especially important.

Provincial reform

The provincial institutions of Empress Catherine II constituted a whole epoch in the history of local government in Russia. In 1775, an extensive legislative document "Institution for the management of the provinces" was published. In accordance with this document, a new administrative-territorial division came into force, major changes were made to local government. This system lasted almost a century.

All newly formed provinces and districts received a uniform structure based on a strict separation of administrative, financial and judicial affairs. At the head of the province was a governor appointed by the government with his deputy - the vice-governor. Sometimes two or three provinces were united under the control of the governor - the governor general. The country was divided into 50 provinces; the provinces were abolished, each province was divided into 10-12 counties. This division was based on the principle of taxable population. For provinces and counties, a certain number of inhabitants was established: 300-400 thousand and 20-30 thousand people, respectively.

With the change in the boundaries of the former administrative territories, new county and provincial centers arose. The local government system was reorganized. The weakness of the past local government was manifested in its inability to suppress anti-government protests on its own. This was convincingly proved by the events of the Moscow "plague riot" of 1771 (a wide demonstration caused by the strictness of quarantine), and especially the Pugachev uprising. Now at the disposal of the central government were numerous administrative institutions, any armed uprising would have met with a quick and cruel rebuff.

Catherine II developed her own regulations on the provinces, seeking, first of all, to increase the strength of the administration, to delimit departments and to involve zemstvo elements in management. In each provincial city, the following were established: provincial boards headed by the governor (it had an administrative character, represented government authority and was the auditor of the entire administration), criminal and civil chambers (the highest court bodies in the province), the treasury chamber (financial administration), the upper zemstvo court (court for noble litigation and for trial of nobles), provincial magistrate (judicial seat for persons of the urban estate in claims and litigation against them), upper reprisal (court seat for fellow believers and state peasants), order of public charity for the construction of schools, almshouses, etc. All these institutions were collegiate in nature and were considered estates, but in reality all power belonged to the governor.

In each county town there were: the lower zemstvo court (in charge of the affairs of the county police and administration, consisted of a police officer and assessors), the county court (for nobles, subordinate to the Upper Zemstvo Court), city magistrate (judicial seat for citizens, subordinate to the provincial magistrate), lower reprisal (a court for state peasants, obeyed the upper reprisal).

Judicial reform

For the first time in Russia, a court appeared, separated from the executive branch, although dependent on it. The activities of the new bodies acquired the features of self-government, as local residents took part in it. The new courts were elective. Separately, courts were elected for the nobility, the urban population and for those peasants who were not serfs.

As a result of the regional reform, police-noble supervision of the population was strengthened, and the number of officials was increased. 216 new cities appeared due to the abolition of the autonomy of the outskirts (in 1775 the Zaporozhian Sich was destroyed, the Cossack self-government on the Don was abolished, the autonomy of Estonia and Livonia was liquidated).

These were the main measures taken by Catherine II regarding the administration of the state. As a result, the empress strengthened the composition of the administration, correctly distributed the departments among the governing bodies, and gave the zemstvos broad participation in new institutions. But the disadvantage of the local institution in 1775 was the old system in the central administration, the duty of leadership and general supervision. With the exception of two institutions (a court of conscience and an order of public charity), all the rest were bodies of any one class. Self-government received a strictly estate character: it was not an innovation for the townspeople, but it was a major reform for the nobility.

"Charter to the nobility"

In 1785, Catherine II promulgated the Letter of Complaint to the nobility and in it confirmed all his rights received from the former sovereigns, endowing them with new ones.

Under Catherine II, the nobleman became a member of the provincial noble corporation, which was privileged and held local self-government in its hands. The charter of 1785 established that a nobleman cannot, except by court order, lose his rank, transfers it to his wife and children. He was freed from taxes and corporal punishment, owned as inalienable property everything that was in his estate, was finally freed from the previously obligatory public service, but could not take part in elections for noble positions if he did not have an officer rank. Deprivation of noble dignity could be carried out only by decision of the Senate with the highest approval. The estates of convicted nobles were not subject to confiscation. The nobility was henceforth referred to as "noble".

Peasant reforms

It forbade free people and freed peasants to re-enter serfdom. By her order, for the newly established cities, the government redeemed the serfs and turned them into townspeople. The children of serfs, taken into state care in educational homes, became free. Catherine was preparing a decree according to which the children of serfs born after 1785 were considered free. She also dreamed of implementing another project - it would lead to the gradual liberation of the peasants during the transfer of estates from one hand to another. But this project was not published, as the empress was afraid of noble discontent.

"Charter to cities"

Simultaneously with the Charter to the nobility, a Charter was issued for the rights and benefits of the cities of the Russian Empire. Like the nobility, the city society was considered as a legal entity enjoying corporate rights, the main of which was the right of self-government. Its primary body was the city assembly, which elected the city head and representatives of judicial institutions. The general city duma, which met every three years, became the administrative body of estate self-government. It featured the mayor and the so-called vowels (deputies) from six categories of the urban population (“real city dwellers”, that is, owners of real estate within the city); merchants of three guilds; guild artisans; Russian and foreign specialists; "eminent citizens" - a large group of people who served in the elections, businessmen, intelligentsia, townspeople. In the interval between meetings of the city duma, its functions were transferred to the executive body - the six-vowel duma, which included one vowel from each category of the population. Compared with the self-government of the nobility, elected city bodies had much fewer rights and were subjected to petty state-bureaucratic tutelage.

Comparison of all three documents (Charter of the nobility, Letter of grant to the cities and unpublished Letter of grant to state peasants) suggests that the empress did not so much seek to support this or that class, but rather cared about strengthening the state, the basis of which, in her opinion, were the strong estates of Western Europe. type. It was under Catherine II that a civil society began to take shape, based on the strengthening of the estates.

An important role in the formation of civil society in the Russian Empire was played by other works on legislation and law, developed by Catherine II in 1770-1780. Catherine II was engaged in other projects: on the reorganization of prisons, on changing the search order. From the Code grew a small decree of 1781 to change the responsibility for different types theft. At the same time, Catherine drew up an extensive statute of the deanery, promulgated in 1782. The Charter determined the principles of reforming the police institutions in the country, the new tasks of police institutions - not only to search for criminals and maintain order, but also to regulate social life in general in cities. The charter also included the Criminal Code (since the right was introduced into the powers not only to prosecute, but also to determine the punishment for minor crimes).

Development of trade and industry

Of the individual events of the enlightened government of Catherine II, the patronage of the Empress to Russian trade is also distinguished, proof of which is the Charter of Letters to the Cities of 1785. Catherine's attitude to Russian trade and industry was affected by the empress's dependence on Western European ideas. Since Peter I in Russia, a system of the old government control was established over trade and industry, and the activity of the commercial and industrial class was constrained by regulation. Catherine II removed these restrictions, destroyed the control bodies - the Berg-Manufactory-collegium. It contributed to the development of industry and trade. Under her, banknotes, or paper money, were first issued, which greatly helped trade. Wishing to better arrange a loan, Catherine II established a state-owned loan bank with large capital.

In November 1775, for the development of trade and industry, a Manifesto was issued on the freedom to establish industrial enterprises (“mills”), and freedom of entrepreneurship was declared. Merchants who owned capital over 500 rubles were exempted from the poll tax and paid a tax of one percent on capital; a representative of the merchant class could be freed from recruitment duty by paying 360 rubles. Also in 1775, the empress adopted a preferential customs tariff for the Black Sea ports and abolished industrial and trade monopolies. Development southern Russia made it possible to trade in grain on the Black Sea; new cities were laid in Russia, a naval base was built in Sevastopol. These events, carried out by Catherine in the economic policy of Russia, contributed to the expansion of exports and the improvement various industries industry.

Expanding public education

Important results of the activity of the government of "enlightened absolutism" include the measures taken by Catherine II regarding public education. Catherine II in her "Instruction" was the first to speak about the educational significance of education and then began to take care of the establishment of various educational institutions.

In accordance with the “General Institution for the Education of Both Sexes of Youth”, a school was opened at the Academy of Arts (1764), a Society of Two Hundred Noble Maidens (1764) with departments for petty-bourgeois girls, a commercial school (1772)

In 1782, a Commission for the Establishment of Schools was formed to carry out a larger-scale school reform. These schools were all-class and were maintained at the expense of the state.

The main merit of Catherine II in the field of educational reforms can be considered the first experience in creating a system of general primary education in Russia, not limited by class barriers (with the exception of serfs). The significance of this reform is very high, because it was about creating an all-Russian system educational school.

Organization of medical care for the population

It is also noteworthy that under Catherine II, the organization of medical care for the population was entrusted to the authorities. Concerns about people's health and hygiene caused an attempt under the empress to properly organize medical care throughout the country. The medical commission, established in 1763, and the orders of public charity were to observe the medical unit in the empire and prepare medical workers. Each city was obliged to have a hospital and a pharmacy, where the patients were offered not those medicines that were cheaper, but those prescribed by the doctor. The city was also to establish shelters for the terminally ill and the insane. Since there were not enough doctors, they were discharged from abroad and Russian doctors and surgeons were trained. At the same time, pharmacies and factories were founded. surgical instruments. In 1783, Catherine II organized a medical service to monitor the health of the population. She established hospitals and psychiatric hospitals.

The development of Russian science

Russian science is making a big step forward. In 1783, a special Russian Academy was founded to study language and literature. The Academy of Sciences, which existed since the times of Peter the Great, conducted five geographical expeditions in 1768-1774, which made a valuable contribution to the study of the geography of the country. The Academy of Sciences began publishing Russian chronicles, twenty-five volumes of ancient Russian documents were published. In 1765, the Free Economic Society appeared, designed to popularize advanced agronomic knowledge and promote landlord rationalization. Numerous articles on the organization and management of agriculture were published in the works of the Free Economic Society. The number of Russian scientists at the Academy of Sciences has increased significantly, among them are the outstanding naturalists I. I. Lepekhin, N. Ya. Ozeretskovsky, the astronomer S. Ya. Rumovsky, the mineralogist V. M. Severgin, and others. The activities of prominent historians M. M. Shcherbatov and I. N. Boltin belonged to the second half of the 18th century; Sources on Russian history were actively published (by N. I. Novikov, the Academy of Sciences). Publishing output is increasing tremendously. Over the entire 18th century, 9,500 books were published in Russia, of which about 85% were in the reign of Catherine II. On January 15, the Empress signed a decree allowing the establishment of "free" printing houses.

Positive changes have also taken place in the organization of research work. In 1783, Princess E. R. Dashkova was appointed director of the Russian Academy of Sciences, who showed remarkable abilities in the administrative field. During the twelve years of her tenure in this post, the academic economy and academic educational institutions were put in order, the work of public courses in the main branches of science was established, and the publishing activity of the Academy was intensified.

Conclusion

Catherine II was a subtle psychologist and an excellent connoisseur of people, she skillfully selected her assistants, not being afraid of bright and talented people. That is why Catherine's time is marked by the appearance of a whole galaxy of outstanding statesmen, generals, writers, artists, musicians. In dealing with subjects, Catherine was, as a rule, restrained, patient, tactful. She was an excellent conversationalist, able to listen carefully to everyone. By her own admission, she did not have a creative mind, but she was good at capturing any sensible thought and using it for her own purposes.

During the entire reign of Catherine, there were practically no noisy resignations, none of the nobles was disgraced, exiled, let alone executed. Therefore, there was an idea of ​​​​Catherine's reign as the "golden age" of the Russian nobility. At the same time, Catherine was very vain and valued her power more than anything in the world. For the sake of her preservation, she is ready to make any compromises to the detriment of her beliefs.

Under Catherine II, the territory of the country, the population (by 75%), and income (more than four times) increased significantly. Victories on land and sea glorified Russian weapons and military art. Equally impressive are the successes in the economy and culture. But it is impossible not to see with all this the difficult situation of the working strata of the population. No wonder the reign of Catherine II was the most powerful in the history of feudal Russia popular uprising headed by E. I. Pugachev.

In her policy, Catherine II relied on the Russian nobility. No wonder the Russian nobles, both during her lifetime and after her death, spoke and wrote about the golden age of Catherine the Great, mother empress, wise ruler.

It is difficult to unambiguously assess the results of the reign of Catherine II. Many of her undertakings, outwardly effective, conceived on a large scale, led to modest results or gave unexpected and often erroneous results.

It can also be said that Catherine simply implemented the changes dictated by the time, continued the policy outlined in previous reigns.

Or to recognize in it a paramount historical figure who took the second, after Peter I, step along the path of Europeanization of the country, and the first - along the path of reforming it in the liberal-enlightenment spirit.

Bibliography

1. Encyclopedia for children "Avanta +". Russian history. Volume 5, part two. Moscow: Avanta+, 1997.

2. "Order" of Empress Catherine II. S. - Petersburg, 1907.

3. History of Russia. A. Ishimova. M.: Olma-Press, 2000.

Catherine II, the great empress, ruled our country for exactly 34 years. This is a huge period of history, during which a wide variety of events took place.

In the mass consciousness, this ruler is associated with a lady insatiable in love. Well, Catherine II is known for her love affairs, in many historical novels you can read that the empress changed her favorites all the time. But let's face it: has she really been busy with this for all 34 years? Certainly not: all Russian historians consider the period of her reign to be the heyday of Russian literature, science and painting; it was then that Russian opera appeared and theatrical art developed at an unprecedented pace.

It was Catherine 2, whose reforms were thought out, weighed, and therefore cautious, who left a deep mark on the history of Russian diplomacy and legislation.

We should not forget about the brilliant military victories. While this autocrat occupied the throne, Russia did not suffer a single military defeat, in contrast to previous periods. For example, in 1812 we defeated the French, although before that the victories on the battlefield belonged to them. The time of Catherine is characterized by the annexation of the Crimea, as well as tough "lessons" for the Polish gentry. Finally, let us recall the well-known reforms of Catherine II.

Domestic politics

What was happening at that time inside the country? There were many events, since Catherine, unlike many of her predecessors, came to power with a ready-made program of action, which allowed her to pursue a truly effective policy. She positioned herself as "a faithful follower of the thinkers of the Enlightenment." To her credit, Catherine was able to understand what of their theories is suitable for real life, and what is not very good.

So, in 1773, the famous Denis Diderot visited Russia, who was very interested in the reforms of the management of Catherine 2. He was surprised to find that the Empress listened to him attentively, listening to all his proposals, but ... was in no hurry to translate any of them into a life. When a somewhat wounded philosopher asked why this was happening, Catherine said: “Paper can endure everything, but I have to deal with people whose skin is much thinner than a paper sheet.”

Her second important thought concerned the fact that any undertaking and reform should be carried out gradually, gradually preparing society for their acceptance. This favorably distinguished Catherine from both domestic rulers and European monarchs, who practically never considered the interests of their subjects in such a matter.

So, what exactly did Empress Catherine II do? Reforms should begin to be described from the provincial.

Provincial reform

She began to conduct it shortly after the Pugachev rebellion, which shook the very pillars of the Empire and was a kind of harbinger of future tragic events. Unlike Nicholas II, Catherine knew how to draw conclusions.

First, the very name of this transformation is completely incorrect. The thing is that the essence of the reform was much deeper, representing the creation of an almost new management system “in the field”.

A new division of the country was proposed. In total, there were 50 provinces, and this division remained practically unchanged until the collapse of the Empire in 1917. What does this mean? Simply put, several times more cities of “federal” significance were formed in the country than before. An appointed governor comes to a specific locality, and a mass of energetic, educated people go there. As a result, the quiet and "musty" county town soon turned into a local center of social and political life.

Response to Pugachev's rebellion

Here the attentive reader may well ask the question: "And where is the influence of Pugachev's rebellion"? It's simple: after these events, Catherine wanted most of the local power to be recruited from the natives of the same area. Simply put, for the first time in the history of the Romanov dynasty, the people were given the opportunity to independently choose those who would rule them. An unprecedented breakthrough for those times! This is what Catherine 2 became famous for. Her reforms allowed her to move away from the mossy social order the beginning of the 16th century and finally forced many industries to really develop.

Self-government bodies arose, which are familiar to our time, but were a curiosity for that era. Let's make a reservation right away: all this theoretically existed before Catherine. But it was not done purposefully, but only because of the lack of metropolitan officials who could be sent to all cities and villages of the vast empire. All these bodies did not have real powers, limited only by the right to collect taxes and other mechanical operations. If we draw parallels with the current times, then the internal reforms of Catherine 2 were aimed at the redistribution of power.

All these transformations were the result of the empress's belief that all riots arise due to the inability of the appointed officials to quickly "deep into" problems on the ground and solve them. In principle, such governors had no such desire: it was important for them to report on the achievements of the “people's five-year plan” and collect taxes. Nothing else was required of them, and the initiative was always punishable.

It is important to note that after 1775, when this reform was carried out, there was not a single (!) repetition of the Pugachev rebellion. Local authorities, although sometimes distinguished by the same desire for bribery, were still much more interested in improving the life of their native land. Simply put, government reforms Catherine 2 was indeed aimed at the good of the country.

The emergence of civic consciousness

Many historians agree that since then, weak, but still noticeable features of civil society and self-awareness began to appear. So, it was in those days that it constantly happened that residents of small county towns held meetings, collected voluntary donations and built gymnasiums, libraries, churches and other objects of the social and spiritual sphere with these funds.

Until then, such coherence and unanimity could not even be imagined. How far was the said Diderot from a real solution of social problems!

Senate reform

Of course, Catherine 2 (whose reforms we describe here) was far from being a "herald of democracy." She could not even think of limiting her power in any way and weakening the institution of state absolutism. Thus, seeing the increasing independence of the Senate, the empress decided to take it “under the strong state wing”, limiting in every possible way any real power of this important body.

At the end of 1763, the structure of the Senate was deemed "not consistent with reality." The role of the Prosecutor General, who was appointed by the Empress herself, was extremely exalted.

A. A. Vyazemsky was nominated for this position. In general, this man was famous: he was respected even by enemies for his incorruptibility, honesty and zeal in serving the Fatherland. He daily reported to Catherine on the work of the Senate, subordinated all the provincial prosecutors to himself, and also single-handedly performed many functions that had until then been distributed in the Senate. Of course, the role of this body was constantly falling, although formally everything was not so.

All the functions of the Senate were soon distributed among completely autonomous departments, which in fact were only puppets and could no longer pursue a coherent common policy.

Changing the structure of public administration

At the same time, the complete inconsistency of the old system of urban government with the new aspirations of the state began to be more and more pronounced. The provincial reform of Catherine II, which we have already described, made each city an absolutely independent administrative unit. The mayor was responsible for managing it, whose status immediately increased disproportionately.

He was appointed from those who served military service nobles and had great power. On the same official "hung" the police, and not only managerial functions, and therefore the person in this position should have been distinguished by enviable diligence. This reform of local government by Catherine II immediately contributed to restoring order in the field.

On the contrary, town halls and magistrates immediately almost lost all their administrative significance, turning into judicial bodies for merchants and industrialists. A new magistrate was created, in which people were recruited on the recommendations of merchants and industrialists. The administration of this body was carried out by the mayor. In addition, public and orphan's courts operated in the cities. From all this, city self-government was formed, to the creation of which many reforms of Catherine 2 were directed. Of course, it was under constant supervision by the central government, but still it was also a breakthrough in the field of social and administrative spheres. However, there was no other way out for the authorities: the cities grew intensively, many enterprises, communities, educational and other institutions appeared. All this had to be “brought to a common denominator”, everything required adequate city government, which only the provincial reform of Catherine II could implement in practice.

Judicial reform of Catherine

All of the above leads to a quite simple conclusion: such a rapid development of the social sphere would be impossible without normal judicial bodies that could correctly resolve the inevitable contradictions and disputes, both between individual members of society and between their entire groups.

It should also be emphasized that the judicial reform of Catherine 2 was based on a similar undertaking by Peter I, only the empress was able to find a much more elegant solution, and therefore the program was not only implemented, but also gave very good results.

In 1775, the first set of official regulations was published. Many administrative courts were abolished and completely disbanded. Finally, two branches of power were clearly demarcated: judicial and administrative, which had previously been merged. Moreover, the administrative power retained its unity of command, while the judiciary was governed collegially.

Of course, the reforms of Catherine 2 were not famous for this. Briefly, their main significance for the judicial system is revealed below.

Important note

Most importantly, civil and criminal lawsuits have finally been separated. At one time, it was precisely this “atavism” that interfered with the administration of normal justice, since it was difficult to adequately distinguish between guilt for administrative violations and really serious acts. The lower court was the county court. He dealt with small and insignificant matters. Thus, the load on the judges, who were doing something really important, was significantly reduced.

In general, the results of the reforms of Catherine 2 are the same in all areas - a sharp increase in the efficiency of many industries. Even now, this makes one respect the empress for her outstanding managerial talent. But back to the courts.

The county authority considered more serious applications. In contrast to the Zemsky court described above, in this court the assessors were already recruited from the landowners. The meetings were held exactly three times a year, and the work of this body was already observed by the prosecutor, whose duty was the function of the "internal police", as he recorded all cases of violation of the laws by the judges themselves and reported on it "upstairs".

At the provincial level, the Supreme Zemsky Court became the main body in the hierarchy, which could be located not only in the provincial, but also in the county town. From now on, in each administrative center there could be several such bodies at once. Each of them already had ten judges. Chairmen were chosen exclusively by the Senate, and their approval was often handled personally by the head of state.

But not only this was marked by the reforms of Catherine 2: in short, the courts became more specialized.

Structural division of courts

The Upper Zemstvo Court was divided into criminal and purely administrative departments. It was an important instance for the "junior" bodies. In addition, its judges had the right to hear more complex cases. The fact is that already then a list of offenses was legislated, which could not be considered by representatives of the lower zemstvo and county courts, as well as members of the magistrate. All this hindered the development of nepotism in the localities.

The Provincial Court also had a public and criminal chamber. Each had its own chairman, as well as a couple of advisers and assessors. They could also be elected exclusively by the Senate and approved by the Supreme Power. It was the highest court of those times, in which the most complex cases were considered, as well as all the most serious and dangerous crimes.

In a word, the judicial reform of Catherine II was very, very complicated.

Secularization reform

Catherine started her in 1764. From now on, all the lands of the monasteries were officially transferred to the management of the Economic College. In the course of this reform, Catherine followed in the footsteps of Peter I, who did not like the clergy too much. On the one hand, from now on, the state was obliged to support the Church ... but at the same time, the secular authorities themselves determined how many monasteries and clergymen the country needed. The Board also had the right to alienate "extra" lands to the state fund.

Transformations in the educational sphere

The education reform of Catherine 2 is also known. Its main task is the creation of Orphanages, the pupils of which received monetary allowance, full maintenance and education. As a result, the country replenished the ranks of its citizens with a large number of educated and intelligent young people who were devoted to the state and brought up in the right moral and ethical spirit.

Police reform

In 1782, the "Charter of the Deanery" was approved. The council began to officially manage the city police department. The composition included: bailiffs, police chief and mayor, as well as a commission of citizens, the composition of which was determined by voting. This body could impose a fine or censure, and also had the right to prohibit certain types of activities.

What other important reforms of Catherine II were? The table will give us an answer to this question, and also somewhat complement the goals of those activities that have already been considered in this article.

Here are other reforms of Catherine 2. The table reveals their essence in sufficient detail.

results

It is no exaggeration to say that all the events that took place were truly momentous. What did the reforms of Catherine II contribute to? Briefly (the table reveals this moment), speaking, they were aimed at achieving dual goals:

Strengthening autocracy.

Economic freedom of the population, the ability to rise from the lower classes to capable people.

During her reign, the threat of disobedience from the Cossack freemen was almost completely eliminated. What other consequences of the reforms of Catherine 2 can be called? The church was finally subordinated to the will of the state, the judicial branch became more flexible. Citizens, one way or another, got the opportunity to participate in the fate own city or even provinces.

This is what the reforms of Catherine 2 were marked by. Briefly (the table will help you see this), speaking, society has become more conscious, free and socially protected.