Trajan's reign foreign policy and internal scheme. Emperor Trajan: brief biography, interesting facts, photos

Early career and early reign

Trajan was the first emperor born outside of Rome. His family descended from a group of soldiers, which Scipio in 205 BC. e. resettled in Spanish Italica.

Father, Mark Ulpius Trajan Sr. (? - before), was supposedly the first in the family to achieve the senatorial class, under Nero. He was born in Spain to a family of Roman settlers. His sister Ulpia was the wife of Praetor Publius Aelius Adrian Afra, father of the Roman Emperor Hadrian. In he was appointed procurator in Baetica, possibly commanding a legion under the command of Corbulo in the early 60s, he was appointed legate of the legion X Fretensis under Vespasian, then procurator of Judea, he served in Cappadocia from November, received a consulate the same year, and in Syria from autumn, where he prevented an attempted Parthian invasion. B/ he was proconsul of Asia. After his death in the year 100, he was deified, receiving the honorary title " divus Traianus pater» .

Trajan's mother was Marcia (-), who was the daughter of the Roman senator Quintus Marcius Barea Sura and Antonia Furnilla. Her sister, Marcia Furnilla was the second wife of Emperor Titus. Marcia's paternal grandfather was Quintus Marcius Barea, who was suffect consul in 26 and twice proconsul of Africa, while her maternal grandfather was Aulus Antonius Rufus, suffect consul in 44 or 45. In 48, Marcia gave birth to Trajan's sister Ulpia Marciana. In honor of Marcia, Trajan founded a colony in North Africa, which was called Colonia Marciana Ulpia Traiana Thamugadi.

Trajan was born on September 15, 53 in the city of Italica, not far from Seville, where the Ulpiev family owned considerable land. Trajan began his service with a coin triumvir in ( triumvir monetalis), responsible for minting currency. Around this time, he married Pompeia Plotina, a native of Nemauz (Narbonne Gaul). In he became a tribune-laticlavius ​​in Syria, and two years later he was transferred to the same position in one of the legions stationed in Germany. In January, Trajan became quaestor and praetor. The following year he was appointed legate of the legion. VII Gemina in Tarraconian Spain and in January he participated in the suppression of the uprising of Saturninus and his German allies the Hutts, for which he received a consulate. Procuratorships later followed in Moesia Inferior and Germania Superior.

Internal struggle for power

Statue of Trajan

After the assassination of Domitian in 97, the aging senator Nerva succeeded to the throne. The discontent in the army and the Praetorian Guard and the weakness of Nerva created the ground for political struggle in the Senate. At the very beginning of Nerva's reign, the Praetorians secured the execution of the murderers of Domitian. The Senate began to prepare for the death of the emperor, and Nerva lost a significant part of his powers. As a result, in October 97, an uprising of legionnaires broke out against Nerva, who tried to enthrone a new emperor, already from a soldier's environment. It was then that the real struggle for power began. At this time, two factions formed in the Senate, each of which sought to elevate its protege to Nerva's successor. One of the candidates Nigrinus Cornelius was the governor of the province of Syria, where one of the most powerful armies in the Roman Empire was located. Another group of senators leaned towards Trajan's candidacy. These senators were probably Sextus Julius Frontinus, Lucius Julius Ursus, Gnaeus Domitius Tullus, Lucius Licinius Sura, and Titus Vestricius Spurianus. In the same year, Trajan was appointed procurator of Germania Superior and Moesia Inferior, in opposition to the possible usurpation of Nigrinus. In this situation, realizing how weak his power was, Nerva (a former lawyer) came up with a system that ensured the prosperity of the Roman Empire over the next century - according to her, the emperor (also called Augustus) had to appoint a successor and co-ruler (called Caesar) during his lifetime . Moreover, the choice of Caesar was to be carried out regardless of kinship, but only according to his personal qualities. In order to consolidate the power of Caesar, he was adopted in August. When the Praetorians captured the imperial palace on the Palatine Hill, Nerva failed to save some of his officials. But he acted wisely, making Trajan his co-ruler and heir (that is, Caesar). This was divine inspiration, according to Pliny's eulogy.

military activity

Trajan made significant changes to the structure of the Roman army as a whole. Were created:

• legions II Traiana Fortis and XXX Ulpia Victrix(both in for the second Dacian campaign, so total number legions reached a maximum under the Empire - 30);
• aly I Ulpia contariorum miliaria and Ulpia dromedariorum, consisting of fighting camels , several divisions of Romanized Dacians and 6 auxiliary cohorts of Nabataeans ;
• new horse guard Equites singulares) with an initial number of 500 people from the inhabitants of Thrace, Pannonia, Dacia and Retsia.

The so-called frumentarii were transformed into a reconnaissance formation based in the Foreign Camp ( Castra peregrinorum). To strengthen the Danube border, Trajan's rampart was erected. 3 new positions have appeared in the medical service - medicus legionis, medicus cohortis and optio valetudinarii(respectively legion and cohort physician and head of a military hospital).

Dacian campaigns

Already almost from the very beginning of his reign, Trajan, without delay, began to prepare for the Dacian campaign, designed once and for all to avert a serious threat that had long hung over the Danube border. Preparations were carried out for almost a year - new fortresses, bridges and roads were built in the mountainous regions of Moesia, troops called from Germany and the eastern provinces were added to the nine legions standing on the Danube. At the base of the legion VII Claudia Pia Fidelis Vimination assembled a shock fist from 12 legions, 16 al and 62 auxiliary cohorts with a total number of up to 200 thousand people. After that, in March, the Roman army, violating the agreement of Domitian and dividing into two columns (Trajan himself commanded the western one), crossed the Danube along the pontoon bridge. These forces were opposed by the approximately 160,000-strong (including 20,000 allies - Bastarns, Roxolans and, presumably, Boers) Decebalus army. The Romans had to fight hard; the aggressor faced a worthy adversary who not only staunchly resisted, but also bravely counterattacked on the Roman side of the Danube.

In Tibiska, the army united again and began to advance towards Tapami. Tapas were located on the outskirts of the capital of Dacia, Sarmizegetuse, where in September a battle took place with the Dacians who put up stubborn resistance.

Rejecting Decebalus' request for peace, Trajan was forced to come to the aid of the attacked fortresses south of the Danube. There he was successful - the procurator of Lower Moesia, Laberius Maxim, captured Decebal's sister, and the trophies captured after the defeat of Fusk were won back without a fight. In February, a bloody battle took place near Adamklissi, during which Trajan ordered his own clothes to be torn into bandages. Nearly 4,000 Romans died. In honor of this Pyrrhic victory, monumental monuments, a huge mausoleum, a grave altar with a list of the dead and a small mound were erected in Adamklissi. In the spring, a counteroffensive was launched, but the Romans, with considerable effort, drove the Dacians back into the mountains.

Trajan again rejected the repeated request for peace, and already in the autumn he managed to approach Sarmizegetusa. Trajan agreed to a third attempt to negotiate, since his army by that time was exhausted in battles, but with conditions that were quite harsh for the Dacians. Although in the late autumn, neither Trajan nor his commanders believed in the successful completion of the struggle. Nevertheless, a triumph was celebrated in December, and in order to be able to quickly transfer reinforcements to Dacia, Trajan ordered his civil engineer Apollodorus to build a grandiose stone bridge across the Danube near the Drobeta fortress, but due to non-compliance with the contract, its construction was accelerated, and the legion was entrusted with protection Legion I "Italica" (legio I "Italica").

In the annexed Nabataean kingdom, due to its great strategic importance, no less rapid Romanization began. Just as on the Danube, the construction of roads, fortifications and a surveillance system immediately began. Already under the first procurator, Gaius Claudius Severus, the construction of connecting highways between the Red Sea and Syria began. The via Nova Traiana road from Akkaba through Petra, Philadelphia and Bosra to Damascus was systematically repaired and guarded, which was a cobblestone pavement seven meters wide and was one of the most important highways in the entire Middle East. In parallel with this highway, a layered surveillance system was built with small fortresses, towers and signal stations. Their task was to control the caravan routes and oases in the frontier zone and to supervise all caravan trade. In the city of Bosra, a Roman legion was stationed, which defended the lands of the new province from attacks by nomads.

uprisings

Despite the colossal successes achieved, isolated Jewish uprisings began at first in the rear of the army. Many once again expected the arrival of the messiah, who could exacerbate separatist and fundamentalist sentiments. In Cyrenaica, a certain Andrew Luke defeated the local Greeks and ordered the destruction of the temples of Apollo, Artemis, Demeter, Pluto, Isis and Hekate, Salamis in Cyprus was destroyed by the Jew Artemion, riots broke out between Jews and Greeks in Alexandria. The tombstone of Pompey who took Jerusalem was practically destroyed. The Egyptian procurator Mark Rutilius Lupus could only send a legion ( III Cyrenaica or XXII Deiotariana) to defend Memphis. To restore order in Alexandria, Trajan sent Marcius Turbon with a legion there. VII Claudia and military courts, and for the reconstruction of the destroyed temples, Jewish property had to be confiscated. Lucius Severus landed in Cyprus.

However, in the fall of the following year, the Parthians and Jews launched a large partisan movement that reached Armenia and Northern Mesopotamia, a little later the Greek city of Seleucia fell away from Rome. Unlike other centers of revolt in Mesopotamia, a united front was formed, in the formation of which, perhaps, small Jewish dynasties made a significant contribution, continuing to rule their vassal states within the framework of the Parthian kingdom. Trajan had difficulty in controlling the situation. The tough Lucius Quiet, who commanded the Mauritanian auxiliary formations, was sent to Northern Mesopotamia, the fallen Seleucia and Edessa were taken by storm and burned. For these successful actions, Trajan appointed Quiet as Jewish procurator. Quiet was one of the few blacks who managed to make a career in the Roman service.

But on the other front, the Parthians defeated the army of the consul Appius Maximus Santra, several garrisons were destroyed. Trajan tried to install the pro-Roman aristocrat Partamaspat as king in Ctesiphon, but the part of the troops that was at his disposal had already been transferred to Judea. However, Chosroes' counteroffensive was prevented - the troops of the pro-Parthian Armenian king Sanatruk were defeated, and negotiations were held with Vologez. After the end of the Mesopotamian rebellion, an unknown author wrote the so-called "Book of Elhazai", which stated that the end of the world would come within the next three years.

Domestic politics

Trajan enjoyed enormous popularity both among the people and in the highest state circles and, as they said, he was distinguished by great physical strength and endurance. He loved to hunt, swim, row and wade through the wilds of the forest. During his principate, Trajan was consul only 9 times, often giving this position to his friends. During the entire period of the empire, there were only about 12 or 13 private individuals ( privacy), who obtained a triple consulate. Under Trajan, there were three of them: Sextus Julius Frontinus, Titus Vestricius Spurinna (both in 100) and Lucius Licinius Sura (107), and ten of his commanders in the Dacian campaigns and closest friends Lucius Julius Urs Servian, Laberius Maximus, Quintus Glycius Atilius Agricola, Publius Metilius Sabin Nepos, Sextus Attius Suburan Aemilianus, Titus Julius Candide Marius Celsus, Antius Julius Quadratus, Gaius Sosius Senetion, Aulus Cornelius Palma Frontonianus and Lucius Publius Celsus) were consuls twice. New members of the senate began to be appointed from the eastern provinces, lese-majesty trials were canceled. To greet his friends, Trajan often visited them on holidays or when they were sick. According to Eutropius, in the end, those around him even began to reproach him that with everyone he behaves like a simple citizen.

Due to the influx of 165 tons of Dacian gold and 331 tons of silver, the price of gold fell by 3-4%, all taxes for 106 were abolished, and each taxpayer received 650 denarii, which was twice the annual salary of a legionnaire. The distribution of wine and oil was added to the traditional distribution of bread in the capital (to which 5,000 needy children were assigned) but the same system was practiced in other areas at the expense of the municipality and private benefactors.

Construction

Trajan's large-scale building program, deployed with funds from victorious campaigns, had a huge impact on the infrastructure of Rome and Italy and made an even greater contribution to the image of the best princeps. Supervised the construction (and designed all the most significant structures) Apollodorus of Damascus - Trajan's companion from the Dacian campaign. Almost all new buildings received Trajan's cognomen or nomen - the famous column about 40 meters high, forum, market near the new forum, basilica, the so-called "Trophy" ( Tropaeum Traiani), Baths of Trajan, Trajan's aqueduct, road ( via Traiana, which offered an easier route from Brundisium than Appian) and others. In connection with the improvement of the harbor in Ancona, an arch was erected in 114-115 with the inscription « providentissimo principi quod accessum Italiae hoc etiam addito ex pecunia sua portu tutiorem navigantibus reddiderit» . In addition to the new forum erected by Trajan in Rome, the famous column reminds of his reign in the capital (in 1587 the figure of the emperor standing on it was replaced by a statue of the Apostle Peter). The entire height of the column is decorated with amazingly fine work of bas-reliefs depicting episodes of the war with the Dacians. Almost as well known is Trajan's triumphal arch at Benevente in southern Italy. But Trajan was especially fond of the harbor he built in Centumcellae. The Danube road began to cross all of Central and Eastern Europe, a large transport artery began to pass from the south of the Black Sea through all of Asia Minor to the Euphrates, and a canal from the Nile to the Red Sea was reopened. This channel has since been called the ditch of Trajan, Fossa Traiana. Also known is the bridge on the Tagus River in Spain, near the present Alcantra. It connects two steep banks, its height from the water surface is more than 70 meters. The arcades of the bridge are made of granite blocks.

Religious policy

The most striking evidence of the relationship between the Roman state and early Christianity is Trajan's correspondence with Pliny the Younger (Secundus), during the latter's governorship in Bithynia. From the point of view of Roman legislation of that time, early Christian communities (ecclesias) were considered as colleges - associations of persons connected by worship or a common profession. Their activities were regulated by imperial legislation, which required, at a minimum, registration and obtaining permission. The Christian ecclesias of Bithynia, due to the eschatological sentiments then widespread in the proto-Christian environment, refused any interaction with the secular authorities, which led to an investigation.

At the request of Pliny, Trajan replied that anonymous denunciations should not be accepted, however, if affiliation with Christians is proved, a simple renunciation should be demanded, punishing only if it is refused:

You have acted properly, my Secundus, in investigating the cases of those who were denounced to you as Christians. It is impossible in such cases to establish once and for all a definite formula. There is no need to look for them: if they are reported and it is possible to convict them, they must be punished, guided, however, by the fact that repentance removes guilt from the accused, no matter what suspicions lie on him, if he begins to deny his belonging to Christians, confirming his conviction by deed, that is, by the worship of our gods. Unnamed denunciations should not be taken into account in any accusations. This is a very bad example, it is not necessary to stick to it in our age.

original text(lat.)

Actum quem debuisti, mi Secunde, in excutiendis causis eorum, qui Christiani ad te delati fuerant, secutus es. Neque enim in universum aliquid, quod quasi certam formam habeat, constitui potest. conquirendi non sunt; si deferantur et arguantur, puniendi sunt, ita tamen ut, qui negaverit se Christianum esse idque re ipsa manifestum fecerit, id est supplicando dis nostris, quamvis suspectus in praeteritum, veniam ex paenitentia impetret. Sine auctore vero propositi libelli nullo crimine locum habere debent. Nam et pessimi exempli nec nostri saeculi est.

Age of Trajan

During the siege of the fortress of Hatra in Mesopotamia, Trajan fell ill. Poisoning was suspected. After lifting the siege, the emperor returned to Antioch in the summer of 117. He handed over the leadership of the army and governorship in Syria to his relative Hadrian. He already had the experience of a military leader, and Empress Plotina supported his candidacy. In all likelihood, in Antioch, Trajan was partially paralyzed as a result of apoplexy. And yet he ordered to take himself to the capital. Trajan died on August 9 in the city of Selinus (Cilicia). His ashes were brought to Rome, where they immured with all honors a golden urn in the base of his triumphal column. The memory of the good emperor lived for a long time among the people.

A family

After the death of his father, Trajan had no close male relatives. The only distant relative was Adrian's cousin. Trajan's life was closely connected with his wife and relatives. These women played a very important role in the social life of the empire. Trajan was married to Pompey Plotina, who was a distant relative of his. She nursed him on his deathbed. Plotina and the emperor's sister, Ulpia Marciana, were awarded the title of Augusta in 105. And when Marciana died in the same year, she was ranked among the gods, and her daughter Matidia inherited this title from her.

Trajan in culture

Trajan is mentioned in Russian mythology as a deity. Troyan - a name mentioned several times in the Tale of Igor's Campaign, where "vechi (or, according to another reading, battles) of Trojans" appear, " 7th century Trojan"(The activity of Prince Vseslav of Polotsk belongs to him, that is, the XI century)," the land of Trojan” (which cannot be unambiguously localized based on the context) and “Troyan's trail”. As to who the Trojan is, there are many hypotheses of varying degrees of certainty. Some believe that Trojan is the Roman emperor Mark Ulpius Trajan, who fought in the Balkans and is known to the Slavs (or, rather, his mythologized image; Trajan, like many successful emperors, was deified, Trajan's ramparts bearing his name remained in Dacia). " Troyan trail”- this is his military road in the Black Sea region (via Traiani) or a monument erected by him (“tropeum” - a Roman trophy as a sign of the enemy’s flight, tropheum or tropeum Traiani, which has survived to this day), “land of Trojan” - Dacia and, in particular, the area at the mouth of the Danube, where there were clashes between Russia and the Polovtsy, and " centuries of Trojan"are counted from the cessation of contacts between the Slavs and the Romans (IV century) or the number seven is conditionally epic in nature.

Another version connects the name of Troyan with Troy and the Slavic versions of ancient legends about the Trojan War (it was followed, in particular, by R. O. Yakobson). Many peoples in the Middle Ages considered themselves descendants of the Trojans, and the Slavs were no exception. The "seventh century" in the understanding of Yakobson, who otherwise divides the text, is not connected with Vseslav, but means the seventh millennium (the old Russian meaning of the word) from the creation of the world, with the seventh century of which, which began in the city, eschatological expectations were associated, and when the nomads began to invade to Russia ("the land of Trojan").

There is also an interpretation according to which Troyan is an erroneous reading of the name Boyan, another mysterious character in The Lay. In South Slavic folklore, Troyan is a demonic hero, a king with goat ears and legs, sometimes three-headed. In the Serbian fairy tale, Troyan has three heads: one head devours people, another cattle, the third fish; apparently, the victims of Troyan symbolize his connection with the space zones, the three kingdoms. In Serbian folklore, King Troyan is a night demon. He visits his beloved at night and leaves her when the horses eat all the food and the roosters crow at dawn. The brother of Troyan's mistress fills the horses with sand instead of oats, pulls out the tongues of the roosters. The Trojan is delayed until dawn, and on the way back it is melted by the sun. Trajan is also mentioned in The Divine Comedy.

see also

primary sources

• Pliny the Younger. "Panegyric". "Letters"
• Dio Cassius. "Roman History", LXVIII, eng. text from Loeb Classical Library)
• Aurelius Victor. "About the Caesars". XIII.
• Eutropius. "Breviary from the Foundation of the City", VIII, 2-6
• Pseudo-Aurelius Victor, Epitome XIII.
• Pausanias. Description of Hellas. 4.35.2 and 5.12.4.

Literature

In Russian

• M. Grant. "Roman Emperors"
• K. Christ. "History of the times of the Roman emperors from Augustus to Constantine"
• S. I. Kovalev. History of Rome, ch. VII
• Shadrina V. Yu. 2005: The Ideological Policy of the Emperor Trajan: Its Essence, Peculiarities and Significance: Auth. diss ... Ph.D. M.
• Yu. A. Kolosovskaya. Trajan's war with the Dacians // Rome and the world of tribes on the Danube I-IV centuries. AD - M .: Nauka, 2000.

In German

• Werner Eck: Trajan. 98-117. In: Manfred Clauss (Hrsg.): Die römischen Kaiser. C. H. Beck, München 1997, ISBN 3-406-42727-8, S. 111-124.
• Martin Fell: Optimus princeps? Anspruch und Wirklichkeit der imperialen Programmatik Kaiser Traians. 2. Auflage. Tuduv, München 2001, ISBN 3-88073-586-7.
• Annette Nunnerich-Asmus(Hrsg.): Traian. Ein Kaiser der Superlative am Beginn einer Umbruchzeit?. Philipp von Zabern, Mainz 2002, ISBN 3-8053-2780-3 (Rezension).
• Christian Ronning: Herrscherpanegyrik unter Trajan und Konstantin. Studien zur symbolischen Kommunikation in der römischen Kaiserzeit. Tübingen 2007, ISBN 3-16-149212-9. (Resension)
• Egon Schallmayer(Hrsg.): Traian in Germanien, Traian im Reich. Bericht des Dritten Saalburgkolloquiums. Saalburgmuseum, Bad Homburg v. d. h. 1999, ISBN 3-931267-04-0 (Saalburg-Schriften. 5).
• Gunnar Seelentag: Taten und Tugenden Traians. Herrschaftsdarstellung im Principat. Franz Steiner Verlag, Stuttgart 2004, ISBN 3-515-08539-4 (ausgezeichnet mit dem Bruno-Snell-Preis) (Rezension (engl.)).
• Karl Strobel: Untersuchungen zu den Dakerkriegen Trajans. Studien zur Geschichte des mittleren und unteren Donauraumes in der Hohen Kaiserzeit. Habelt, Bonn 1984, ISBN 3-7749-2021-4 (Antiquitas. Reihe 1, 33).
• Klaus Gunther Wesseling: Trajan. In: Biographisch-Bibliographisches Kirchenlexikon (BBKL). Band 12, Herzberg 1997, ISBN 3-88309-068-9, Sp. 394-410..

In English

Notes

1. Konstantin Ryzhov. Adrian // All the monarchs of the world. Greece, Rome, Byzantium. Moscow, 2001. Cit. Quoted from: Hadrian, Elius chrono.ru
2. Grant M. Roman emperors. Nerva. - M., 1998.
3. Syme, Tacitus, 30-44; PIR Vlpivs 575
4. Julian Bennett. Trajan. p. 11-19
5. Pauly Wissowa, RE 14.2, 1535-1600.
6. http://www.jstor.org/pss/638620
7. Julian Bennett. Trajan. p. 45-46
8. Sueton, Domitian 23.
9. Dio Cassius. 68.3.2.
10. Pliny. Panegyric. eight.
11. History of the Augusts. Adrian 2.5-6
12. Dio Cassius. 68.
13. Aurelius Victor. About Caesars. XIII. 8-10.
14. Julian Bennett. Trajan. p. 88-89.
15. Julian Bennett. Trajan. p. 90-93
16. Waters, "Traianus Domitiani Continuator"
17. Julian Bennett. Trajan. p. 93-95
18. See Lepper and Frere, Packer, and Richmond, "Trajan's Army"
19. Julian Benett. Trajan. p. 120
20. Karl Strobel: Studies in Trajan's Dacian Wars. Studies on the history of the middle and lower Danube region in the early Roman Empire. page 221
21. Julian Bennett. Trajan. p. 97-103
22. Julian Bennett. Trajan. p. 121.
23. Julian Bennett. Trajan. p. 194-195
24. Michael Zahrnt: urbanitas gleich romanitas. Die Stadtepolitik
25. Luttvak, Grand Strategy, p. 108
26. Julian Bennett. Trajan. p. 196.
27. Pliny. epistulae. 6,19,3f.
28. Werner Eck: Die Stellung Italiens in Traians Reichspolitik. In: Egon Schallmayer (Hrsg.), Traian in Germanien. Traian im Reich, Bad Homburg 1999, S. 11-16, hier: S. 13.
29. Gunnar Seelentag: Der Kaiser als Fürsorger. Die italische Alimentarinstitution. In: Historia, Bd. 57, 2008, S. 208-241, hier: S. 209. Dort weiterer Forschungsstand.
30. Werner Eck: Traian. In: Manfred Clauss (Hrsg.): Die römischen Kaiser. 55 historische Portraits von Caesar bis Iustinian. München 1997, S. 110-124, hier: S. 120.
31. Julian Bennett. Trajan. p. 197-199
32. Annette Nünnerich-Asmus: Er baute fur das Volk?! Die stadtromischen Bauten des Traian. In: Annette Nünnerich-Asmus (Hrsg.): Traian. Ein Kaiser der Superlative am Beginn einer Umbruchzeit? Mainz 2002, S. 97-124, hier: S. 118.
33. Julian Bennett. Trajan. p. 200-201, The Cambridge Ancient History s. 669-671
34. Werner Eck: Traian. In: Manfred Clauss (Hrsg.): Die römischen Kaiser. 55 historische Portraits von Caesar bis Iustinian. München 1997, S. 110-124, hier: S. 119.
35. Michael Zahrnt: urbanitas gleich romanitas. Die Städtepolitik des Kaisers Trajan. In: Annette Nünnerich-Asmus (Hrsg.): Traian. Ein Kaiser der Superlative am Beginn einer Umbruchzeit? Mainz 2002, S. 51-72, hier: S. 55.
36. Joachim Molthagen: Christen in der nichtchristlichen Welt des Römischen Reiches der Kaiserzeit (1.-3. Jahrhundert). Ausgewählte Beiträge aus Wissenschaft und kirchlicher Praxis, St. Katharinen 2005, S. 116-145, hier: S. 116.
37. Julian Bennett. Trajan. p. 194
38. Hildegard Temporini-Gräfin Vitzthum: Die Familie der "Adoptivkaiser" von Traian bis Commodus. In: Hildegard Temporini-Gräfin Vitzthum (Hrsg.): Die Kaiserinnen Roms. Von Livia bis Theodora. München 2002, S.187-264, hier: S. 190.
39. Theodor Mommsen, Römische Kaisergeschichte. Munich 1992, S. 389.
40. Alfred Heuß: Römische Geschichte, 4. ergänzte Auflage, Braunschweig 1976, S. 344ff.
41. Gregory the Great and Trajan. The Earliest Life of St Gregory the Great by a Monk or Nun At Whitby, A.D. 713 (English) . Archived
42. The Earliest Life of St Gregory the Great by a Monk or Nun At Whitby, A.D. 713 (English) . Archived from the original on August 23, 2011.
43. Cod. Sang. 567 . St. Gallen, Stiftsbibliothek. - Photocopy of the original manuscript, pp. 105-106.
44. The Lives of the Saints, in Russian, set forth by St. Dmitry Rostovsky. M., Synodal Printing House, 1905
45. Eugen Cizek: L'Époque de Trajan. Circonstances politiques et problems ideologiques. Paris 1983, S. 21-25 and S. 512-515.
46. Julian Bennett. Trajan. p. 199
47. Julian Bennett. Trajan. p. 199-200.
48. Pseudo-Aurelius Victor. XIII. eleven.
49. Aurelius Victor. About Caesars. XIII. 2-8.
50. In Catherine's copy, instead of "On the seventh century of Trojan", as in the first edition, there is "On the seventh century of Zoyani". R. O. Yakobson suggested that in the original it was “from Trojan”, where the letter z, called “land”, stood instead of this word, which there are other examples in ancient Russian manuscripts, that is, it should be read “land of Trojan”.
51. Kuzmin A. G. Beginning of Russia. M.: Veche, 2003. S. 199-203.
52. TRAJANOVA LAND OR - BOIANOVA
53. Werner Eck, Review of the 1st edition (1997), Scripta Classica Israelica 17 , 1998, S. 231-234.

Links

• L. V. Sokolova, Trajan in the "Word". Encyclopedia "Words about Igor's Campaign", v.5 - 1995
• The Last Great Conqueror: Trajan and the Dacian Wars (Goldsworthy A.)

Nerva died already at the beginning of 98. Trajan, who was at that moment on the Rhine border, in present-day Cologne (Roman Colonia Agrippina), became emperor without the slightest opposition. It is characteristic that Trajan did not immediately come to Rome after the death of Nerva, but remained on the Rhine for another 1.5 years, busy strengthening the border. This speaks to how firmly he felt as head of state. The emperor arrived in Rome only in the summer of 99, and one of his first actions was the punishment of the Praetorians who had rebelled at Nerva.

The latest modernizing historians are fond of calling Trajan's reign enlightened absolutism. Such a characterization, being incorrect in essence, correctly, however, emphasizes two points in Trajan's policy: firmness and "benevolentness". Trajan, under whom the imperial power reached its maximum stability, really could afford the luxury of being "benevolent". The essentially autocratic nature of his reign, he knew how to combine with tolerance and outward gentleness. Therefore, the title of "Optimus Princeps", which the senate awarded him, was not only an expression of servility.

Although Trajan did not assume the official title of censor, he, following the example of his predecessors, continued to renew the senate. He began to appoint new members of the senatorial estate mainly from the eastern, Hellenized provinces. His successors followed the same path, so that during the 2nd century. the senate began to really represent the interests of slave owners not only in the West, but also in the East. However, at the same time, the Senate was increasingly losing its real significance in the system of government, giving way to its bureaucracy.

The monument of Trajan's administrative activities is his correspondence with Pliny the Younger when the latter was the ruler of Bithynia. The emperor's concern for the needs of the province is characteristic. But this solicitude often expressed itself in a petty and captious control over provincial life. The governor of a province (not to mention local self-government) was completely devoid of initiative. Pliny, without the consent of Trajan, could not allow, for example, the inhabitants of the city of Prusa to build a bathhouse, create a fire brigade in the city of Nicomedia, and so on. Regarding the squad, the emperor expressed concern that under its flag some organization dangerous for public order, and on this basis did not give consent to its device.

Pliny's correspondence with Trajan contains an interesting indication of the spread of Christianity at the beginning of the second century, an indication that is all the more valuable because the correspondence does not raise doubts about its authenticity. Pliny asks the emperor what to do when he receives denunciations of Christians. Trajan replies that anonymous denunciations should not be believed, but if Christianity is proven, a simple renunciation will suffice. Only in case of refusal to renounce the new religion is it necessary to resort to punishment.

From this we can draw the following conclusions. First, at the beginning of the II century. Christianity in the eastern provinces of the empire became quite widespread and, apparently, had already separated from Judaism. Secondly, Christianity is recognized as hostile to the official Roman religion. Thirdly, Trajan treats him relatively tolerantly, and there is no talk of any systematic and mass persecution of Christians.

Here again, the general liberal tendencies of the emperors of the era of stabilization are manifested.

The system of state charity under Trajan reaches its full development. Epigraphic monuments speak of local funds created by the fiscal funds or thanks to contributions from private individuals. Children from poor families and orphans received monthly allowances: boys 16 sesterces, girls - 12. Direct management of the entire system belonged to the local municipal authorities, but under the control of the central government. In Rome, 5,000 needy children were included in the number of persons receiving a free distribution of bread from the government. Trajan added additional distributions of wine and oil to the distribution of bread in the capital. The same system of free distributions was practiced locally at the expense of municipalities and private benefactors.

To improve Italian agriculture, Trajan's government did not limit itself to organizing a cheap loan from the alimentary fund. The emperor issued an order that each senator should use at least 1 / 3 of his fortune to purchase land in Italy. This measure had a threefold purpose: to tie new senators from the provinces to Italy; attract new funds to agriculture and in this way facilitate the introduction of improved methods of cultivating the land; enable needy landowners in Italy to sell their property at a high price and buy cheaper land in the provinces.

We do not know if Trajan's measure produced the expected results. But one result, although not foreseen by the legislator, was in any case evident: the agrarian law of Trajan, like that of Tiberius, accelerated the concentration of landed property in Italy and deepened the very agrarian crisis with which he had to fight.

In his foreign policy, Trajan departed from the traditions of the Early Empire and tried to resurrect the aggressive tendencies of the Republic. If some of his wars were "preventive" in nature and aimed at better securing the borders, then in general (and in essence) his foreign policy was aggressive.

In 101 Trajan started a war with the Dacians. Formally, this was the most "preventive" of his wars. Dacian tribal union posed an undoubted threat to the Danube border. Decebalus was a serious opponent: Domitian's war with him did not bring great glory to Roman weapons.

Military operations in Dacia must have presented great difficulties for the Romans, because of the nature of the area and the bravery of its defenders. Therefore, Trajan, before starting the war, carried out major preparatory work on the Danube border. The invasion of Dacia was carried out by large forces in several operational areas. However, the first year of the war did not give Trajan a decisive success.

In 102, operations resumed. Roman troops, overcoming the fierce resistance of the enemy, approached the capital of Decebal Sarmizegetuse from all sides (its ruins are located near the modern town of Vargeli). After Decebalus was defeated under its walls, he was forced to make peace. Decebalus formally retained independence, but had to destroy part of his fortresses, and accept Roman garrisons in others. To control Dacia, the Romans built a large stone bridge across the Danube. Trajan celebrated his triumph and assumed the title of "Dacian".

But the peace did not last long. Decebalus secretly began preparations for a new war. In 105, he besieged the Roman garrisons, destroyed part of them and invaded Moesia. This served as a convenient excuse for Trajan to do away with the Dacians. He moved against Decebalus 12 legions (about 120 thousand people). After two campaigns, the war ended with a new battle near Sarmizegetusa and the siege of the city. Decebalus committed suicide in despair, after which the resistance of the Dacians ceased (106). Many of them were killed or taken into slavery, some were evicted. Dacia was turned into a province and settled by veterans and colonists from Asia Minor and the Danubian regions.

Scenes from the Dacian war are depicted on the reliefs of Trajan's victory column, erected by him in the new forum between the Capitol and the Quirinal. These images, which have survived to this day, are the most valuable historical source.

The conquest of Dacia increased Roman expansion in the Black Sea. The northern coast of Pontus falls into the sphere of Roman influence. Continuing the policy of his predecessors, Trajan again strengthened the supreme power of Rome over the Bosporan kingdom. The political influence on the Iberians was strengthened.

Trajan finally shifted the center of gravity of Roman foreign policy from the West to the East. It was quite natural. In the West, the empire reached its natural borders - the Atlantic Ocean, while in the East lay vast rich areas of the old culture, not yet subject to Rome. And if Trajan decided to embark on the path of conquest, then this path could only pass through Asia.

Simultaneously with the Second Dacian War, Roman troops captured the Nabataean kingdom in northwestern Arabia. It was of great importance for eastern trade, as caravan routes from Arabia and from the Red Sea to the Palestinian coast passed through it. The conquered territory formed the new province of Arabia.

By the end of his reign, Trajan had made his biggest conquests in the East. The reason for them was the Armenian affairs (Armenia, as we know, has long been a bone of contention between Rome and Parthia). The Parthian king Chosroes placed his nephew on the Armenian throne against the wishes of Trajan, who had another candidate. This caused internal strife in both Armenia and Parthia. Trajan presented a good pretext for intervention. In 114, the Roman army, with the support of auxiliary contingents from the Caucasian peoples, occupied Armenia. Trajan deposed the Parthian henchman and declared Armenia a province.

In 115, Trajan launched an offensive against northwestern Mesopotamia. The local princes, vassals of the Parthian king, offered almost no resistance, since Khosroi was busy in the eastern part of his kingdom and could not provide them with any help.

Trajan spent the winter of 115/16 in Antioch, which was destroyed in December 115 by a terrible earthquake. A large fleet was being built on the Euphrates. With the onset of spring, the Roman troops moved in two columns downstream of both rivers. Communication between them was maintained, probably through the old canal between the Euphrates and the Tigris, restored by Trajan. Both armies united to storm the Parthian capital of Ctesiphon on the Tigris. Khozroes fled, and the Roman fleet went down to the Persian Gulf (116). Trajan began to make plans for a campaign against India.

However, at that moment, Khozroy, having settled matters in the east of his kingdom, launched a counteroffensive. At the same time, an uprising broke out in the rear of the Romans, prepared by agents of the Parthian king. It was not limited to Mesopotamia, but spread among the Jews of Palestine, Cyprus, Cyrenaica and Egypt. The uprising was accompanied by massacres of the Greek and Roman population.

Trajan had to stop the further advance on Parthia and send large forces to suppress the uprising. This was soon carried out almost everywhere, with the exception of Palestine, where only Hadrian succeeded in strangling him. The suppression of the uprising was everywhere accompanied by cruel pogroms.

These events forced Trajan to abandon the final conquest of Parthia. He crowned his protege as the Parthian king in Ctesiphon, but Northwestern Mesopotamia and Assyria were declared Roman provinces (117). Shortly thereafter, Trajan had a stroke. The half paralyzed emperor traveled to Rome, but on the way he died on the Cilician coast in the summer of 117.

Our brief review of Trajan's foreign policy confirms the position expressed above about its aggressive nature. What reasons forced Trajan to change the traditions of the first century of the empire in this matter? Distracting from Trajan's personal inclinations and talents as an outstanding commander, we must look for the deeper roots of his foreign policy, which lie in the objective conditions of the empire. Only hypotheses are possible here, since the sources are silent on this matter. The most likely assumption is that the reason for the intensification of Roman foreign policy at the beginning of the 2nd century BC. there was that economic crisis in Italy, which was mentioned above. The organization of state charity, begun by Nerva and continued by his successor, required large funds. Taxation was brought to an extreme degree under the Flavius, and, as shown by domestic politics Adriana, could not be increased. There was only one way left - conquests, which were supposed to bring military booty with them and increase the revenues of the treasury. An influx of slaves could solve the problem work force which became more and more complex under the Empire. Finally, it was possible to bring colonists to the conquered territories and in this way alleviate the agrarian crisis.

However, subsequent events showed that the path of dealing with the crisis, chosen by Trajan, could not lead to a solution to the problem.

From the pages of the famous work of Pliny the Younger "Panegyric to Emperor Trajan" we see the image of an ideal ruler. Of course, this is a panegyric, but it is obvious that it largely reflects the general opinion of the Romans about the policy of the "best princeps", about the difference between his good will and the arbitrariness of bad rulers.

“(1) ... If in former times,” proclaims Pliny, “there could be doubt whether the rulers of the earth are appointed by chance or any prediction from heaven, then there can be no doubt that our princeps was given to us by the permission of the gods . He was not the action of some secret forces of fate, but was indicated to us clearly and openly by Jupiter himself ... (2) We will not praise him as some kind of god or idol, for we are not talking about a tyrant, but about a citizen, not about the ruler, but about the father.

(25) The soldiers are equalized with the people in that although they receive only part of the ration, they are the first, and the people with the soldiers in that, although later, they receive everything in full ... (26) For the great princeps, who is destined to immortality, there is no other more worthy item of expenditure than the expense for the younger generation. Prosperous people are disposed to recognize and educate children with great rewards and fines equal in value to them. The poor, however, can only count on the kindness of the princeps in their upbringing. If he does not support, does not protect and does not supply with a generous hand the children born in hope for him, then only hastens the death of his power, the death of the state; in vain, then, will he, neglecting the people, protect the nobles, like a head torn from the body, doomed to death from the instability of his position ... did not execute; and then there will be no shortage of people who want to have children ... Therefore, in all your generosity, I would not like to praise anything so much as the fact that you give rations and funds for the maintenance of children from your own funds and that you feed the children of citizens not blood from murder...

(42) The imperial and state treasury was enriched ... (under the former princeps rather) from crimes against majesty, exceptional in their kind, and, moreover, attributed to people who were clean from any crimes. You finally removed this fear from us ... Fidelity returned to friends, respect to children, obedience to slaves: again they have their masters, respect them and obey them. Now our slaves are no longer friends of the princeps, but we ourselves are his friends, and the father of the fatherland does not think that he is dearer to foreign servants than to his fellow citizens. You freed all of us from domestic accusers, calling everyone under the common banner of the public good, and stopped, so to speak, the war of slaves. By this you have rendered no less a service to the slaves than to the masters: you have provided security for some, made others the best ...

(50) You do not appropriate and add to your vast possessions all wastelands, lakes, forests, expelling their former owners, and not only your eyes rejoice at springs, rivers and seas. There is something that our Caesar does not consider his own. Yet the power of the princeps is greater than the power of the owner. Much is transferred from (his) private property to public property; this is what the former princeps seized, not to use themselves, but so that no one else would occupy it. Thus, new owners settle in the places of the former noble masters in their nests, and the shelters of the most important men do not fall into decay, are not captured by slaves and do not represent a sad desolation ...

(54) Previously, no matter discussed in the senate was considered so base and so insignificant that it would not immediately go on to the glorification of the emperor, no matter what deeds one had to talk about. Whether we were deliberating to increase the number of gladiators or to establish a guild of artisans, immediately, as if at the same time expanding the boundaries of our empire, we decided to dedicate some majestic arches to the name of Caesar, or inscriptions that could not fit on the pediments of our temples, or months of the year , but not one at a time, but several at once. And they allowed it and even rejoiced in it, as if they deserved all these honors ... (88) Many sovereigns, being masters over their citizens, were slaves of their freedmen: they followed their advice, fulfilled their desires, through them they listened to others, through they were negotiated; through them praetors, priestly positions and consulates were begged. Moreover, these posts were asked from the released themselves. You put your scapegoats in a very honorable place, but still you consider them nothing more than scapegoats and you think that the reward that they are considered honest and modest is enough from them. After all, you know very well that too exalted scapegoats testify to a not too great sovereign ”(translated by V. S. Sokolov).

In memory of the difficult but significant victory over the Dacians, Trajan ordered the construction of a new forum in Rome, between the Capitol and the Quirinal. Trajan's forum included a whole complex of buildings and squares, completing a series of imperial forums. Here, in memory of the victory over the Dacians, the famous column of Trajan was erected. Let us quote its description from the work of E. V. Fedorova: “In the center small area a marble column was preserved, which was wrapped in a spiral with a sculptural relief depicting episodes of the war with the Dacians. The height of the column together with the plinth is 39 m 83 cm. Inside the column there is a staircase made of marble blocks; it has 185 steps and is illuminated by 42 small light holes. On the base of the column there is a solemn inscription: "The Senate and the people of Rome (raised this column) to Emperor Caesar Nerva Trajan Augustus, son of the divine Nerva, Germanic, Dacian, great pontiff, endowed with the power of the people's tribune for the 17th time, the emperor for the 6th time, to the father of the fatherland, in order to make it clear how high the hill was torn down, in order to make room for the construction of these such significant structures "” (Fedorova E.V. Imperial Rome in the faces. M., 1979. P. 136.).

The splendor of Trajan's forum has not faded over the years. In the middle of the IV century. Emperor Constantius II admired his beauty. Ammianus Marcellinus tells about this (Roman History, XVI, 10, 15-16): “When the emperor came to the forum of Trajan, the only building in the whole world worthy, in my opinion, of the astonishment of the gods, he was dumbfounded with amazement, looking around the giant buildings , which cannot be described in words and which mortals will never be able to create a second time. Giving up all hope of constructing something like this, he said that he wanted and could only reproduce Trayanov's horse, placed in the middle of the atrium, on which the figure of the emperor flaunted. The (Persian) prince Ormizda, who was standing next to him, said to this with wit characteristic of his people: “First, order, emperor, to build such a stable, if possible; which is in front of us" (translated by Yu. A. Kulakovsky).

Trajan The fact that a provincial like Trajan could become a popular emperor suggests that the Roman Empire had become something more than the central Italian metropolis that Augustus dreamed of. Rather, the great plans of Julius were embodied here

TRAJAN AND THE COSMONAUTS. BAALBEK TERRACE In every country with a long history, there was always a good ruler, about whom no one would say a bad word. True, in Russia this question remains open. Some admire Ivan the Terrible and Peter the Great, while others