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Production in value terms depends on the structure of works and their material consumption.
For example: Labor costs for the implementation of 1 m 3 of precast reinforced concrete floor panels are almost the same, but the estimated cost of 1 m 3 of assembled precast reinforced concrete is 20 times more than the cost of 1 m 3 of earthworks. Hence, the output in value (monetary) terms for the installation of prefabricated reinforced concrete will be as many times greater than for earthworks.
Task 1.5.1.
m 2
(production of 1 plasterer per month);
m 2
(daily output of 1 worker).
Labor productivity growth Пт is determined by the formula:
, (1.5.3)
where In - production (in kind) in the reporting year;
Wb - production in the base (previous) year.
Task 1.5.2.
The team of erectors of structures, which in the previous (baseline) year, reached a natural output per worker of 3.4 m 3 of assembled reinforced concrete per shift, the next year it is planned to increase the output to 3.8 m 3. Determine the increase in labor productivity.
Production in value terms- a universal indicator that allows you to compare the work of organizations performing a wide variety of types of work.
Production in physical terms is the most vivid and reliable indicator of the level of labor productivity. However, it is not suitable for assessing the level of labor productivity as a whole for an organization if it performs several types of work.
As an additional indicator of labor productivity, the indicator of workers' fulfillment of production standards VN,%, according to the formula
, (1.5.4)
where Тн is the standard time for the task, man-days;
TF - actually spent time, person-days.
Due to the increase in labor productivity, labor costs are reduced:
. (1.5.5)
From the formula (1.1.5) we derive the formula for reducing labor costs:
(1.5.6)
where B is the growth of labor productivity,%;
T - reduction in labor costs,%.
The increase in the volume of work, in%, as a result of an increase in labor productivity is determined by the formula
(1.5.7)
where Ср is the volume of construction and installation work in the calculated (planned) period, rubles;
Sat - the same, in the base period, rubles;
Нр - the number of workers in the calculated (planned) period, people;
NB - the same, in the base period, pers.
Along with the cost and natural methods for determining the level of labor productivity in construction, the method of calculation by standard time is also used - the so-called labor (standard) method. In this case, the volume of construction and installation work performed is measured in standard hours, the standard labor intensity is determined on the basis of the current standards (ENiR, etc.).
The level of labor productivity is calculated as the ratio of standard labor costs (i.e., the number of standard man-hours) to the actual costs for the same amount of work.
The change in labor productivity indicators using this method is determined by comparing them for the analyzed (reporting) and base periods.
Task 1.5.3.
Task 1.5.4.
In the construction organization in the planned year, the growth of labor productivity is determined by 10% against that achieved in the base year. Labor costs for the completed volume of construction and installation work in the base year amounted to 93,000 man-days. Determine the planned reduction in labor costs in percent and man-days.
Task 1.5.5.
A specialized team of 27 plasterers within a month (22 working days) completed work in the amount of 11246 m 2 of plastered surfaces. Determine the production in physical terms (per shift, per month).
Task 1.5.6.
The team of erectors of structures, which in the previous (baseline) year, reached a natural output per worker of 3.4 m 3 of assembled reinforced concrete per shift, the next year it is planned to increase the output to 3.8 m 3.
Determine the increase in labor productivity.
Task 1.5.7.
In the base year 2000, the level of labor productivity in the team of installers was 114%, and in the reporting year 2001 - 119%. Determine the growth in labor productivity.
Task 1.5.8.
In the construction organization in the planned year, the growth of labor productivity is determined by 8% against that achieved in the base year. Labor costs for the completed volume of construction and installation work in the base year amounted to 78,000 man-days. Determine the planned reduction in labor costs in percent and man-days.
Task 1.5.9.
Determine the increase in construction and installation work as a percentage of two general construction trusts as a result of an increase in labor productivity in the reporting year compared to the base year.
Initial data are shown in table 1.5.
Table 1.5.
Tests for topic 1.5 .:
1. Labor productivity is:
a) a set of professions and positions;
b) the conformity of the characteristics of workers and workplaces;
c) an indicator of the efficiency of the use of workers' labor, which is determined by the amount of products or work produced per unit of working time;
d) the arrangement of workers and the endowment of each of them with certain labor functions.
2. Labor intensity is:
a) cooperation of labor, the choice of optimal forms of labor activity;
b) uniting people within a production organization according to their interests;
c) an indicator of the efficiency of the use of workers' labor, which is determined by the amount of products or work produced per unit of working time.
d) this is the cost of labor for the production of a unit of output.
3. Development is:
a) the normative number of workers for performing a shift task;
b) the amount of products produced per unit of time by 1 worker or worker;
c) maintaining friendly contacts between members of the team;
d) an indicator of the efficiency of the use of workers' labor, which is determined by the amount of products or work produced per unit of working time.
4. Production is measured:
a) in natural units: m 2, m 3, kg, t, pcs. etc.;
b) in value units: rubles, thousand rubles, million rubles;
c) in km and m;
d) in person-hours, person-days.
5. Labor intensity is measured:
a) in value units: rubles, thousand rubles, million rubles;
b) in km and m;
c) in man-hours, man-days;
d) in natural units: m 2, m 3, kg, t, pcs. etc.
Production is an indicator measured in the number of units of products that were produced in a certain time or by one worker.
How production is determined
Generation is a direct measure of labor productivity. There are three main methods for determining it, namely: natural, monetary and labor.
The first option involves dividing the volume of products that were manufactured or sold by the average number of employees directly involved in the production process. This technique is applicable only to those enterprises that produce products of the same name.
If an organization is engaged in the release of heterogeneous products that cannot be reduced to one unit of measurement, then it is advisable to use the cost method. In this case, output is the ratio of the cash equivalent of all manufactured goods to the number of employees.
As for the labor method for determining the output, we note that it is used to assess the labor productivity of individual teams, workplaces or departments. The indicator is determined in standard hours. This takes into account not only finished goods, but also work in progress. The value of this indicator lies in the fact that it helps to assess the efficiency of labor organization and the rationality of the use of labor.
Production rate
Production is an indicator that is determined based on the results of a certain period. However, there are also standards that define the desired state of affairs. It's about normative development. To determine this indicator, it is necessary to multiply the duration of the period by the number of workers involved in the production process. The result is divided by the time, which, according to the standards, is allotted for the production of a unit of production. Thus, the maximum result that can be achieved in the enterprise is determined.
Production analysis
Generation is the most important indicator of an enterprise's performance. To draw any conclusions on its basis, it is necessary to conduct a thorough analysis. It may be as follows:
- the dynamics of the indicator over time (based on data for several years, it is possible to determine the trends in the operation of the enterprise, as well as make forecasts of the future situation);
- factor analysis (determines which factors most affect labor productivity and production, which makes it possible to adjust further work);
- determination of the growth and growth rates (shows the ratio of the increase in production for different periods, which allows a more detailed study of the intervals with unsatisfactory indicators).
Indicators for determining production
Production, as an indicator of labor productivity, is regularly calculated to assess the functioning of the enterprise. In order to determine this value, it is necessary to collect the following information:
- the volume of production in physical or value terms (and you can take the value of the indicator in fact, or you can take the planned one in order to calculate the standard output);
- the number of employees who are directly involved in the production process (this makes it possible to assess the effectiveness of their work, as well as to determine the directions for rationalizing the staff);
- the duration of the production departments (irreplaceable if you need to estimate the output per unit of time).
How production is recorded
Production is a quantitative expression of labor productivity. Since this indicator plays a rather important role in analyzing the work of an enterprise, it is necessary to somehow keep records of it. This is especially true in cases where the piece-rate system of remuneration is used, which is directly dependent on the output indicator. Keeping such records gives the entrepreneur the following opportunities:
- availability of data on the performance of each employee;
- fair distribution of wages in accordance with the output indicator (excluding defective products);
- ensuring control over the conformity of the amount of manufactured products to the materials and raw materials released to the workshop);
- identification of "bottlenecks" that impede the movement of semi-finished products between workshops and departments.
As for modern accounting systems, in relation to production, the following are most common:
- in accordance with the order for the performance of a certain amount of work;
- in accordance with the so-called "route map";
- assessment of the indicator based on the final results of the work.
Production level
Production is the amount of finished products (also in some cases, units and semi-finished products are taken into account), which was produced by one unit of labor or per unit of time. In addition, the concepts of indicators of the level of production are also distinguished:
- average output per hour - is determined by dividing the volume of products manufactured over the period by the number of man-hours of the workshop;
- average output per day - directly related to the previous indicator (determined by multiplying the value per hour by the length of the working day or shift);
- the output of one worker is determined by the ratio of products manufactured in a month (or any other reporting period) to the average payroll of production personnel.
What can affect production
Production is the amount of products produced per unit of time. It should be noted that this indicator is not stable and may fluctuate depending on a number of factors:
- the introduction of new technologies or operations can have two effects: on the one hand, it leads to the rationalization of the production process, and on the other hand, it can cause delays during the development period;
- infusion of new workers into the team who need time to adapt and get acquainted with the production process;
- the use of previously unused raw materials (here, too, production may decrease for some time);
- serial production leads to natural fluctuations in this indicator.
Output
Generation can be considered one of the key indicators, because it, in fact, is a reflection of labor productivity. This value makes it possible to evaluate the results of work in physical or monetary terms. This indicator is especially important for enterprises where the piece-rate system of remuneration is used, because it makes it possible to fairly distribute monetary resources between employees.
The main planned and accounting indicators of labor productivity at industrial enterprises are the volume of production in physical or value terms per one worker of industrial production personnel (per man-day or man-hour worked) and the labor intensity of a unit of production or work. Labor intensity (Tr) is the cost of living labor for the production of a unit of output. The labor intensity indicator has a number of advantages over the production indicator. It establishes a direct relationship between the volume of production and labor costs and is determined by the formula: Tr = T / OP, where T is the time spent on the production of all products, standard hours or man-hours; OP is the volume of manufactured products in physical terms.
Cognitive economics
Note that when determining the level of labor productivity through the indicator of production, the numerator (volume of products produced) and the denominator of the formula (labor costs for production of products or the average number of employees) can be expressed in different units of measurement. In this regard, depending on the applied denominator, the formulas distinguish between average hourly, average daily, average monthly, average quarterly and average annual output.
The indicator of the average hourly output of products characterizes the average volume of output produced by one worker per hour of actually worked time: When calculating the hourly output, the hours worked by a person do not include in-shift downtime, therefore it most accurately characterizes the level of productivity of living labor.
Average daily output of one worker formula example
At enterprises, labor productivity is defined as the cost efficiency of only living labor and is calculated through the indicators of output and labor intensity of products, between which there is an inversely proportional relationship (Fig. 3). Rice. 3. Indicators of labor productivity Production (B) is the amount of products produced per unit of working time or per one average employee or worker for a certain period (hour, shift, month, quarter, year).
It is calculated as the ratio of the volume of products produced (OP) to the labor time spent on the production of these products (T) or to the average number of workers or workers (H): V = OP / T or V = OP / Ch.
The formula for the average annual output of one worker
Important
Visually, there are mid-day, mid-day and mid-year virobots for one worker and one worker. Commentary: From the point of view of economics or the possibility of learning something, the task is of no interest.
Training in the ability to press buttons on the calculator. However, if you are even a little economist, then you should ask yourself what kind of enterprise this is that produces goods for 1713 UAH.
per month per person? (18,500,000 / 900/12 ≈ 1,713).
If you subtract materials, taxes, electricity, gas from this amount, then how much will remain for wages? The teacher should have thought about this question. Sad ... Solution. The solution is presented in the form of a filled table.
Indicator name Industrial and production personnel (900 people) Workers (780 people) Average annual output, thousand hryvnias (Marketable Products / Headcount) 18 500 thousand hryvnias.
Average annual output per employee
Attention
This way you can determine the influence of each of the factors on the variable part of the salary. The constant part of the RFP is affected by:
- number of personnel (P);
- the number of days worked per year (K);
- average duration of a shift (t);
- average hourly wages (HWP).
FZP f = H * K * t * FZP.
The influence of each of the factors on the final result can be determined in exactly the same way. First, the changes in each of the four indicators are calculated, and then the obtained values are multiplied with the absolute and relative deviations.
The next stage of the analysis is the calculation of the effectiveness of the use of PPP. For expanded reproduction, profit, profitability, it is necessary that productivity growth outstrips the growth of wages.
Enterprise Performance Analysis, page 10
- production volume (O);
- structure of production (C);
- specific labor intensity of products (UT);
- salary for one person-hour (OT).
FZP lane = O * C * UT * OT. Before analyzing each of the factors, you need to carry out intermediate calculations.
Namely: define the FZP variable:
- according to plan: FZP pl = O * C * OT;
- according to plan, taking into account a given volume of production: FZP conv. 1 = FZP pl * K;
- according to the plan calculated with the actual production volume and structure: FZP conv. 2 = O * YT * OT;
- actual at specific labor intensity and a given level of remuneration: FZP conv. 3 = Of * UTf * OTf.
Then you need to multiply each of the values obtained by the absolute and relative deviation.
Labor productivity, production and labor intensity
Productivity This indicator reflects the ratio of the volume of manufactured (sold) products to the number of employees. In this case, generalizing, partial and auxiliary coefficients are calculated. The first group includes, in particular, the average annual output. Formula: B = Volume of production / Number of employees = Volume of production / Amount of time spent.
The change in average annual output can be associated with:
- adjusting the number of employees;
- decrease in labor intensity;
- the growth of non-production costs;
- by the organization of labor - the growth of all-day downtime, absenteeism with the permission of the management, due to illness, absenteeism;
- changes in the structure of products.
Numerical indicators are the time spent in kind, calculated per man-day (man-hour).
Methods for calculating labor productivity
The proportion of hired and retired employees is calculated, including for negative reasons. At the next stage, the use of working time is analyzed according to the following algorithm: 1.
Nominal mode = 365 days - The number of weekends and holidays. 2. Emergency mode = Nominal mode - The number of days of absence from work (vacation, illness, absenteeism, decision of the administration, etc.). 3.
Useful fund of working time = Emergency mode * Length of the working day - The number of downtime, breaks, reduced hours. Loss of working time The working time fund (FWF) is the product of the number of employees (H), the average number of days worked per year by one person (D) and the length of the day (T).
Labor productivity analysis
The increase in labor productivity is ensured not by the stroke of the pen, but by organizational and technical measures. And only on the basis of these data, it is possible to reduce personnel and determine the results that we can get.
Here everything is turned upside down. But we need a "five" from the teacher ... Decision. Let's determine the planned number. For this (for some reason) we take the fact of the third quarter (see.
Number of workers / Number of employees
2. Average annual output per employee= Volume of TP / Number of employees
3. Average annual output per worker= Volume of TP / Number of workers
4. Wed number of days worked by one worker= Total number of man-days worked / Number of workers
5. Wed working day = Total man-hours worked / Total man-days worked
6. Average hourly output per worker= TP volume / Total number of man-hours worked
7. Labor intensity = Total number of man-hours worked / TP volume
According to the table, it can be seen that the average number of employees in comparison with the plan has not changed. As for the average number of workers, it increased by 12.53%, which in absolute terms amounted to 460 people. At the same time, the proportion of workers in the total number of workers increased by 12.53% in comparison with the plan.
As for the average annual output per worker, it increased by 4.66%, and per worker, it decreased by 1.31%, respectively.
The total number of man-days worked and man-hours worked increased over the plan by 13.51% and 14.92%, respectively. At the same time, the average number of days worked by one worker increased by 2 days or by 0.87%. The average working day increased in relation to the plan by 0.1 hours (1.24%). Average hourly output per worker is underfulfilled by 8.92%. In fact, labor intensity in comparison with the plan increased by 9.8%.
We will use the method of absolute differences and the following factor model to conduct a factor analysis of the average annual output per employee:
GVppp = UD x D x P x CHV, where GVppp is the average annual output per worker;
UD - the proportion of workers in the total number of workers,%;
D - the average number of days worked by one worker, days;
P is the average duration of the working day, h;
PM - average hourly output per worker, rubles.
ΔGWood = Δ UD'Dpl'Ppl'ChVpl = 0.09´240 ´ 7.85 ´9967.04 = 1690011.30 thousand rubles.
ΔHVd = UDf´ Δ D´Ppl´ChVpl = 0.70´ 2 ´ 7.85 ´ 99967.04 = 109,537.77 thousand rubles.
ΔGVp = UDf´Df´ Δ P´ChVpl = 0.70 ´ 240 ´ 0.1 ´ 99267.04 = 167446.27 thousand rubles.
ΔGVchv = UDf´Df´Pf´ΔChV = 0.70 ´ 240 ´ 7.85 ´ (-889.56) = -1173151.73 thousand rubles.
========================
Total: = 793,843.62 thousand rubles.
Consequently, the average annual output per 1 employee was 793,843.62 thousand rubles, with a small error in the calculations. The average annual output per employee increased by 1,690,011.30 thousand rubles. due to the increase in the share of workers in the total number of industrial and production personnel by 12.53%. There was an increase in the average number of days worked by one worker, due to which the output increased by 117,527.39 thousand rubles. in connection with the reduction of whole-day losses of working time. The average working day increased by 0.1 hours, and due to this, output increased by 167,446.27 thousand rubles. Average hourly output per worker decreased by 1,173,151.73 thousand rubles. All this became the reason for the increase in the average annual output per employee.
The average annual output per worker is affected by the number of days worked by one worker per year, the average length of the working day and the average hourly output.
GVr = D x P x CHV, where GVppp is the average annual output per worker;
ΔHVd = Δ D'Ppl'ChVpl = 2 ´ 7.85 ´ 9967.04 = 156482.53 thousand rubles.
ΔГВп = Дф´ Δ П´ЧВпл = 240 ´ 0.1 ´ 9967.04 = 239208.96 thousand rubles.
ΔGVchv = Df´Pf´ΔChV = 240 ´ 7.85 ´ (-889.56) = -1675931.04 thousand rubles.
=======================
Total: = -1280239.55 thousand rubles.
According to the factor analysis, it can be seen that the average annual output per worker was affected by an increase in the average working day by 239,208.96 thousand rubles. Moreover, there was a decrease in whole-day and an increase in intra-shift losses of working time by 156482.53 and 1675931.04 thousand rubles. respectively. That led to the fact that the average annual output per worker decreased by 1,280,239.55 thousand rubles.
6. ANALYSIS OF LABOR COSTS
Let's calculate the absolute and relative deviation for the payroll. We will summarize the calculations in analytical table 6.1.
Table 6.1
|
Indicators |
Prev. year |
Reporting year |
Deviation |
||||
|
From the previous. of the year |
|||||||
|
1.VTP, mln rub. | |||||||
|
2.Average annual number of employees | |||||||
|
3.GV per 1 worker, mln. Rub. | |||||||
|
4. FZP of employees, mln. Rub. | |||||||
|
5.Medium year salary of employees, mln. rub. | |||||||
|
6.FZP of workers, million rubles | |||||||
2. Production rate
3. Development of a solution
4. Development of products
5. Development of a formula
6. Average annual output
7. Development of labor
8. Average output
9. Development of goals
10. Calculation of production
11. Working hours
12. Methods of production
13. Strategy development
14. Production volume
15. Analysis of production
16. Development of government policy
17. Production characteristics
18. Determination of production
19. Production accounting
20. Types of production
21. Production level
22. Production growth
23. Actual production
There are three ways to determine the output: natural, value (currency) and labor.
Production in kind or in value terms is determined by the formula:
Output = Volume of marketable (gross or sold) products: Average number of employees (or workers)
More clearly and impartially characterizes the labor productivity indicator of production in physical terms - in tons, meters, pieces and other physical indicators. The advantage of this method is that it gives a clearer and more impartial result about labor productivity. The disadvantage of this method is that it can be used only in those enterprises that produce homogeneous products. In addition, the output calculated by this method does not allow associating the labor productivity of companies in different industries.
The most widespread is the cost method of determining the output. In monetary terms, production can be calculated both in terms of marketable and gross production, and in terms of standard clean products.
Production in value terms, calculated by marketable or gross output, depends not only on the results of the work of a given team, but also on the price of used raw materials and materials, volumes of supply cooperation, etc.
In a number of industries (sewing, canning, etc.), labor productivity is determined by the standard processing price. It contains the standards of costs for the basic salary with accruals, general and general production costs (according to standards).
The characteristics of production depend not only on the method of measuring the volume of production, but also on the unit of measurement of working time. The output can be determined for one man-hour worked (hourly output), for one man-day worked (daily output), or for 1 average employee per year, quarter or month (annual, quarterly or monthly output). At the enterprises of the Russian Federation, the main indicator is the annual output, in a number of foreign countries - the hourly output.
The labor method of determining the output is also called the method of standardized working time. production with all this is determined in standard hours. This method is used to a greater extent at individual workplaces, in teams, in sections, as well as in workshops for the release of heterogeneous and incomplete products.
The advantage of the labor input indicator is that it allows one to judge the effectiveness of the costs of living labor at various stages of production of a certain type of product, not only for the enterprise as a whole, but also in the shop, at the site, at the workplace, that is, to penetrate into the depth of implementation. of one or another type of work, which cannot be done using the production indicator, calculated in value terms.
The labor method allows you to plan and take into account labor productivity at all stages of the production process, link and compare the labor costs of individual sections (workshops) and workplaces with labor productivity indicators for the whole enterprise, as well as the levels of labor costs at various enterprises in the production of similar products.
Production rate
The production rate, the number of units of production (or work) that must be done (performed) per unit of time (hour, work shift, month) in certain organizational and technical criteria by one or a group of workers of the appropriate qualifications. N. in. depending on the type of work, it can be expressed in pieces, units of measure of length, area, volume or weight.Determined by the formula:
HB = Tr x h: Tn,
where Нв is the production rate; Tr is the duration of the period for which the production rate is set (in hours, minutes); h - the number of workers taking a role in the performance of work; Тн - the norm of time for a given work or one product (in man-hours, man-minutes).
In the USSR N. in. they are usually installed in mass and large-scale production, when one work is performed during the entire shift with the same number of performers. N.'s greatest application of century. received in the coal, metallurgical, chemical, food industries, in areas of mass production in mechanical engineering.
N. in. must be technically sound. When they are established, it is envisaged to introduce the latest achievements of technology, technology and advanced production experience. This allows you to provide a progressive level of N. century. Establishment of justified N. at the technical level. orients socialist enterprises and individual workers towards achieving higher than the actual average labor productivity.
The production rate is a fundamental indicator, the basis for the planned management of an enterprise. It determines the number of units of production (or the number of operations performed) that must be done (or performed) per unit of time. The calculation of the production rate is done for one or a group of workers with appropriate qualifications, with rational and more optimal use of equipment, taking into account the progressive methods of work used in all this.
For mass and large-scale production, characterized by taking into account the labor of special workers employed in preliminary and final work, the rate of time for the manufacture of a unit of production is equal to the rate of piece-calculation time. For piece, serial and small-scale production, when the same worker does the main, preliminary and final work, these time rates will be different.
When calculating the production rate, which expresses the desired result of the activities of workers, natural characteristics are used: pieces, meters, kilograms. The production rate (Nvyr) is a personal one from dividing the duration of one work shift (Vsm) by the time spent on the manufacture of a unit of production (Vsht).
For mass production, the output rate will be:
Nvyr = Vsm / Vsht.
If the creation is serial or single, then the value Vshtk is used as a divisor in the above formula - the rate of time determined by the method of calculation when calculating the cost of a unit of production.
In this case, the production rate is calculated by the formula:
Nvyr = Vsm / Vshtk.
In those industries where the preliminary step is calculated and standardized separately for each work shift, the production rate should be calculated using the formula:
Nvyr = (Vsm - Vps) / Tsm, where Vs is the time spent on preparatory and final work.
The formula for calculating the production rate in cases of using automatic and hardware equipment will be slightly different:
Нvyr = Ho * Нвм, where Ho is the maintenance rate, Нвм is the equipment production rate, which is equal to:
Нвм = Нвм theor * Кпв. Here Nvm theor is the theoretical rate of production of the equipment used, Kpv is the coefficient of useful labor time per shift.
In the case of using repetitive instrumental processes, the production rate is equal to:
Nvr = (Vcm - Vob - V ex) * VP * No / Vop, where V rev is the time spent on servicing the equipment, Votl is the time rate for personal needs of personnel, VP is the products produced in one period, Vop is the duration of this period ...
Р = С / Нvyr, or
P = Vsht * C, where C is the rate of this category of work.
Working out a solution
In modern criteria management it becomes more and more natural that the existing management system does not meet the needs of the enterprise as an operating system. The established vertical ties have not yet been completely replaced by horizontal ones, on which, in fact, the Western system of making managerial decisions is based. At the current time, Russian enterprises in the management system do not use the principles of organizing effective management, thus increasing the efficiency of managerial decision-making in modern economic criteria is a burning and timely topic.In order to increase the efficiency of the management system at the enterprise, two tasks must be considered:
1. Justification of the need to create inside the enterprise as an operating system is a criterion for increasing the "creativity" not only of the managers of the lower and middle levels, but also of ordinary employees by empowering them with some opportunities in the decision-making process. Their proposals for improving such a system as a whole and other decisions on individual production, monetary and management issues can become the basis for the functioning strategy developed by the enterprise.
2. The effectiveness of the decisions made is unrealistic to assess without the introduction of mathematical tools and software.
One of the decision-making methods is the development of decisions in the "man-machine" dialogue is a repeated alternation of heuristic (performed by a person) and formalized (performed by a computer) steps.
In the process of the "man-machine" dialogue, solutions are jointly designed in the course of the configuration of the production situation (method of alternate optimization) with the gradual input of essential facts, that is, the solution method is not established in advance, but in the process of computing on a computer.
In modern decision support systems (DSS), an effective connection (symbiosis) of a person and a computer is provided, which implies the introduction of stronger properties of each participant in this process.
The DSS software is based on expert systems.
An expert system is a program aimed at solving poorly formalized problems in certain subject areas at the level of expert experts.
When working with expert systems:
Guesses are put forward and tested;
- new data and knowledge are being developed;
- requests are made to enter new data;
- conclusions and advice are formed.
Poorly formalized tasks have the following features:
Cannot be specified in purely numeric form;
- goals cannot be represented in the definitions of a well-defined motivated function;
- there is no exact method for solving the problem;
- the initial data is incomplete and diverse.
The knowledge base stores the so-called rules, which are understood as logical and algorithmic expressions (operations).
An inference engine is a program that forms a sequence of logical and computational operations into a method on the basis of which the result is obtained.
Subsystem of explanations - forms a trace, that is, a method in the form of a set of rules that allow the decision maker to understand how the result was obtained.
Knowledge acquisition subsystem - provides a dialogue with professionals, selection and formalization of knowledge.
The subsystem of interaction with the object may be absent, as well as the object itself.
There are various forms of communication between the decision maker and the ES:
Implementation of a tabular language.
- Dialogue in the form of a menu.
- Dialogue in natural language.
The latter form of communication implies the highest level of ES and is still rare.
To use a natural language, you need a rather complicated parser program that makes functions:
Lexical analysis;
- syntactic analysis;
- semantic analysis.
In modern ES, communication with decision makers is carried out using a tabular language (setting a task) and a menu (specifying a task in the process of its implementation).
Effective implementation of the human-machine dialogue implies the fulfillment of the following criteria:
Convenience of communication (human access to the car);
- mental readiness of a person to communicate with a computer;
- a sufficient level of machine intelligence.
The effectiveness of the decisions made is also unrealistic to assess without the introduction of mathematical tools and software.
For example, "decision tree" analysis. Currently, there are several programs with the help of which it becomes possible not only to build a decision tree, but also to analyze it.
Decision trees are a graphical tool for analyzing decisions in terms of risk. The hierarchical structure of the "classification tree" is one of its more fundamental parameters. The "trunk of the tree" is a problem or a situation that requires a solution. The “top of the tree” are goals or values that are guided by the decision-maker.
Decision trees are created for use in models in which a sequence of decisions is made, each of which leads to a certain result. The decision tree is used to determine the best strategy - a sequence of decisions that should be made when certain random events appear. In the process of constructing and analyzing production, monetary and management situations, the stages are specifically identified for creating the structure of the model, determining the values of the probabilities of probable output results, determining the values of the utility of probable output results and evaluating alternatives, as well as choosing a strategy. At the same time, it should be emphasized that a more fundamental step in the implementation process, decision tree analysis is specifically the final step of evaluating alternatives. It is fundamental to realize that decision analysis does not imply a 100% impartial analysis of decision-making models. Many of the nuances of decision analysis require personal judgment - this refers to the structure of the model, the determination of the values of probabilities and utilities. In almost all complex models that reflect real-life situations, there is simply not enough empirical data for a complete analysis. But practice shows that even in such cases, the analysis with the introduction of decision trees brings indisputable benefits.
Product development
The indicator that determines the amount of products produced per unit of time is called production. Development characterizes the performance of labor. Natural (t, m, m3, pcs., Etc.) and cost characteristics are used as meters of the amount of manufactured products.Varieties of product yield characteristics:
I. Depending on the level of the economic system, according to which the indicator is calculated, production is distinguished:
- personal (personal development of individual employees);
- local (production at the level of a shop, enterprise, industry);
- public (at the level of the national economy as a whole); it is determined by the method of dividing the state income produced for a certain period by the number of people employed in material production.
II. Depending on the unit of measurement of working time, the characteristics of hourly, daily and monthly (quarterly, annual) production are used. These characteristics make it possible to assess the effectiveness of labor, taking into account the nature of the use of working time.
