Astronomy, education, programming: Fundamentals of astronomy: an introduction. Astronomy

This ancient science arose to help a person navigate in time and space (calendars, maps, navigation instruments were created on the basis of astronomical knowledge), as well as to predict various natural phenomena, one way or another related to the movement of celestial bodies. Modern astronomy includes several sections.

Spherical astronomy using mathematical methods, studies the apparent location and movement of the Sun, Moon, stars, planets, satellites, including artificial bodies in the celestial sphere. This branch of astronomy is associated with the development of the theoretical foundations of time counting.

Practical astronomy is knowledge about astronomical instruments and methods for determining time, geographical coordinates and azimuths of directions from astronomical observations. It serves purely practical purposes and, depending on the place of application (in the sky, on land or at sea), is divided into three types: aviation, geodetic And nautical.

Astrophysics studies the physical state and chemical composition of celestial bodies and their systems, interstellar and intergalactic media and the processes occurring in them. Being a section of astronomy, but in turn it is divided into sections depending on the object of study: physics of planets, natural satellites of planets, the Sun, the interstellar medium, stellar atmospheres, the internal structure and evolution of stars, the interstellar medium, and so on.

Celestial mechanics studies the movement of the celestial bodies of the solar system, including comets and artificial satellites of the Earth in their common gravitational field. The compilation of ephemerides also belongs to the tasks of this section of astronomy.

Astrometry- a branch of astronomy associated with measuring the coordinates of celestial objects and studying the rotation of the Earth.

stellar astronomy studies star systems (their clusters, galaxies), their composition, structure, dynamics, evolution.

extragalactic astronomy studies cosmic celestial bodies located outside our star system (Galaxy), namely other galaxies, quasars and other ultra-distant objects.

Cosmogony studies the origin and development of cosmic bodies and their systems (the solar system as a whole, as well as planets, stars, galaxies).

Cosmology- the doctrine of the cosmos, which studies the physical properties of the universe as a whole, conclusions are drawn on the basis of the results of the study of that part of it that is available for observation and study.

Astrology does not study any of the above and most astronomical knowledge is completely useless for an astrologer. An astronomer also does not need to understand astrology, and even more so to enter into discussions on this topic, which lies outside his interests and competence. However, there was a place on the astrological site of astronomy. There will be here that necessary minimum of astronomical information, without which an astrologer cannot do, and everything that may be of interest to any person interested in astrology.

Space - airless space - has neither beginning nor end. In the boundless cosmic void, here and there, singly and in groups, there are stars. Small groups of tens, hundreds or thousands of stars are called star clusters. They are part of giant (of millions and billions of stars) superclusters of stars called galaxies. There are about 200 billion stars in our Galaxy. Galaxies are tiny islands of stars in the vast ocean of space called the Universe.

The entire starry sky is conditionally divided by astronomers into 88 sections - constellations that have certain boundaries. All cosmic bodies visible within the boundaries of a given constellation are included in this constellation. In fact, the stars in the constellations have nothing to do with each other, or with the Earth, and even more so with people on Earth. We just see them in this part of the sky. There are constellations named after animals, objects and people. You need to know the outlines and be able to find constellations in the sky: Ursa Major and Ursa Minor, Cassiopeia, Orion, Lyra, Eagle, Cygnus, Leo. The brightest star in the sky is Sirius.

All phenomena in nature occur in space. The space visible around us on the surface of the Earth is called the horizon. The boundary of the visible space, where the sky, as it were, touches the surface of the earth, is called the horizon line. If you climb a tower or mountain, the horizon will expand. If we move forward, then the horizon line will move away from us. It is impossible to reach the horizon line. On a flat, open place on all sides, the horizon line has the shape of a circle. There are 4 main sides of the horizon: north, south, east and west. Between them are intermediate sides of the horizon: northeast, southeast, southwest and northwest. On the diagrams, it is customary to designate north at the top. The number that shows how many times the real distances in the drawing are reduced (increased) is called the scale. The scale is used when building a plan and a map. The plan of the area is drawn up on a large scale, and the maps are drawn up on a small scale.

Orientation means knowing your location relative to known objects, being able to determine the direction of the path along known sides of the horizon. At noon, the Sun is above the point of the south, and the midday shadow from objects is directed to the north. You can navigate by the Sun only in clear weather. A compass is a device for determining the sides of the horizon. The compass can be used to determine the sides of the horizon in any weather, day or night. The main part of the compass is a magnetized needle. When not supported by a fuse, the arrow is always located along the north-south line. The sides of the horizon can also be determined by local features: by isolated trees, by anthills, stumps. To correctly navigate, it is necessary to use several local signs.

In the constellation Ursa Major, it is easy to find the North Star. Polaris is a dim star. It is always above the north side of the horizon and never goes below the horizon. By the Polar Star at night, you can determine the sides of the horizon: if you stand facing the Polar Star, then the north will be ahead, the south behind, the east to the right, and the west to the left.

Stars are huge hot balls of gas. On a clear moonless night, 3,000 stars are available for observation to the naked eye. These are the closest, hottest, and largest stars. They are similar to the Sun, but are millions and billions of times farther away from us than the Sun. Therefore, we see them as luminous dots. We can say that the stars are distant suns. A modern rocket launched from Earth can reach the nearest star only after hundreds of thousands of years. Other stars are further away from us. In astronomical instruments - telescopes - you can observe millions of stars. The telescope collects the light of cosmic bodies and increases their apparent size. With a telescope, you can see faint, invisible stars with the naked eye, but even with the most powerful telescope, any stars look like luminous dots, only brighter.

Stars are not the same in size: some are tens of times larger than the Sun, others are hundreds of times smaller than it. And the temperature of the stars is also different. The temperature of the outer layers of a star determines its color. The coldest are red stars, the hottest are blue. The hotter and bigger the star, the brighter it shines.

The sun is a huge hot ball of gas. The Sun is 109 times larger than the Earth in diameter and 333,000 times the Earth in mass. More than 1 million globes could fit inside the Sun. The sun is the closest star to us, it has an average magnitude and an average temperature. The sun is a yellow star. The sun shines because atomic reactions take place inside it. The temperature on the surface of the Sun is 6,000° C. At this temperature, all substances are in a special gaseous state. With depth, the temperature rises and in the center of the Sun, where atomic reactions take place, it reaches 15,000,000 °C. Astronomers and physicists study the Sun and other stars so that people on Earth can build nuclear reactors that can provide energy for all the energy needs of mankind.

A hot substance radiates light and heat. Light travels at a speed of about 300,000 km/s. Light travels from the Sun to the Earth in 8 minutes and 19 seconds. Light propagates in a straight line from any luminous object. Most of the surrounding bodies do not emit their own light. We see them because the light from the luminous bodies falls on them. Therefore, they are said to shine by reflected light.

The sun is of great importance for life on Earth. The sun illuminates and warms the Earth and other planets in the same way that a fire illuminates and warms the people sitting around it. If the Sun went out, the Earth would plunge into darkness. Plants and animals would die from the extreme cold. The sun's rays heat the earth's surface differently. The higher the Sun is above the horizon, the more the surface heats up, the higher the air temperature. The highest position of the Sun is observed at the equator. From the equator to the poles, the height of the Sun decreases, and the flow of heat also decreases. Around the poles of the Earth, the ice never melts, there is permafrost.

The earth we live on is a huge ball, but it's hard to notice. Therefore, for a long time it was believed that the Earth was flat, and from above it was covered, like a cap, with a solid and transparent vault of heaven. In the future, people received a lot of evidence of the sphericity of the Earth. A scaled-down model of the Earth is called a globe. The globe depicts the shape of the Earth and its surface. If you transfer the image of the Earth's surface from a globe to a map and conditionally divide it into two hemispheres, you get a map of the hemispheres.

The Earth is many times smaller than the Sun. The diameter of the Earth is about 12,750 km. The Earth revolves around the Sun at a distance of about 150,000,000 km. Each revolution is called a year. There are 12 months in a year: January, February, March, April, May, June, July, August, September, October, November and December. Each month has 30 or 31 days (in February 28 or 29 days). In total, there are 365 whole days and a few more hours in a year.

Previously, it was believed that a small Sun moves around the Earth. Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus claimed that the Earth revolves around the Sun. Giordano Bruno is an Italian scientist who supported the idea of ​​Copernicus, for which he was burned by the inquisitors.

The earth rotates from west to east around an imaginary line - the axis, and from the surface it seems to us that the Sun, Moon and stars move across the sky from east to west. The starry sky rotates as a whole, while the stars maintain their position relative to each other. The starry sky makes 1 revolution in the same time as the Earth makes 1 revolution around its axis.

On the side illuminated by the Sun, it is day, and on the side that is in the shade, it is night. Rotating, the Earth exposes the sun's rays to one side, then the other. So there is a change of day and night. The Earth makes 1 rotation around its axis in 1 day. The day lasts 24 hours. An hour is divided into 60 minutes. A minute is divided into 60 seconds. Day is the daytime, night is the dark time of the day. Day and night make up a day ("day and night - day away").

The points at which the axis comes out on the surface of the Earth are called poles. There are two of them - north and south. The equator is an imaginary line that runs equidistant from the poles and divides the globe into northern and southern hemispheres. The length of the equator is 40,000 km.

The Earth's axis of rotation is tilted to the Earth's orbit. Because of this, the height of the Sun above the horizon and the length of day and night in the same area of ​​the Earth varies throughout the year. The higher the Sun is above the horizon, the longer the day lasts. From December 22 to June 22, the height of the Sun at noon increases, the length of the day increases, then the height of the Sun decreases, and the day becomes shorter. Therefore, 4 seasons (seasons) were identified in the year: summer is hot, with short nights and long days, and the Sun rising high above the horizon; winter - cold, with short days and long nights, with the Sun rising low above the horizon; spring is the transitional season from winter to summer; autumn is the transitional season from summer to winter. Each season has 3 months: summer - June, July, August; autumn - September, October, November; winter - December, January, February; spring - March, April, May. When it is summer in the northern hemisphere of the Earth, it is winter in the southern hemisphere. And vice versa.

8 huge spherical bodies move in orbits around the Sun. Some of them are larger than the Earth, others are smaller. But they are all much smaller than the Sun and do not emit their own light. These are planets. Earth is one of the planets. The planets shine by reflected sunlight, so we can see them in the sky. The planets move at different distances from the Sun. The planets are located from the Sun in this order: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. The largest planet, Jupiter, is 11 times larger than the Earth in diameter and 318 times in mass. The smallest of the large planets - Mercury - is 3 times smaller than the Earth in diameter.

The closer a planet is to the Sun, the hotter it is, and the farther from the Sun, the colder it is. At noon, the surface of Mercury heats up to +400 ° C. The most distant of the large planets - Neptune - is cooled to -200 ° C.

The closer the planet is to the Sun, the shorter its orbit, the faster the planet goes around the Sun. The Earth makes 1 revolution around the Sun in 1 year or 365 days 5 hours 48 minutes 46 seconds. For the convenience of the calendar, every 3 "simple" years of 365 days, 1 "leap" year of 366 days is included. On Mercury, a year lasts only 88 Earth days. On Neptune, 1 year is 165 years. All planets rotate around their axes, some faster, others slower.

Their satellites revolve around the major planets. Satellites are similar to planets, but much smaller than them in mass and size.

The Earth has only 1 satellite, the Moon. In the sky, the sizes of the Moon and the Sun are approximately the same, although the Sun is 400 times larger in diameter than the Moon. This is because the Moon is 400 times closer to the Earth than the Sun. The moon does not emit its own light. We see it because it shines with reflected sunlight. If the Sun went out, the Moon would also go out. The Moon revolves around the Earth in the same way that the Earth revolves around the Sun. The moon participates in the daily movement of the starry sky, while slowly moving from one constellation to another. The moon changes its appearance in the sky (phases) from one new moon to another new moon in 29.5 days, depending on how the Sun illuminates it. The moon rotates on its axis, so the moon also has a day and night cycle. However, a day on the Moon does not last 24 hours, as on Earth, but 29.5 Earth days. Two weeks on the moon is day and two weeks is night. The stone lunar ball on the sunny side heats up to +170 °C.

From the Earth to the Moon 384,000 km. The Moon is the closest cosmic body to the Earth. The Moon is 4 times smaller than the Earth in diameter and 81 times smaller in mass. The Moon completes one revolution around the Earth in 27 Earth days. The moon faces the earth always with the same side. We never see the other side from Earth. But with the help of automatic stations, it was possible to photograph the far side of the moon. Lunokhods traveled on the Moon. The first person to walk on the lunar surface was the American Neil Armstrong (in 1969).

The Moon is a natural satellite of the Earth. "Natural" means created by nature. In 1957, the first artificial Earth satellite was launched in our country. "Artificial" means man-made. Today, several thousand artificial satellites fly around the Earth. They move in orbits at different distances from the Earth. Satellites are needed for weather forecasting, accurate geographic maps, control of the movement of ice in the oceans, for military intelligence, for the transmission of television programs, they carry out cellular communication of mobile phones.

Through a telescope on the moon, mountains and plains are visible - the so-called. lunar seas and craters. Craters are pits that are formed when large and small meteorites fall on the Moon. There is no water or air on the moon. Therefore, there is no life there.

Mars has two tiny satellites. Jupiter has the most satellites - 63. Mercury and Venus have no satellites.

17. Between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter, several hundred thousand asteroids, iron-stone blocks move around the Sun. The diameter of the largest asteroid is about 1,000 km, and the smallest known is about 500 meters.

From afar from the very borders of the solar system, huge comets (tailed luminaries) approach the Sun from time to time. Comet nuclei are icy blocks of solidified gases into which solid particles and stones have frozen. The closer to the sun, the warmer. Therefore, when a comet approaches the Sun, its nucleus begins to evaporate. The tail of a comet is a stream of gases and dust particles. The tail of a comet increases as the comet approaches the Sun and decreases as the comet moves away from the Sun. Over time, comets break up. A lot of fragments of comets and asteroids are worn in space. Sometimes they fall to the ground. Fragments of asteroids and comets that have fallen to Earth or another planet are called meteorites.

Inside the solar system, a lot of small pebbles and dust particles the size of a pinhead - meteoroids - revolve around the sun. Bursting into the Earth's atmosphere at high speed, they heat up from friction with the air and burn high in the sky, and it seems to people that a star has fallen from the sky. This phenomenon is called a meteor.

The sun and all cosmic bodies revolving around it - planets with their satellites, asteroids, comets, meteoroids - form the solar system. Other stars are not part of the solar system.

The sun, earth, moon and stars are cosmic bodies. Space bodies are very diverse: from a small grain of sand to a huge Sun. Astronomy is the science of cosmic bodies. To study them, large telescopes are built, flights of astronauts around the Earth and to the Moon are organized, and automatic vehicles are sent into space.

The science of space flight and space exploration with the help of spacecraft is called astronautics. Yuri Gagarin is the first cosmonaut of the planet Earth. He was the first to circle the globe (in 108 minutes) on the Vostok spacecraft (April 12, 1961). Alexei Leonov is the first person to go out into space in a space suit (1965). Valentina Tereshkova - the first woman in space (1963). But before a man flew into space, scientists launched animals - monkeys and dogs. The first living creature in space is the dog Laika (1961).

Heavenly vault, burning with glory,
Mysteriously looks from the depths,
And we are sailing, a flaming abyss
Surrounded on all sides.
F. Tyutchev

Lesson 1/1

Topic: Subject of astronomy.

Equipment: F. Yu. Siegel “Astronomy in its development”, Theodolite, Telescope, posters “telescopes”, “Radio astronomy”, f/f. “What astronomy studies”, “Largest astronomical observatories”, film “Astronomy and worldview”, “astrophysical methods of observation”. Earth globe, transparencies: photographs of the Sun, Moon and planets, galaxies. CD- "Red Shift 5.1" or photographs and illustrations of astronomical objects from the multimedia disk "Astronomy Multimedia Library". Show the Observer's Calendar for September (taken from the Astronet site), an example of an astronomical journal (electronic, for example, the Sky). you can show an excerpt from the film Astronomy (part 1, fr. 2 The most ancient science).

Interdisciplinary communication: Rectilinear propagation, reflection, refraction of light. Construction of images given by a thin lens. Camera (Physics, Grade VII). Electromagnetic waves and the speed of their propagation. Radio waves. Chemical action of light (physics, X class).

During the classes:

Introductory talk (2 min)

1. Textbook by E. P. Levitan; general notebook - 48 sheets; optional exams.
2. Astronomy is a new discipline in the course of the school, although you are familiar with some of the issues in a nutshell.
3. How to work with the textbook.

• work through (rather than read) a paragraph
• to delve into the essence, to deal with each phenomenon and process
• work through all the questions and tasks after the paragraph, briefly in notebooks
• check your knowledge on the list of questions at the end of the topic
• see additional material on the Internet

Lecture (new material) (30 min) The beginning is a demonstration of a video clip from the CD (or my presentation).

Astronomy [gr. Astron (astron) - star, nomos (nomos) - law] - the science of the Universe, completing the natural-mathematical cycle of school disciplines. Astronomy studies the motion of celestial bodies (section “celestial mechanics”), their nature (section “astrophysics”), origin and development (section “cosmogony”) [ Astronomy - the science of the structure, origin and development of celestial bodies and their systems =, that is, the science of nature]. Astronomy is the only science that has received its patron muse - Urania.
Systems (space): - all bodies in the Universe form systems of varying complexity.

History of astronomy (a fragment of the film Astronomy (part 1, fr. 2 The most ancient science) is possible))
Astronomy - one of the most fascinating and ancient sciences of nature - explores not only the present, but also the distant past of the macroworld around us, as well as draw a scientific picture of the future of the Universe.
The need for astronomical knowledge was dictated by vital necessity:

Stages of development of astronomy
1st ancient world(BC). Philosophy →astronomy → elements of mathematics (geometry).
Ancient Egypt, Ancient Assyria, Ancient Maya, Ancient China, Sumerians, Babylonia, Ancient Greece. Scientists who have made a significant contribution to the development of astronomy: Thales of Miletus(625-547, Dr. Greece), Eudox of Knidos(408-355, Other Greece), ARISTOTLE(384-322, Macedonia, Other Greece), Aristarchus of Samos(310-230, Alexandria, Egypt), ERATOSPHENES(276-194, Egypt), Hipparchus of Rhodes(190-125, Ancient Greece).
II Pre-telescopic period. (our era before 1610). The decline of science and astronomy. The collapse of the Roman Empire, the raids of the barbarians, the birth of Christianity. The rapid development of Arabic science. The revival of science in Europe. Modern heliocentric system of world structure. Scientists who made a significant contribution to the development of astronomy in this period: Claudius Ptolemy (Claudius Ptolomeus)(87-165, Dr. Rome), BIROUNI, Abu Reyhan Mohammed ibn Ahmed al-Biruni(973-1048, modern Uzbekistan), Mirza Mohammed ibn Shahrukh ibn Timur (Taragay) ULUGBEK(1394 -1449, modern Uzbekistan), Nicolaus COPERNICK(1473-1543, Poland), Quiet(Tige) BRAGE(1546-1601, Denmark).
III Telescopic before the advent of spectroscopy (1610-1814). The invention of the telescope and observation with it. The laws of planetary motion. Discovery of the planet Uranus. The first theories of the formation of the solar system. Scientists who made a significant contribution to the development of astronomy in this period: Galileo Galilei(1564-1642, Italy), Johannes KEPLER(1571-1630, Germany), Jan GAVEL (GAVELIUS) (1611-1687, Poland), Hans Christian HUYGENS(1629-1695, Netherlands), Giovanni Domenico (Jean Dominic) CASINI>(1625-1712, Italy-France), Isaac Newton(1643-1727, England), Edmund GALLEY (HALLEY, 1656-1742, England), William (William) Wilhelm Friedrich HERSHEL(1738-1822, England), Pierre Simon Laplace(1749-1827, France).
IV Spectroscopy. Before photography. (1814-1900). Spectroscopic observations. The first determination of the distance to the stars. Discovery of the planet Neptune. Scientists who made a significant contribution to the development of astronomy in this period: Joseph von Fraunhofer(1787-1826, Germany), Vasily Yakovlevich (Friedrich Wilhelm Georg) STRUVE(1793-1864, Germany-Russia), George Biddell ERI (AIRIE, 1801-1892, England), Friedrich Wilhelm BESSEL(1784-1846, Germany), Johann Gottfried HALLE(1812-1910, Germany), William HEGGINS (Huggins, 1824-1910, England), Angelo SECCHI(1818-1878, Italy), Fedor Alexandrovich BREDIKHIN(1831-1904, Russia), Edward Charles Pickering(1846-1919, USA).
V-th Modern period (1900-present). Development of the application of photography and spectroscopic observations in astronomy. Solving the problem of the energy source of stars. Discovery of galaxies. The emergence and development of radio astronomy. Space research. See more.

Relationship with other subjects.
PSS t 20 F. Engels - “First of all, astronomy, which, because of the seasons, is absolutely necessary for pastoral and agricultural work. Astronomy can only be developed with the help of mathematics. Therefore, I had to study mathematics. Further, at a certain stage in the development of agriculture in certain countries (raising water for irrigation in Egypt), and especially with the emergence of cities, large buildings and the development of crafts, mechanics also developed. Soon it becomes indispensable for shipping and military affairs. It is also transferred to help mathematics and thus contributes to its development.
Astronomy has played such a leading role in the history of science that many scientists consider - "astronomy the most significant factor in the development from its inception - up to Laplace, Lagrange and Gauss" - they drew tasks from it and created methods for solving these problems. Astronomy, mathematics and physics have never lost their relationship, which is reflected in the activities of many scientists.

		The interaction of astronomy and physics continues to influence the development of other sciences, technology, energy and various sectors of the national economy. An example is the creation and development of astronautics. Methods are being developed for confining plasma in a limited volume, the concept of "collisionless" plasma, MHD generators, quantum radiation amplifiers (masers), etc.
	1 - heliobiology 2 - xenobiology 3 - space biology and medicine 4 - mathematical geography 5 - cosmochemistry A - spherical astronomy B - astrometry B - celestial mechanics G - astrophysics D - cosmology E - cosmogony G - space physics	Astronomy and chemistry connect questions of research of an origin and prevalence of chemical elements and their isotopes in space, chemical evolution of the Universe. The science of cosmochemistry, which arose at the intersection of astronomy, physics and chemistry, is closely related to astrophysics, cosmogony and cosmology, studies the chemical composition and differentiated internal structure of cosmic bodies, the influence of cosmic phenomena and processes on the course of chemical reactions, the laws of the prevalence and distribution of chemical elements in the Universe, the combination and the migration of atoms during the formation of matter in space, the evolution of the isotopic composition of elements. Of great interest to chemists are studies of chemical processes that, because of their scale or complexity, are difficult or completely unreproducible in terrestrial laboratories (substance in the interior of planets, synthesis of complex chemical compounds in dark nebulae, etc.). Astronomy, geography and geophysics connects the study of the Earth as one of the planets of the solar system, its main physical characteristics (shape, rotation, size, mass, etc.) and the influence of cosmic factors on the geography of the Earth: the structure and composition of the earth's interior and surface, relief and climate, periodic, seasonal and long-term, local and global changes in the atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere of the Earth - magnetic storms, tides, change of seasons, drift of magnetic fields, warming and ice ages, etc., resulting from the impact of cosmic phenomena and processes (solar activity , rotation of the Moon around the Earth, rotation of the Earth around the Sun, etc.); as well as astronomical methods of orientation in space and determining the coordinates of the terrain that have not lost their significance. One of the new sciences was space geography - a set of instrumental studies of the Earth from space for the purposes of scientific and practical activities. Connection astronomy and biology determined by their evolutionary nature. Astronomy studies the evolution of space objects and their systems at all levels of organization of inanimate matter in the same way that biology studies the evolution of living matter. Astronomy and biology are connected by the problems of the emergence and existence of life and intelligence on Earth and in the Universe, the problems of terrestrial and space ecology and the impact of cosmic processes and phenomena on the Earth's biosphere. Connection astronomy from history and social science, studying the development of the material world at a qualitatively higher level of organization of matter, is due to the influence of astronomical knowledge on the worldview of people and the development of science, technology, agriculture, economics and culture; the question of the influence of cosmic processes on the social development of mankind remains open. The beauty of the starry sky awakened thoughts about the greatness of the universe and inspired writers and poets. Astronomical observations carry a powerful emotional charge, demonstrate the power of the human mind and its ability to cognize the world, instill a sense of beauty, and contribute to the development of scientific thinking. The connection of astronomy with the "science of sciences" - philosophy- is determined by the fact that astronomy as a science has not only a special, but also a universal, humanitarian aspect, makes the greatest contribution to clarifying the place of man and mankind in the Universe, to studying the relationship "man - the Universe". In every cosmic phenomenon and process, manifestations of the basic, fundamental laws of nature are visible. On the basis of astronomical research, the principles of cognition of matter and the Universe, the most important philosophical generalizations, are formed. Astronomy has influenced the development of all philosophical teachings. It is impossible to form a physical picture of the world bypassing modern ideas about the Universe - it will inevitably lose its ideological significance.

Modern astronomy is a fundamental physical and mathematical science, the development of which is directly related to scientific and technical progress. To study and explain processes, the entire modern arsenal of various, newly emerged sections of mathematics and physics is used. There is also .

The main sections of astronomy:

Observations in astronomy.
Observations are the main source of information about celestial bodies, processes, phenomena occurring in the Universe, since it is impossible to touch them and conduct experiments with celestial bodies (the possibility of conducting experiments outside the Earth arose only thanks to astronautics). They also have features in that in order to study any phenomenon, it is necessary:

• long periods of time and simultaneous observation of related objects (an example is the evolution of stars)
• the need to indicate the position of celestial bodies in space (coordinates), since all the luminaries seem far from us (in ancient times, the concept of the celestial sphere arose, which as a whole revolves around the Earth)

Example: Ancient Egypt, observing the star Sothis (Sirius), determined the beginning of the Nile flood, set the length of the year at 4240 BC. in 365 days. For the accuracy of observations, we needed appliances.
one). It is known that Thales of Miletus (624-547, Dr. Greece) in 595 BC. for the first time he used a gnomon (a vertical rod, it is attributed that his student Anaximander created it) - he allowed not only to be a sundial, but also to determine the moments of the equinox, solstice, the length of the year, the latitude of observation, etc.
2). Already Hipparchus (180-125, Ancient Greece) used an astrolabe, which allowed him to measure the parallax of the Moon, in 129 BC, set the length of the year at 365.25 days, determine the procession and compile in 130 BC. star catalog for 1008 stars, etc.
There was an astronomical staff, an astrolabon (the first kind of theodolite), a quadrant, and so on. Observations are carried out in specialized institutions - , that arose at the first stage of the development of astronomy before the NE. But real astronomical research began with the invention telescope in 1609

Telescope - increases the angle of view at which celestial bodies are visible ( resolution ), and collects many times more light than the observer's eye ( penetrating power ). Therefore, through a telescope, one can examine the surfaces of the celestial bodies closest to the Earth, invisible to the naked eye, and see many faint stars. It all depends on the diameter of its lens.Types of telescopes: And radio(Display of the telescope, poster "Telescopes", diagrams). Telescopes: from history
= optical

1. Optical telescopes ()

	Refractor(refracto-refract) - the refraction of light in the lens (refractive) is used. “Spotting scope” made in Holland [H. Lippershey]. According to a rough description, Galileo Galilei made it in 1609 and first sent it to the sky in November 1609, and in January 1610 discovered 4 satellites of Jupiter. The world's largest refractor was made by Alvan Clark (optician from the USA) 102 cm (40 inches) and installed in 1897 at the Yera Observatory (near Chicago). He also made a 30-inch one and installed it in 1885 at the Pulkovo Observatory (destroyed during the Second World War).
	Reflector(reflecto-reflect) - a concave mirror is used to focus the rays. In 1667 the first mirror telescope was invented by I. Newton (1643-1727, England) the diameter of the mirror is 2.5 cm at 41 X increase. In those days, mirrors were made from metal alloys and quickly dimmed. The largest telescope in the world W. Keka installed in 1996 a mirror diameter of 10 m (the first of two, but the mirror is not monolithic, but consists of 36 hexagonal mirrors) at the Maun Kea Observatory (California, USA). In 1995, the first of four telescopes (mirror diameter 8m) was put into operation (ESO observatory, Chile). Prior to this, the largest was in the USSR, the mirror diameter was 6m, installed in the Stavropol Territory (Mount Pastukhov, h = 2070m) at the Special Astrophysical Observatory of the USSR Academy of Sciences (monolithic mirror 42t, 600t telescope, you can see stars 24 m).
	Mirror lens. B.V. SCHMIDT(1879-1935, Estonia) built in 1930 (Schmidt camera) with a lens diameter of 44 cm. Large aperture, free from coma and a large field of view, placing a corrective glass plate in front of a spherical mirror. In 1941 D.D. Maksutov(USSR) made meniscus, advantageous with a short pipe. Used by amateur astronomers. In 1995, for an optical interferometer, the first telescope with an 8-m mirror (out of 4) with a base of 100m was put into operation (ATACAMA desert, Chile; ESO). In 1996, the first telescope with a diameter of 10 m (out of two with a base of 85 m) named after. W. Keka introduced at the Maun Kea Observatory (California, Hawaii, USA) amateur telescopes

• direct observations
• take pictures (astrograph)
• photovoltaic - sensor, energy fluctuation, radiation
• spectral - give information about temperature, chemical composition, magnetic fields, movements of celestial bodies.

Benefits: in any weather and time of day, you can observe objects that are inaccessible to optical ones. They are a bowl (like a locator. Poster "Radio Telescopes"). Radio astronomy developed after the war. The largest radio telescopes now are the fixed RATAN-600, Russia (commissioned in 1967, 40 km from the optical telescope, consists of 895 separate mirrors 2.1x7.4m in size and has a closed ring with a diameter of 588m), Arecibo (Puerto Rico, 305m- concrete bowl of an extinct volcano, introduced in 1963). Of the mobile ones, they have two radio telescopes with a 100 m bowl.

Celestial bodies emit radiation: light, infrared, ultraviolet, radio waves, x-rays, gamma radiation. Since the atmosphere prevents the penetration of rays to the ground c λ< λ света (ультрафиолетовые, рентгеновские, γ - излучения), то последнее время на орбиту Земли выводятся телескопы и целые орбитальные обсерватории : (т.е развиваются внеатмосферные наблюдения).

l. Fixing the material .
Questions:

1. What astronomical information did you study in courses of other subjects? (natural science, physics, history, etc.)
2. What is the specificity of astronomy compared to other natural sciences?
3. What types of celestial bodies do you know?
4. Planets. How many, what are they called, the order of location, the largest, etc.
5. What is the importance of astronomy in the national economy today?

values ​​in the national economy:
- Orientation by stars to determine the sides of the horizon
- Navigation (navigation, aviation, astronautics) - the art of navigating the stars
- Exploration of the universe to understand the past and predict the future
- Astronautics:
- Exploration of the Earth in order to preserve its unique nature
- Obtaining materials that are impossible to obtain in terrestrial conditions
- Weather forecast and natural disaster prediction
- Rescue of ships in distress
- Exploration of other planets to predict the development of the Earth
Outcome:

1. What's new learned. What is astronomy, the purpose of the telescope and its types. Features of astronomy, etc.
2. It is necessary to show the use of the CD- "Red Shift 5.1", the Observer's Calendar, an example of an astronomical journal (electronic, for example the Sky). Online show, Astrotop, portal: Astronomy in Wikipedia, - using which you can get information on the issue of interest or find it.
3. Estimates.

Homework: Introduction, §1; questions and tasks for self-control (page 11), No. 6 and 7 to draw up diagrams, preferably in the lesson; pp. 29-30 (p. 1-6) - the main thoughts.
With a detailed study of the material on astronomical instruments, students can be asked questions and tasks:
1. Determine the main characteristics of the G. Galileo telescope.
2. What are the advantages and disadvantages of the optical system of the Galilean refractor compared to the optical scheme of the Kepler refractor?
3. Determine the main characteristics of the BTA. How many times more powerful is BTA than MSHR?
4. What are the advantages of telescopes installed on board spacecraft?
5. What conditions must satisfy the place for the construction of an astronomical observatory?

The lesson was designed by members of the “Internet Technologies” circle in 2002: Prytkov Denis (10th grade) And Dissenova Anna (9th grade). Changed 09/01/2007

"Planetarium" 410.05 mb		The resource allows you to install the full version of the innovative educational and methodological complex "Planetarium" on the computer of a teacher or student. "Planetarium" - a selection of thematic articles - are intended for use by teachers and students in the lessons of physics, astronomy or natural science in grades 10-11. When installing the complex, it is recommended to use only English letters in folder names.
Demo materials 13.08 mb		The resource is a demonstration materials of the innovative educational and methodological complex "Planetarium".
Planetarium 2.67 mb		This resource is an interactive model "Planetarium", which allows you to study the starry sky by working with this model. To fully use the resource, you must install the Java Plug-in
Lesson	Lesson topic	Development of lessons in the collection of DER	Statistical graphics from the DER
Lesson 1	Astronomy subject	Topic 1. The subject of astronomy. constellations. Orientation in the starry sky 784.5 kb 127.8 kb 450.7 kb Scale of electromagnetic waves with radiation receivers 149.2 kb

1. The need for a time account (calendar). (Ancient Egypt - a relationship with astronomical phenomena was noticed)
2. Find the way by the stars, especially for sailors (the first sailing ships appeared 3 thousand years BC)
3. Curiosity - to understand the ongoing phenomena and put them at your service.
4. Concern for one's destiny, which gave birth to astrology.

Astronomy is one of the most mysterious and interesting sciences. Despite the fact that in schools now, at best, only a few lessons are given to astronomy, people have an interest in it. Therefore, starting with this message, I will begin a series of posts about the basics of this science and interesting questions that arise when studying it.

Brief history of astronomy

Raising his head and looking up into the sky, the ancient man, probably, more than once thought about what kind of motionless "fireflies" are located in the sky. Watching them, people associated some natural phenomena (for example, the change of seasons) with celestial phenomena, and attributed magical properties to the latter. For example, in ancient Egypt, the flood of the Nile coincided in time with the appearance of the brightest star Sirius (or Sothis, as the Egyptians called it) in the sky. In this regard, they invented a calendar - the "Sothic" year - this is the interval between two ascents (appearances in the sky) of Sirius. The year was divided for convenience into 12 months, 30 days each. The remaining 5 days (there are 365 days in a year, respectively, 12 months of 30 days each - this is 360, 5 "extra" days remain) were declared holidays.

Significant progress in astronomy (and astrology) was made by the Babylonians. Their mathematics used a 60-decimal number system (instead of our decimal, as if the ancient Babylonians had 60 fingers), from which came the real punishment for astronomers - the 60-decimal representation of time and angular units. In 1 hour - 60 minutes (not 100!!!), in 1 degree - 60 minutes, the whole sphere - 360 degrees (not 1000!). In addition, it was the Babylonians who singled out the zodiac on the celestial sphere:

The celestial sphere is an imaginary auxiliary sphere of arbitrary radius onto which celestial bodies are projected: it serves to solve various astrometric problems. As a rule, the eye of the observer is taken as the center of the celestial sphere. For an observer on the surface of the Earth, the rotation of the celestial sphere reproduces the daily movement of the luminaries in the sky.

The Babylonians knew 7 "planets" - the Sun, the Moon, Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn. Probably, it was they who introduced the seven-day week - each day of such a week was dedicated to a certain heavenly body. The Babylonians also learned to predict eclipses, which the priests used wonderfully, increasing the faith of the common people in their supposedly supernatural abilities.

What is in the sky?

First of all, let's define our "Ecumenical address" (valid for Russians):

• state: Russia
• planet Earth
• system: solar
• galaxy: milky way
• group: Local group
• cluster: Virgo supercluster
• Metagalaxy
• Our Universe

What do all these beautiful words mean?

solar system

You and I live on one of the eight large planets revolving around the Sun. The sun is a star, that is, a fairly large celestial body in which thermonuclear reactions take place (where sooooo much energy).

A planet is a spherical celestial body (massive enough to take such a shape under the action of gravity), on which these same reactions do not occur. There are only eight major planets:

1. Mercury
2. Venus
3. Earth
4. Jupiter
5. Saturn
6. Neptune

Some planets (more precisely, all except Mercury and Venus) have satellites - small "planets" moving around a large planet. For the Earth, such a satellite is the Moon, whose beautiful surface is shown in the first figure.

There are also dwarf planets in the Solar System - a small body of almost spherical shape, which is not a satellite of a large planet and cannot "clear" its path in the Solar System (due to lack of mass). At the moment, 5 dwarf planets are known, one of which, Pluto, has been considered a large planet for more than 70 years:

1. Pluto
2. Ceres
3. Haumea
4. Makemake
5. Eris

Also in the solar system there are very small celestial bodies, similar in composition to planets - asteroids. They are mainly distributed in main asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter.

And, of course, there are comets - "tailed stars", harbingers of failure, as the ancients believed. They are composed mainly of ice and have a large and beautiful tail. One of these comets, comet Hale-Bopp (named after Hale and Bopp), which many inhabitants of the Earth could observe in 1997 in the sky.

Milky Way

But our solar system is one of many other planetary systems in the Milky Way galaxy(or Milky Way). A galaxy is a large number of stars and other bodies revolving around a common center of mass under the influence of gravity (a computer model of the Galaxy is shown in the figure on the left). The size of a galaxy compared to our solar system is truly enormous - on the order of 100,000 light years. That is, ordinary light, moving at the highest speed in the Universe, will need one hundred thousand (!!!) years to fly from one edge of the Galaxy to the other. It enchants - looking at the sky, at the stars, we look deep into the past - after all, the light reaching us now originated long before the appearance of mankind, and from a number of stars - long before the appearance of the Earth.

The Milky Way itself resembles a spiral with a "dish" in the center. The role of "sleeves" of the spiral is performed by clusters of stars. In total, there are from 200 to 400 billion (!) Stars in the Galaxy. Naturally, our Galaxy is also not alone in the Universe. It is part of the so-called local group, but more on that next time!

Useful tasks in astronomy

1. Estimate what is more - stars in the Galaxy or mosquitoes on Earth?
2. Estimate how many stars in the Galaxy account for one person?
3. Why is it dark at night?

Celestial sphere. Singular points of the celestial sphere. Celestial coordinates. Star map, constellations, the use of computer applications to display the starry sky. Apparent stellar magnitude. Daily movement of the luminaries. Relationship between the apparent location of objects in the sky and the geographic coordinates of the observer. Movement of the Earth around the Sun. Apparent movement and phases of the moon. Solar and lunar eclipses. Time and calendar.

LAWS OF MOTION OF CELESTIAL BODIES

Structure and scale of the solar system. Configuration and conditions of visibility of the planets. Methods for determining the distances to the bodies of the solar system and their sizes. Celestial Mechanics. Kepler's laws. Determination of the masses of celestial bodies. Movement of artificial celestial bodies.

SOLAR SYSTEM

Origin of the solar system. Earth-Moon system. Terrestrial planets. Giant planets. Satellites and rings of planets. Small bodies of the solar system. asteroid hazard.

ASTRONOMIC RESEARCH METHODS

Electromagnetic radiation, cosmic rays and gravitational waves as a source of information about the nature and properties of celestial bodies. Ground and space telescopes, the principle of their operation. Space vehicles. Spectral analysis. Doppler effect. Wien's displacement law. Stefan-Boltzmann law.

STARS

Stars: main physical and chemical characteristics and their mutual relationship. A variety of stellar characteristics and their patterns. Determining the distance to the stars, parallax. Double and multiple stars. extrasolar planets. The problem of the existence of life in the universe. The internal structure and energy sources of stars. Origin of chemical elements. Variable and flare stars. Brown dwarfs. The evolution of stars, its stages and final stages. The structure of the Sun, the solar atmosphere. Manifestations of solar activity: spots, flares, prominences. Periodicity of solar activity. The role of magnetic fields on the Sun. Solar-terrestrial connections.

OUR GALAXY IS THE MILKY WAY

Composition and structure of the Galaxy. star clusters. Interstellar gas and dust. Rotation of the Galaxy. Dark matter.

GALAXIES. STRUCTURE AND EVOLUTION OF THE UNIVERSE

Discovery of other galaxies. Variety of galaxies and their main characteristics. Supermassive black holes and galaxy activity. The concept of cosmology. Redshift. Hubble law. Evolution of the Universe. Big Bang. Relic radiation. Dark energy.

Planned results of mastering the subject

Students must:

Know, understand

The meaning of concepts: geocentric and heliocentric system, apparent magnitude, constellation, opposition and conjunction of planets, comet, asteroid, meteor, meteorite, meteoroid, planet, satellite, star, solar system, galaxy, universe, universal and standard time, extrasolar planet ( exoplanet), spectral classification of stars, parallax, relic radiation, Big Bang, black hole;

The meaning of physical quantities: parsec, light year, astronomical unit, magnitude;

The meaning of Hubble's physical law;

Main stages of space exploration;

Hypotheses of the origin of the solar system;

Basic characteristics and structure of the Sun, solar atmosphere;

Dimensions of the Galaxy, position and period of revolution of the Sun relative to the center of the Galaxy;

Be able to

Give examples: the role of astronomy in the development of civilization, the use of research methods in astronomy, various ranges of electromagnetic radiation to obtain information about the objects of the Universe, obtaining astronomical information using spacecraft and spectral analysis, the influence of solar activity on the Earth;

Describe and explain: the differences in calendars, the conditions for the onset of solar and lunar eclipses, the phases of the moon, the daily movements of the stars, the causes of the tides; the principle of operation of an optical telescope, the relationship of the physico-chemical characteristics of stars using the "color-luminosity" diagram, the physical causes that determine the balance of stars, the source of energy of stars and the origin of chemical elements, redshift using the Doppler effect;

To characterize the features of the methods of cognition of astronomy, the main elements and properties of the planets of the solar system, methods for determining the distances and linear dimensions of celestial bodies, possible paths for the evolution of stars of various masses;

Find the main constellations of the Northern Hemisphere in the sky, including: Ursa Major, Ursa Minor, Bootes, Cygnus, Cassiopeia, Orion; the brightest stars, including: Polaris, Arcturus, Vega, Capella, Sirius, Betelgeuse;

Use computer applications to determine the position of the Sun, Moon and stars for any date and time of day for a given locality;

Use the acquired knowledge and skills in practical activities and everyday life for: understanding the relationship of astronomy with other sciences, which are based on knowledge of astronomy, separating it from pseudosciences; evaluating information contained in media reports, the Internet, popular science articles.

Thematic planning

(Grade 11)

Calendar-thematic planning