How does biogeocenosis differ from an ecosystem? The doctrine of biogeocenoses ❖ Properties of ecological pyramids

Throughout our lives, we are surrounded by animals, various plants, soil, air, water... We are all used to calling it the environment. In principle, this is correct, but the environment also varies. It may differ from whether this particular environment is made by man or exists on its own, what factors of living or non-living nature influence it. They also distinguish between ground-air, aquatic, organismal, and soil environments. We can safely call all this ecosystems, but what then is biogeocenosis? Let's find out!

Characteristics of biogeocenosis and its features

Biogeocenosis is an ecosystem in which natural phenomena (fauna, air, rocks, flora, etc.) have similar nature of mutual influence between each other, and are also combined by the exchange of energy and the circulation of substances. It consists of an ecotope (atmosphere and soil) and a biocenosis (animals, plants, various microorganisms). It turns out that biogeocenosis is a type of ecosystem? Yes, a biogeocenosis is an ecosystem, but not every ecosystem is a biogeocenosis. How can we understand this? For example, not all artificial ecosystems will be a biogeocenosis, since, firstly, a biogeocenosis can exist on land and nowhere else, and secondly, it has specifically designated boundaries that are determined by a phytocenosis (a plant community that is limited by the boundaries of one biotope).

If not phytocenosis, then biogeocenosis cannot exist. But when it is impossible to distinguish a phytocenosis, then the name “ecosystem” is already used. Based on the information received, we can conclude that phytocenosis and abiotic factors (factors of inanimate nature) are very important in the formation and existence of biogeocenosis. The most striking examples of biocenosis will be a forest, swamp, meadow, field, etc.

Varieties of biogeocenosis

Biogeocenosis also has its own subspecies. There are natural and artificial biogeocenoses. With natural everything is clear, it was formed without human intervention and over time, and quite a long time starting from 1000 years. But in artificial they distinguish:

1. - created by people. It is man who determines the species composition, cares for, and processes the plants and animals located in a given biogeocenosis. A striking example of this ecosystem is a park.
2. Agrobiocenosis. This ecosystem is also created by humans, but for agricultural activities. The most famous example for us is a field or plantation.

Properties of biocenosis

Like any ecosystem, biogeocenosis has its own properties:

• To begin with, this is a system that has developed during historical changes.
• Biogeocenosis can be both natural and artificial.
• It is characterized by the circulation of substances.
• It is capable of self-regulation, which is very important for maintaining a constant composition at the required level.
• The main source of energy is the Sun, and the biogeocenosis is open for energy output and input.

Most of these properties are also characteristic of an ecosystem, which helps to convince us that a biogeocenosis is an ecosystem.

Ecosystem characteristics

To define the concept of “ecosystem”, it is enough to re-read the term “biogeocoenosis”. An ecosystem is a biological environment in which energy exchange and circulation of substances and all the phenomena of living and inanimate nature are interconnected in it. In fact, “biogeocenosis” is synonymous with the concept of “ecosystem”.

What does an ecosystem consist of?

The ecosystem consists of the same components as the biogeocenosis:

• Biocenosis.
• Ecotop.

Types of ecosystem

An ecosystem can be natural or artificial:

1. Natural, formed under the influence of natural factors over a long period of time. People can influence this ecosystem. For example, a forest. In the forest, people take wood, collect mushrooms and berries, hunt animals, etc. But in such biological areas, the influence of natural factors suppresses the influence of people.
2. Anthropogenic are ecosystems that are created and used by people for agricultural purposes. For example, pasture. In anthropogenic ecosystems, it is possible to preserve natural ecosystems in their original form, such as rivers or swamps.

Natural systems are distinguished from anthropogenic systems by the source of energy that provides them.

Among ecosystems, there is another classification of ecosystems:

1. Autotrophic- these are systems that are energy-supplied, either due to the solar energy consumed by producers - photoautotrophic ecosystems, or due to the chemical energy of producers - chemoautotrophic ecosystems.
2. Heterotrophic is a system that uses chemical energy, either created by man through energy devices, or together with carbon from organic matter.

Differences between ecosystem and biogeocenosis.

• Firstly, biogeocenosis is a special case of an ecosystem. After all, biogeocenosis is limited by phytocenosis, and when it cannot be identified, then this land area is called an ecosystem. It’s just that a biocenosis has many similarities with an ecosystem, so they are often used as synonyms.
• Secondly, the concept of “ecosystem” is much broader and more widespread than “biogeocenosis”.
• Thirdly, in the ecosystem there is a diversity of ranks, which is not the case in biogeocenosis.
• Fourthly, the biocenosis is distinguished only on land, but the ecosystem can be distinguished everywhere.

The line between an ecosystem and a biogeocenosis is very subtle, but it exists!

The idea of ​​the interconnection and unity of all natural phenomena led to the formation of the ecosystem approach and the development of the concept of “ecosystem” abroad and to the emergence of a new scientific discipline in the former USSR.

Such a discipline, which originated in the depths of forest geobotany and subsequently developed into a fundamental science with its own tasks and methods, is biogeocenology(from Greek bios - life, geo - earth, koinos - general). The founder of biogeocenology was the outstanding Russian geobotanist, forester and ecologist, academician V.N. Sukachev, who proposed his own interpretation of the structural organization of the biosphere. V.N. Sukachev devoted his life to the development of general issues of phytocenology - the science of plant communities (phytocenoses). He attached great importance to the study of interspecific and intraspecific relationships of plants in plant communities.

The most important theoretical development of V.N. Sukachev is the idea of ​​the unity and interconnection of living organisms (biocenosis) and their habitat (biotope). Biogeopenology involves a versatile, integrated approach to the study of the living surface of the Earth, based on the study of the interaction of its components. The task of biogeocenology is to decipher the connections and interactions between living and inert components of nature - biogeocenoses, which the scientist called the elementary cells of the Earth's surface.

According to the definition of V.N. Sukacheva, biogeocenosis- this is a homogeneous area of ​​the earth's surface, where natural phenomena (atmosphere, rock, vegetation, fauna, microorganisms, soil, hydrological conditions) have the same type of interaction with each other and are combined by metabolism and energy into a single natural complex.

The essence of biogeocenosis V.N. Sukachev saw the process of mutual exchange of matter and energy between its constituent components, as well as between them and the environment. An important feature of biogeocenosis is that it is associated with a certain area of ​​the earth’s surface.

The initial concept in defining biogeocenosis was the geobotanical term "phytocenosis" - plant community, a grouping of plants with a homogeneous nature of relationships between themselves and between them and the environment. Another natural component with which plants come into direct contact is the atmosphere. To characterize the biogeocenosis, moisture conditions are also important. In addition, any phytocenosis is always inhabited by a variety of animals.

By combining all these components into one whole, we obtain the structure of the biogeocenosis (Fig. 10). It includes phytocenosis - plant community (autotrophic organisms, producers); zoocenosis - animal population (heterotrophs, consumers) and microbiocenosis - various microorganisms (bacteria, fungi, protozoa (decomposers). Sukachev classified the living part of the biogeocenosis as biocenosis. The inanimate, abiotic part of the biogeocenosis is made up of a combination of climatic factors of a given territory - climate, bioinert formation - edaphotope (soil) and moisture conditions (hydrological factors) - hydrotope. The set of abiotic components of biogeocenosis is called biotope. Each component in nature is inseparable from the other. The main creator of living matter within the biogeocenosis is the phytocenosis - green plants. Using solar energy, green plants create a huge mass of organic matter. The composition and mass of such a substance depend mainly on the characteristics of the atmosphere and soil conditions, which are determined, on the one hand, by the geographical location (zonation due to the existence of certain types of biomes), and on the other, by the terrain and the location of the phytocenosis. The existence of the heterotroph complex depends on the composition and characteristics of vegetation. In turn, the biocenosis as a whole determines the composition and amount of organic matter entering the soil (rich steppe chernozems, low-humus soils of boreal forests and extremely poor soils of tropical rainforests). Animals in the process of life also have a diverse impact on vegetation. The interactions between microorganisms and vegetation, microorganisms and vertebrate and invertebrate animals are extremely important.

Rice. 10. Structure of biogeocenosis and interaction scheme of its components

Biogeocenosis and ecosystems

Biogeocenosis as a structural unit of the biosphere is similar to the interpretation proposed by A. Tansley ecosystems. Biogeocenosis and ecosystem are similar concepts, but not the same. Biogeocenosis should be considered as an elementary complex, i.e. ecosystem consisting of a biotope and biocenosis. Every biogeocenosis is an ecosystem, but not every ecosystem corresponds to a biogeocenosis.

First of all, any biogeocenosis is distinguished only on land. Biogeocenosis has specific boundaries, which are determined by the boundaries of the plant community - phytocenosis. Figuratively speaking, biogeocenosis exists only within the framework of phytocenosis. Where there is no phytocenosis, there is no biogeocenosis. The concepts of “ecosystem” and “biogeocenosis” are identical only for such natural formations as, for example, a forest, meadow, swamp, field. For natural formations that are smaller or larger in volume than the phytocenosis, or in those cases where the phytocenosis cannot be distinguished, the concept of “ecosystem” is used. For example, a hummock in a swamp or a stream are ecosystems, but not biogeocenoses. Only ecosystems are seaweed, tundra, tropical rainforest, etc. In the tundra and forest, it is possible to distinguish not just one phytocenosis, but a set of phytocenoses, which are a larger formation than a biogeocenosis.

An ecosystem can be both smaller and larger than a biogeocenosis. An ecosystem is a more general formation, without rank. This could be a piece of land or a body of water, a coastal dune or a small pond. This is also the entire biosphere as a whole. Biogeocenosis is enclosed within the boundaries of phytocenosis and denotes a specific natural object that occupies a certain space on land and is separated by spatial boundaries from similar objects. This is a real natural zone in which the biogenic cycle takes place.

The biological part of the biogeocenosis is represented by microorganisms, plants and animals and is called biocenosis. The biocenosis consists of plants (phytocenosis), animals (zoocenosis) and microorganisms (microbiocenosis).

Populations of different species living in the same general range are ecological community. Living organisms, being under the influence of other organisms and inanimate nature, in turn, influence them.

Ecotop

The abiotic part of a biogeocenosis is a part of a land or water basin with certain climatic conditions. It's called ecotope. Ecotopes are represented by atmospheric ( climatotop) and soil ( edaphotope) factors (Fig. 66).

The main characterizing indicators of biogeocenosis:

• species diversity;
• density of individuals of each species;
• biomass (the total amount of organic matter in a biogeocenosis).

Sustainability

Since life processes in biogeocenosis are provided by energy coming from outside, it is considered as an open, self-regulating system that is in a state of equilibrium.

Self-regulation

One of the most important features of biogeocenosis is self-regulation. Self-regulation is the ability of a natural system to restore its properties after exposure to any natural or anthropogenic factors. A striking example of self-regulation is biogeocenosis in a broad-leaved forest. This is where plants compete for living space, for light and water. In biogeocenoses of this type, the phenomenon of tiering is observed, i.e., the arrangement of the plant community in several vertical rows.

Cycle of substances

The stability of biogeocenosis is ensured by the circulation of substances (the constant transition of substances from inanimate to living nature, and from living to inanimate). The source of energy in this case is the Sun, the energy of which, in the process of circulation, is converted into the energy of chemical bonds of substances, and then into mechanical and thermal energy.

Seasonal changes

In biogeocenoses of any type, changes associated with climatic rhythms are observed. Thus, as a result of lower temperatures, shorter daylight hours and changes in humidity in the fall, many plants shed their leaves. Nutrients accumulate in their storage organs, and plugs form on the trees. The water content in the cytoplasm of their cells begins to decrease. Animals are also actively preparing for winter: birds fly south, mammals begin molting, and they store food for the winter. Material from the site

Change of biogeocenoses

In biogeocenosis, as a result of the emergence of food connections between species, energy moves from one trophic level to another. At the same time, biomass and the amount of energy gradually decrease.

Natural complexes in which vegetation has fully formed, and which can exist on their own, without human intervention, and if a person or something else disturbs them, they will be restored, and according to certain laws. Such natural complexes are biogeocenoses. The most complex and important natural biogeocenoses are forests. In no natural complex, no type of vegetation are these relationships expressed so sharply and so multifacetedly as in a forest.

Biogeocenosis is a set of homogeneous natural phenomena (atmosphere, rock, vegetation, fauna and the world of microorganisms, soil and hydrological conditions) over a certain extent of the earth's surface, which has a special specificity of interactions between these components that make it up and a certain type of metabolism and energy: among themselves and with other natural phenomena and representing an internal contradictory unity, in constant movement and development...”

This definition reflects all the essence of biogeocenosis, features and characteristics inherent only to it:

The biogeocenosis must be homogeneous in all respects: living and nonliving matter: vegetation, fauna, soil population, relief, parent rock, soil properties, depth and groundwater regimes;

Each biogeocenosis is characterized by the presence of a special, unique type of metabolism and energy,

All components of biogeocenosis are characterized by the unity of life and its environment, i.e. the features and patterns of life activity of a biogeocenosis are determined by its habitat, thus, biogeocenosis is a geographical concept.

In addition, each specific biogeocenosis must:

Be homogeneous in its history;

Be a fairly long-term established education;

Clearly differ in vegetation from neighboring biogeocenoses, and these differences must be natural and environmentally explainable.

Examples of biogeocenoses:

Mixed oak forest at the foot of the deluvial slope of southern exposure on mountain brown-forest medium-loamy soil;

Grass meadow in a hollow on loamy peaty soils,

A mixed-grass meadow on a high river floodplain on a floodplain soddy-gleyish medium loamy soil,

Larch lichen on Al-Fe-humus-podzolic soils,

Mixed broad-leaved forest with liana vegetation on the northern slope on brown forest soils, etc.

Biogeocenosis is the entire set of species and the entire set of components of inanimate nature that determine the existence of a given ecosystem, taking into account the inevitable anthropogenic impact."

The field of knowledge about biogeocenoses is called biogeocenology. To control natural processes, you need to know the laws to which they are subject. These patterns are studied by a number of sciences: meteorology, climatology, geology, soil science, hydrology, various departments of botany and zoology, microbiology, etc. Biogeocenology generalizes, synthesizes the results of the listed sciences from a certain angle, paying primary attention to the interactions of the components of biogeocenoses with each other and revealing general patterns governing these interactions.

2.Definition of biogeocenosis

"Biogeocenosis– this is a section of the earth’s surface on which, in close interaction, the following develop: vegetation that is homogeneous in composition and productivity, a homogeneous complex of animals and microorganisms, and soil that is homogeneous in physical and chemical composition; a homogeneous gas and climate situation is maintained, the same material and energy exchange is established between all components of the biogeocenosis" (V.N. Sukachev).

3.Component composition of biogeocenosis

Components of biogeocenosis– material bodies (components of biogeocenosis). They are divided into 2 groups:

1.Living (biotic, biocenosis)

2. Inert (abiotic substance, raw material) – ecotope, biotope.

These include carbon dioxide, water, oxygen, etc.

Biotic components of biogeocenosis:

1.Producers

2.Consumers

3. Decomposers (detritivores, destructors of organic substances).

Producers – organisms that produce (synthesize) organic substances from inorganic ones (green plants).

Consumers– organisms that consume ready-made organic substances. Primary consumers are herbivores. Secondary consumers are carnivores.

Decomposers – organisms that decompose organic substances to final decay products (bacteria of rotting and fermentation).

In biogeocenosis it is established ecological homeostasis– dynamic balance between all components of biogeocenosis.

Happens periodically ecological succession- natural change of communities in biogeocenosis.

There are several classifications of biogeocenoses.

I.1. Land, Freshwater, 2. Water, Marine

II. By geographical area:

1. Forest, 2. Swamp, 3. Steppe, 4. Meadow, 5. Tundra, etc.

III. Lobachev in 1978 identified biogeocenoses:

1) Natural 2) Rural (agrocenoses)

3) Urbanocenoses (urban, industrial)

4. Borders between biogeocenoses.

The configuration and boundaries of a biogeocenosis are determined, according to Sukachev, by the boundaries of its inherent phytocenosis, as its autotrophic base, physiognomically more clearly than other components that express it in space.

Horizontal boundaries between biogeocenoses, as well as between plant communities, according to J. Leme (1976), can be sharp, especially under conditions of human intervention, but they can also be vague, as if smeared in the case of interpenetration of components of neighboring biogeocenoses.

B. A Bykov (1970) distinguishes the following types of boundaries between plant communities and, consequently, between biogeocenoses

a) sharp boundaries are observed when there is a sharp difference in adjacent cenoses of environmental conditions or in the presence of dominants with powerful environment-forming properties;

b) mosaic boundaries, in contrast to sharp ones, are characterized by the inclusion in the transitional strip of adjacent cenoses of their individual fragments, forming a kind of complexity;

c) border boundaries - when in the contact zone of adjacent cenoses a narrow border of a cenosis develops that differs from both of them;

d) diffuse boundaries between adjacent cenoses are characterized by a gradual spatial change in species composition in the contact zone during the transition from one to another

The vertical boundaries of the biogeocenosis, as well as the horizontal ones, are determined by the location of the living plant biomass of the phytocenosis in space - the upper limit is determined by the maximum height of above-ground plant organs - phototrophs - above the soil surface, the lower limit is determined by the maximum depth of penetration of the root system into the soil.

At the same time, in tree and shrub biogeocenoses, vertical boundaries, as T. A. Rabotnov writes (1974a), do not change during the growing season, while in grass biogeocenoses (meadow, steppe, etc.) they vary by season, as occurs either an increase in grass stand, or a decrease in it, or complete alienation in hayfields and pastures. only their lower boundaries are not subject to seasonal changes.

Biogeocenosis (ecosystem) is the most important element of the biosphere, the main functional element. An ecosystem unites all organisms living in a given area. The interaction of the biotic community with the environment forms biotic structures, the circulation of matter between the living and nonliving parts of the ecosystem. The concept of biogeocenosis arose in the 30s of the 20th century. The English geobotanist Tansley defined biogeocenosis as an integral formation in the biosphere, in which organisms and inorganic factors act as components in a relatively stable state.[...]

BIOGEOCENOSIS - a homogeneous ecological system (a section of forest, meadow, steppe). A homogeneous area of ​​an agroecosystem is called agrobiogeocenosis.[...]

The biogeocenoses of the globe form a biogeocenotic cover, which is studied by biogeocenology. This science was founded by the outstanding Russian scientist V.N. Sukachev. The totality of all the biogeocenoses of our planet creates a gigantic ecosystem - the biosphere. Biogeocenoses can form on any part of the earth's surface - on land and on water. They are steppe, swamp, meadow, etc. Hybrobiocenoses are of great importance in the functioning of the biosphere. Areas of the earth's surface covered with cultivated plants are called agrophytocenoses.[...]

Biogeocenoses are extremely diverse and saturated with living organisms to varying degrees. Accordingly, the rate of biotic turnover and, consequently, its productivity differ markedly. In aquatic ecosystems the cycle occurs faster than in terrestrial ones; in tropical zones its speed and productivity are higher than in arctic ones.[...]

BIOGEOCENOSIS - includes biocenosis and biotope (ecotope). A biocenosis is a collection of plants, animals, microorganisms inhabiting a certain biotope.[...]

Terrestrial and aquatic biogeocenoses (all continents, seas and oceans) form the biosphere, which is a common terrestrial (global) ecological system. The biosphere is studied by global ecology.[...]

Biogeocenosis is a complex natural system, a set of homogeneous natural conditions (atmosphere, rock, soil and hydrological conditions, vegetation, fauna and the world of microorganisms), which has its own specific interaction of its components and a certain type of exchange of matter and energy.[...]

Biogeocenosis consists of four categories of interacting components: producers, consumers, decomposers and inanimate bodies.[...]

Each biogeocenosis is characterized by species diversity, population size and density of each species, biomass and productivity. The number is determined by the number of animals or the number of plants in a given territory (river basin, sea area, etc.). This is a measure of the abundance of a population. Density is characterized by the number of individuals per unit area. For example, 800 trees per 1.ha of forest or the number of people per 1 km2. Primary productivity is the increase in plant biomass per unit of time per unit area. Secondary productivity is the biomass formed by heterotrophic organisms per unit of time per unit area. Biomass is the totality of plant and animal organisms present in the biogeocenosis at the time of observation.[...]

Each biogeocenosis, when climatic or other conditions change (forest fire, human economic activity, etc.), can naturally change its communities, that is, in its place a biogeocenosis more adapted to new conditions develops. The change of biogeocenoses is called succession, that is, a directed and continuous sequence of the appearance and disappearance of populations of different species in a given biotope, which occurs in the direction from less resistant to more stable. [...]

EVOLUTION OF BIOGEOCENOSES (ecosystem) - the process of continuous, simultaneous and interconnected changes in species and their relationships, the introduction of new species into the ecosystem and the loss from it of some species that were previously included in it, the cumulative impact of the ecosystem on the substrate and other abiotic environmental components and the reverse influence of these components on living components of the ecosystem. In the course of evolution, biogeocenoses adapt to changes in the planet’s ecosphere and emerging regional features of its parts (shifts in geographic zonation, etc.).[...]

The succession of biogeocenosis is actually the succession of food chains and fundamental ecological niches, i.e., the regimes and composition of linked factors. Therefore, the above examples are simplified. In real conditions, everything is much more complicated, and when managing biogeocenoses, this interconnection of factors should be taken into account. A typical example of neglect of the doctrine of the fundamental ecological niche is the use of arboricides in forests, carried out on a large scale in order to eliminate “weedy” deciduous trees that “compete” with valuable conifers for light and mineral nutrition. Nowadays, the use of arboricides in forests on a mass scale has been stopped. However, in a number of cases, after the destruction of deciduous trees, pine and spruce not only do not grow, but even those trees that were there before treatment die from pests and diseases (new limiting factors). The reason is clear: light and mineral nutrition are just a few of the countless environmental factors that form the fundamental niche. Lightening also turns out to be beneficial for many insects; the disappearance of the deciduous canopy facilitates the unhindered spread of fungal infections among the remaining conifers. The flow of organic matter into the soil stops, and in addition, the soil is unprotected by the canopy of deciduous trees from water erosion, and its still weak humus horizon is washed away.[...]

The ability of biogeocenoses after various destructions to ensure a certain course of restorative successions and the course of growth of forest stands with target parameters is called the stability of the ecosystem trajectory, and the stability of forest stands in the broad sense of the word is the ability to provide high primary net production at any age, despite random unfavorable changes in environmental factors.[ ...]

The fauna of biogeocenoses is diverse. It consists of protozoa, sponges, coelenterates, worms, arthropods, birds, mammals, etc. Animals inhabit the terrestrial part of land BGCs, soil, and aquatic ecosystems. [...]

The stability of biogeocenosis in a wide range of external conditions, i.e., changes in environmental pollution within possible limits should not lead to the failure of the ecosystem. Currently, a large number of ecosystems are not sustainable due to extreme anthropogenic influences, in which only two conditionally positive features can be seen: they gave us the opportunity to increase material wealth and they also brought to life an “ecological boom.”[...]

It is advisable to evaluate changes in forest biogeocenoses in connection with logging based on the woody, biological, ecological and complex productivity of the forest (according to I.S. Melekhov).[...]

The internal heterogeneity of the biogeocenosis is associated with the characteristics of the meso- and microrelief, which affects the structure of the soil, the dynamics of humidity, temperature, and illumination. Therefore, plants within a biogeocenosis (or synusia) can grow in groups and at the same time alternate with more or less open glades (for example, due to “windows” in the canopy of tall trees). In such cases, they talk about the parcellation of biogeocenosis (from the French parcel - cell).[...]

In the artificial environment of a farm biogeocenosis, a biocenosis is formed that is different from the indigenous, natural one. The main component of the biocenosis is the population of agricultural mammals and birds. As dominant edifiers, farm animals largely determine the microclimate (zooclimate) in the livestock building and, thus, indirectly influence the formation and development of the farm biocenosis. The flora of the biocenosis consists mainly of different types of microflora, sometimes pathogenic (pathogenic) for animals (“barn microflora”). The fauna of a community can be represented by different species of animals. Some of them are pathogens (for example, pathogenic helminths) and carriers of infectious diseases of farm animals (for example, pigeons, mice, rats).[...]

Ecologists also use the term “biogeocenosis”, proposed by the Soviet botanist V. N. Sukachev. This term refers to the collection of plants, animals, microorganisms, soil and atmosphere on a homogeneous land area. Biogeocenosis is synonymous with ecosystem.[...]

The terms “ecological system” and “biogeocenosis” are not synonymous. An ecological system is any collection of organisms and their environment. Thus, for example, a flower pot, a terrarium, a phytotron, or a manned spacecraft can be considered as an ecosystem. All of the above-mentioned sets of organisms and the environment lack a number of features given in V.N. Sukachev’s definition, and first of all the “geo” element - the Earth. Biogeocenoses are natural formations. At the same time, biogeocenosis can also be considered as an ecological system. Thus, the concept of “ecosystem” is broader than “biogeocenosis”. Any biogeocenosis is an ecological system, but not every ecological system is a biogeocenosis. In addition, the collection of organisms in such ecosystems is not a population. Hence a more precise definition: an ecosystem is a collection of living organisms and their environment.[...]

The terms “ecological system” and “biogeocenosis” are not synonymous. An ecosystem is any collection of organisms and their habitats, including, for example, a flower pot, an anthill, an aquarium, a swamp, a manned spacecraft. The listed systems lack a number of features from the definition of V.N. Sukachev, and first of all the “geo” element - the Earth. Biocenoses are only natural formations. However, the biocenosis can be fully considered as an ecosystem. Thus, the concept of “ecosystem” is broader and fully covers the concept of “biogeocoenosis” or “biogeocoenosis” - a special case of “ecosystem”.[...]

Thus, if we consider that the “core” of the biogeocenosis is the soil cover with the special properties and functions of its constituent soils, manifested in their fertility, as well as its ability to produce organic mass, then it becomes obvious that the soil cover is the main lever in the evolution of the ecosystem. In other words, soil fertility, to a certain extent, becomes an important criterion for assessing the evolution of soils and represents an integral function of all biogeocenotic, as well as, in our opinion, agrocenotic functions.[...]

Changes in the biosphere and its elementary units of biogeocenoses have accelerated sharply since the Anthropocene. Humanity has become a powerful force changing the nature of the Earth and its biogeocenoses. Biogeocenoses are natural, natural (natural biogeocenoses) and anthropogenic (cultural, artificial). There are very few natural complexes left on Earth that have not been modified by humans. Anthropogenic are biogeocenoses transformed by human activity or created by him. Examples of such BGCs: forest plantations, fields and cultivated pastures, livestock farms and complexes, aquariums, ponds and reservoirs. Anthropogenic biogeocenoses also include human settlements: farmsteads, villages, hamlets and other populated areas.[...]

Secondly, the population, being a structural unit of a biogeocenosis (ecosystem), performs one of its most important functions, namely, it participates in the biological cycle. In this case, a species-specific feature of the type of metabolism is realized. A population represents a species in an ecosystem and all interspecific relationships are carried out in it at the population level. The sustainable implementation of the function of participation in biogenic processes is determined by specific mechanisms of autoregulation, which create conditions for the self-sustaining of the population as a system in the changing internal and external factors of the environment.[...]

Organisms inhabit the biosphere and enter one or another biogeocenosis not in any combination, but form a certain community of species adapted to living together. Groups of co-living and interconnected species in biogeocenoses are called biocenoses. The total number of species in biocenoses reaches many tens and hundreds. Members of the biocenosis are similar in their attitude to abiotic environmental factors. The place in which they live is called an ecotope. Each species within the biocenosis occupies a position that meets its vital needs. Therefore, the position of a species in space, its functioning role in the biocenosis, connections with other species and relationship to biotopes determine the ecological niche of the species.[...]

In 1944 V.N. Sukachev proposed the term “biogeocenosis,” which is not a complete synonym for ecosystem. Thus, in a number of works, biogeocenosis is understood as a community of plants, animals, and microorganisms on a certain area of ​​the earth’s surface with its microclimate, geological structure, landscape, soil, and water regime. Thus, ecosystem is a broader concept, since biogeocenosis is only a terrestrial formation with certain boundaries (Fig. 38).[...]

According to the theory of V.N. Sukachev, the creator of biogeocenology (the science of biogeocenoses), biogeocenoses consist of two main components - biocenosis (community of organisms) and ecotope (inert environment). The composition of a biocenosis includes plants that form a plant community (phytocenosis), animals and microorganisms. The environment in which organisms live (ecotope) is determined by climate conditions, hydrology, parent rock, and soil. There are complex relationships between organisms and their environment in biogeocenoses (Fig. 64). Biogeocenoses are sometimes called ecosystems.[...]

The small cycle, being part of the large one, occurs at the level of biogeocenosis and consists in the fact that nutrients from soil, water, and air accumulate in plants and are spent on creating their mass and life processes in them. The decay products of organic matter under the influence of bacteria are again decomposed into mineral components accessible to plants, and are drawn into the flow of matter by them. [...]

Diagram 2.3 presents the main elements and connections between the models of biogeocenosis, as well as the connections of this model with the model of a higher ecological level - the economic region. The main elements of the biogeocenosis model include: decomposers (fauna, soils), forest (plant community), consumers (consumers of plant biomass), inorganic substances in the soil and atmosphere (water, oxygen, nitrogen, etc.), used in the process of plant life.[...]

Species of living organisms ensure sustainable maintenance of the biogenic cycle in the biogeocenosis at the population level. Populations have been studied for quite a long time, and by now there has been a certain understanding of the features of their functioning. A population is understood as a historically established natural community of individuals of living organisms of the same species, related genetically, inhabiting common habitats and implementing natural functional interactions.[...]

Despite the high protective properties of the soil, especially its organic component, the resistance of soils and biogeocenoses to chemical pollution is not unlimited. In extreme cases, technogenic impact leads to such a profound change in the properties of the soil and biota that the normal functioning of the biogeocenosis becomes possible only after complete soil reclamation or the creation of a new soil layer. The strategy for protecting the biosphere from chemical pollutants currently involves such measures as proper storage of toxic waste from various industries, reducing emissions of harmful substances into the environment, creating low-waste and non-waste technologies, strict control over the use of pesticides and herbicides, other chemicals, reasonable, environmentally optimal use of mineral and organic fertilizers.[...]

Vitality is a property that characterizes the actual indicators of environmental protection of an ecosystem and is manifested in the ability of landscape biogeocenoses to self-heal.[...]

The accuracy of measurements in industrial ecosystems acts as an objective measure of assessing properties in relation to both technogenesis and anthropogenic changes in the biogeocenoses of the natural landscape.[...]

Real technogenic loads on the components of geospheres during the construction of industrial or civil facilities form the potential levels of anthropogenic changes in the biogeocenoses of the regional landscape. From this point of view, the task of optimizing structural and rational restrictions on the construction process from the point of view of minimal impact on the natural landscape and then providing the necessary initial control and technological prerequisites (regarding the functioning of the construction complex) to maintain the ecological balance in the region acquires exceptionally important scientific and methodological significance.[ .. .]

Modern biologists (for example, N.F. Reimers) reasonably believe that this law, formulated for inanimate systems, is also valid for natural, including ecological, systems. This is understandable: any natural system from a cell to a biogeocenosis is a physicochemical system. We will also encounter manifestations of this principle when considering other dynamic processes in ecosystems.[...]

Comparing the structure of various natural units studied by scientists of different profiles, one can see that they consist of a different number of basic components. Phytocenosis consists only of the plants of the community, biocenosis - of phytocenosis and zoocenosis, biogeocenosis - of phytocenosis, zoocenosis, water and atmosphere. A natural territorial complex, according to Solntsev, is a complete natural unity and is composed of all five main components of nature, that is, in addition to the atmosphere, water, plants and animals, it includes a lithogenic base, under the leading influence of which it develops. Therefore H.A. Solntsev called PTC “complete” unities, in contrast to “particular” ones, which include only part of the components of nature.[...]

One of the most important properties of biogeocenosis is the interconnection and interdependence of all its components. It is quite clear that climate entirely determines the state and regime of soil factors and creates the habitat of living organisms. In turn, the soil to some extent determines climatic features (for example, its reflectivity - albedo, and therefore warming, air humidity - depends on the color of the soil surface), and also affects animals, plants and microorganisms. All living organisms are closely connected with each other, being for each other either a source of food, or a habitat, or factors of mortality. The role of microorganisms (primarily bacteria) in the processes of soil formation, mineralization of organic matter and often acting as pathogens of plant and animal diseases is especially important.[...]

At the regional level (in particular at the stage of forest regeneration), the pattern of formation of types of fellings in connection with the initial types of forest and the pattern of stage changes in vegetation cover after cutting are important. The more productive, complex and richer the forest biogeocenosis and, consequently, the stronger and more diverse its internal connections, the wider the range of qualitative changes in the ecosystem due to logging. With an increase in the productivity (bonitet) of the forest, the number of types of felling in place of the same type of forest increases (Melekhov, 1989).[...]

In the vicinity of the plant, a mole colony was found at a distance of 16 km from the emission center, voles were captured no closer than 7–8 km, and shrews were captured at 3–4 km. Moreover, at these distances from the plant, animals do not live permanently, but only come in temporarily. This means that the biogeocenosis, with an increase in anthropogenic load, is simplified primarily due to the loss or sharp reduction of consumers (see Fig. 4) and the circuit of carbon (and other elements) circulation becomes two-part: producers and receptors.[...]

The main function of soil is to support life on Earth. This is determined by the fact that it is in the soil that the biogenic elements necessary for organisms are concentrated in the forms of chemical compounds available to them. In addition, the soil has the ability to accumulate water reserves necessary for the life of producers of biogeocenoses, also in a form accessible to them, evenly providing them with water throughout the entire growing season. Finally, soil serves as an optimal environment for the rooting of terrestrial plants, the habitat of numerous invertebrate and vertebrate animals, and a variety of microorganisms. Actually, this function defines the concept of “soil fertility”.[...]

When identifying a biocenosis as an independent object of study, one should not forget about the conventions of such isolation of a part from the natural whole, since a community of plants and animals cannot exist without the environment, that is, inanimate nature. The biocenosis with its habitat forms a natural complex - biogeocenosis (BGC). Examples of biogeocenoses: forest - forest biogeocenosis, i.e. forest plants, animals, microorganisms, soil, water, air, etc.; the lake in its entirety is a lacustrine biogeocenosis.[...]

The components of the biocenosis and their abiotic environment are so closely related to each other that they form a unity for which A.G. Tansley coined the term "ecosystem" in 1935; in modern ecology, the corresponding section is called the study of ecosystems. In Russian and German literature, the concept of biogeocenosis, introduced by V.N., is widespread. Sukachev. Biogeocenosis is the unity of a biocenosis and a biotope confined to a specific area of ​​the earth’s surface, while an ecosystem is a broader concept.[...]

Radiation ecology is a section of general ecology that studies the relationships in the “radioactive substance - radiation - living organism” system, radiation of natural and artificial origin, the contribution of radioactivity to the overall impact of ionizing radiation on living organisms, migration routes and areas of concentration of radioactive substances in the biosphere, their influence on biogeocenosis and evolution of living organisms, consequences of the use of nuclear energy and radioactive biotechnologies.[...]

The first 2 types of ecological pyramids in aquatic systems may be inverted due to disruption of the scale and rate of formation of phyto- and zooplankton. Pyramids of energy cannot be inverted. Almost all animal species use multiple food sources, so if one member of the ecosystem falls out, the entire system is not disrupted. The most important factor regulating the number of populations in a biogeocenosis is food resources. A population usually consists of as many individuals as can be fed in the occupied territory. The structure of biogeocenoses develops in the process of evolution, which leads to the fact that each species occupies a certain niche in the ecosystem, i.e. location of this species in space and in the food chain.[...]

The scope of comprehensive forest productivity is expanding more and more in theoretical and practical understanding. This is due to scientific and technological progress, expanding the scope of multi-purpose use of forests. However, the multilateral significance of the forest does not exclude its targeted use in certain, relatively narrow, specialized areas. Moreover, scientific discoveries of various components of forest biogeocenosis and the specific needs of certain industries expand the possibilities for effective targeted use of individual forest components in their original or transformed form.