Theories of personality self-actualization. Using Maslow's pyramid for self-actualization

What is self-actualization? Placing this need at the very top of the hierarchy, Abraham Maslow gave it the following definition. “A person must be what he can be. We can call this need the need for self-actualization... It refers to the desire for self-realization, namely, the desire to realize in reality the possibilities that are inherent in it. The definition for this tendency can also be formulated as the desire to become more and more oneself, to become what a person is generally capable of becoming.”
Although the theory is generally presented as a fairly rigid hierarchy, Maslow noted that the order in which needs can be satisfied is not always the same. For example, for some people the need for self-esteem may be more important than the need for love. For others, the need for creative self-realization can crowd out even the most basic, physiological needs.

Characteristics of a self-actualized personality

In addition to his definition of self-actualization, Maslow also identified several key characteristics of self-actualized people:

• Acceptance and realism. Typically, self-actualized people have realistic views of themselves, others, and the world around them.
• Focus on the problem. Self-actualized people focus on solving problems outside of their inner world—including helping others and finding solutions to problems in the outer world. These people are often driven by a sense of personal responsibility or ethics.
• Spontaneity. Self-actualized people are spontaneous in both their thoughts and their behavior. Their behavior generally conforms to the rules and expectations of society, although they can still be called open-minded and non-standard.
• Autonomy and loneliness. Another characteristic of self-actualized people is the need for independence and privacy. They do not depend on the opinions of others. Yes, they are able to enjoy the company of others, but despite this, these people sometimes need privacy - they need time to focus on their own individual capabilities.
• A lasting feeling of gratitude. Self-actualized people tend to view the world with a constant sense of gratitude, wonder, or even awe. Even simple experiences can serve as a source of inspiration and pleasure for a long time.
• Peak Experiences. Such people often experience what Maslow called peak experiences are moments of intense joy, surprise, awe and delight. After these experiences, people feel inspired, renewed, or even completely changed, and also receive a boost of energy.

Characteristics of self-actualization

SELF-ACTUALIZATION is the process of deployment and maturation of the inclinations, potentialities, and capabilities initially inherent in the body and personality. In a number of theories developed in line with humanistic psychology, self-actualization is the main mechanism that explains mental and personal development.

Developing the idea of ​​self-actualization over three decades, Maslow made it the cornerstone of not only personality theory, but also an entire philosophical and ideological system, which was the reason for the hundreds of thousands of copies of his books.

In the book " Motivation and personality“Maslow defines self-actualization as a person’s desire for self-embodiment, for the actualization of the potentials inherent in him, manifested in the desire for identity: “ This term expresses the “full development of man” (based on biological nature), which is (empirically) normative for the entire species, regardless of time and place, that is, to a lesser extent culturally determined. It corresponds to the biological predetermination of man, and not to historically arbitrary, local value models... It also has empirical content and practical meaning».

S. Maslow's theory began with an empirical generalization and identification of a special type of people - self-actualizing individuals, who make up about one percent of the population and represent an example of psychologically healthy people who maximally express the human essence. Maslow undertook a study of self-actualizing people and identified a number of traits inherent in them. " One gets the impression, writes Maslow, - as if humanity has a single ultimate goal, a distant goal towards which all people strive. Different authors call it differently: self-actualization, self-realization, integration, mental health, individualization, autonomy, creativity, productivity - but they all agree that all these are synonyms for the realization of the individual’s potential, the formation of a person in the full sense of the word, the formation what he can become"

One of the weaknesses of Maslow's theory was that he argued that these needs are in a once and for all given rigid hierarchy and higher needs (for self-esteem or self-actualization) arise only after more elementary ones are satisfied. Not only critics, but also Maslow’s followers showed that very often the need for self-actualization or self-esteem was dominant and determined a person’s behavior despite the fact that his physiological needs were not satisfied, and sometimes prevented the satisfaction of these needs. Subsequently, Maslow himself abandoned such a rigid hierarchy, combining all needs into two classes: the needs of need (deficit) and the needs of development (self-actualization).

At the same time, most representatives of humanistic psychology accepted the term "self-actualization" introduced by Maslow, as well as his description of the "self-actualizing personality."

Abandoning his assertions of a fixed sequence of need satisfaction according to their position in Maslow's hierarchy, he defines development through a variety of processes that ultimately lead an individual to self-actualization, and substantiates a new point of view, namely that these processes take place throughout life. of a person and are determined by a specific “developmental motivation”, the possibility of manifestation of which is no longer directly dependent on the degree of satisfaction of basic needs. Maslow recognizes that most people (perhaps all) have a desire for self-actualization and, moreover, that most people have the ability to self-actualize, at least in principle, and each individual's self-actualization is unique and unrepeatable. One of the forms of self-actualization available to everyone is the so-called peak experiences described by Maslow, moments of delight or ecstasy in love, communication with art, creativity, religious impulse or in other significant spheres of a person’s existence. During peak experiences, a person acquires many traits characteristic of self-actualizing people and temporarily becomes self-actualizing. In Maslow’s latest works, self-actualization no longer appears as a final, but as an intermediate stage of development, a transition from neurotic or infantile problems of a person’s formation to the true problems of his existence as a mature, full-fledged personality “on the other side” of self-actualization.

Self-actualization is associated with the ability to understand oneself, one’s inner nature and learn to “tune in” in accordance with this nature and build one’s behavior based on it. This is not a one-time act, but a process that has no end, it is a way " living, working and relating to the world, not a single achievement".

Unlike psychoanalysts, who were mainly interested in deviant behavior, Maslow believed that it was necessary to study human nature, " by studying its best representatives, rather than by cataloging the difficulties and mistakes of average or neurotic individuals"Only in this way can we understand the limits of human capabilities, the true nature of man, which is not fully and clearly represented in other, less gifted people. The group he chose for the study consisted of eighteen people, nine of them were his contemporaries, and nine were his historical figures (A. Lincoln, A. Einstein, W. James, B. Spinoza, etc.).

Based on this research, Maslow names the following characteristics of self-actualizing people:

1. more effective perception of reality and more comfortable relationships with it;

2. acceptance (of oneself, others, nature);

3. spontaneity, simplicity, naturalness;

4. task-centered (as opposed to self-centered);

5. some isolation and need for solitude;

6. autonomy, independence from culture and environment;

7. constant freshness of the assessment;

8. mysticism and experience of higher states;

9. feelings of belonging, unity with others;

10. deeper interpersonal relationships;

11. democratic character structure;

12. distinguishing between means and ends, good and evil;

13. philosophical, non-hostile sense of humor;

14. self-actualizing creativity;

15. resistance to acculturation, transcendence of any common culture.

The scientist believed that it was conscious aspirations and motives, and not unconscious instincts, that constitute the essence of human personality. However, the desire for self-actualization, for the realization of one’s abilities, encounters obstacles, lack of understanding of others and one’s own weaknesses. Many people retreat in the face of difficulties, which does not leave its mark on the individual and stops his growth. Neurotics are people with an undeveloped or unconscious need for self-actualization. Society, by its very nature, cannot help but hinder a person’s desire for self-actualization. After all, any society strives to make a person its stereotyped representative, alienates the personality from its essence, makes it conformal.

At the same time, alienation, while preserving the “self”, the individuality of the individual, puts it in opposition to the environment and also deprives it of the opportunity to self-actualize. Therefore, a person needs to maintain a balance between these two mechanisms, which, like Scylla and Charybdis, guard him and seek to destroy him. Optimal, Maslow believed, are identification on the external plane, in communication with the outside world, and alienation on the internal plane, in terms of the development of self-awareness. It is this approach that gives a person the opportunity to communicate effectively with others and at the same time remain himself. This position of Maslow made him popular among intellectuals, as it largely reflected the views of this social group on the relationship between the individual and society.

Continuing the study of self-actualizing individuals, whose life problems are qualitatively different from the neurotic pseudo-problems facing an immature personality, Maslow comes to the conclusion that it is necessary to create a new psychology - the psychology of the Being of a person as a full-fledged, developed personality, in contrast to the traditional psychology of a person becoming a person. In the 60s Maslow is developing such a psychology. In particular, he shows the fundamental differences between cognitive processes in cases where they are driven by need, and when they are based on the motivation for development and self-actualization. In the second case, we are dealing with knowledge at the level of Being (B-cognition). A specific phenomenon of B-cognition are peak experiences (mentioned above), characterized by a feeling of delight or ecstasy, enlightenment and depth of understanding. Brief episodes of peak experiences are given to all people; in them everyone for a moment becomes, as it were, self-actualizing. Religion, according to Maslow, arose initially as a figurative and symbolic system for describing peak experiences, which subsequently acquired independent meaning and began to be perceived as a reflection of a certain supernatural reality. Regular motivation at the level of Being is replaced by the so-called metamotivation . Metamotives are the values ​​of Being (B-values): truth, goodness, beauty, justice, perfection, etc., which belong both to objective reality and to the personality structure of self-actualizing people. Maslow derives these values, like basic needs, from human biology, declaring them universal; the sociocultural environment plays only the role of a factor influencing their actualization, more often negatively than positively. In recent years, Maslow has moved even further, developing the problem transcendence of self-actualization and transition to even higher levels of development. Maslow stood at the origins of transpersonal psychology and was one of the leaders of this movement in the initial period of its formation. Maslow's ideas about the direction of human development led him to the ideal model of a “eupsychic” society, which creates and maintains opportunities for maximum self-actualization of its members.

Subsequently, Maslow admitted that there was a certain flaw in his motivation theories. It does not seem to explain why, if humans as a species are growth-oriented, so many people fail to develop to their potential. Thus, refuting his earlier views, Maslow recognized that favorable conditions do not automatically guarantee personal development, and that self-actualization, happiness and salvation of the soul are impossible without a meaningful calling in the world and a focus on higher values. The categories of vocation and responsibility of the individual became central for him.

Assessment of self-actualization according to A. Maslow.

The lack of an adequate assessment instrument to measure self-actualization initially thwarted any attempt to validate Maslow's basic claims. However, the development of the Personal Orientation Inventory (POI) has given researchers the opportunity to measure values ​​and behaviors associated with self-actualization. It is a self-report questionnaire designed to assess various characteristics of self-actualization according to Maslow's concept. It consists of 150 forced choice statements; from each pair of statements, the respondent must choose the one that best characterizes him.

The POI consists of two main scales and ten subscales.

· the first, main scale measures the extent to which a person is self-directed rather than directed at others in search of values ​​and meaning in life (characteristics: autonomy, independence, freedom - dependence, need for approval and acceptance)

· The second main scale is called time competence. It measures the extent to which a person lives in the present rather than focusing on the past or future.

· 10 additional subscales are designed to measure important elements of self-actualization: self-actualization values, existentiality, emotional reactivity, spontaneity, concern for one's interests, self-acceptance, acceptance of aggression, capacity for close relationships.

· POI also has a built-in lie detection scale.

The only major limitation to using the 150-item POI for research purposes is its length. Jones and Crandall (1986) developed a short self-actualization index. 15-item scale:

1. I am not ashamed of any of my emotions.

2. I feel like doing what others expect of me (N)

3. I believe that people are essentially good and can be trusted.

4. I can be angry with those I love.

5. It is always necessary for others to approve of what I do (N)

6. I don't accept my weaknesses (N)

7. I may like people I may not approve of.

8. I'm afraid of failure (N)

9. I try not to analyze or simplify complex areas (N)

10. It's better to be yourself than popular

11. There is nothing in my life that I would particularly devote myself to (N)

12. I can express my feelings even if it leads to undesirable consequences.

13. I am not obligated to help others (N)

14. I'm tired of inadequacy (N)

15. They love me because I love.

Respondents answer each statement using a 4-point scale: 1-disagree, 2-disagree somewhat, 3-agree somewhat, 4-agree. The sign (N) following the statement means that when total values ​​are calculated, the score for this item will be inverse (1=4.2=3.3=2.4=1). The higher the total value, the more self-actualized the respondent is considered .

In a study of several hundred college students, Jones and Crandall found that Self-Actualization Index scores were positively correlated with all scores on the much longer POI (r = +0.67) and with measures of self-esteem and “rational behavior and beliefs.” The scale has some reliability and is not susceptible to “Social Desirability” response selection. It was also shown that college students who took part in self-confidence training significantly increased their degree of self-actualization, as measured by the self-actualization scale.

Characteristics of self-actualizing people:

1. More effective perception of reality;

2. Acceptance of yourself, others and nature (accept yourself as they are);

3. Spontaneity, simplicity and naturalness;

4. Focused on the problem;

5. Independence: need for privacy;

6. Autonomy: independence from culture and environment;

7. Freshness of perception;

8. Summit, or mystical, experiences (moments of strong excitement or high tension, as well as moments of relaxation, peace, bliss and tranquility);

9. Public interest;

10. Deep interpersonal relationships;

11. Democratic character (lack of prejudice);

12. Distinction between means and ends;

13. Philosophical sense of humor (friendly humor);

14. Creativity (ability to create);

15. Resistance to culturalization (they are in harmony with their culture, maintaining a certain internal independence from it).

Self-actualization - a process that involves the healthy development of people's abilities so that they can become what they can become.

Self-actualizing people - people who have satisfied their deficiency needs and developed their potential to such an extent that they can be considered extremely healthy people.

Related information.

The founder of humanistic psychology is A. Maslow. Humanistic psychology is a third force psychology that arose as an opposition to behaviorism and introspection. Representatives of humanistic psychology criticized behaviorism for transferring the results of experiments on animals to people, and psychoanalysis for the fact that from this position a person acts as an irrational, aggressive and asocial being, and all productive forms of behavior are a sublimation of sexual energy.

Humanistic psychology says that the essence of man - the desire for self-actualization - is the highest human need. It manifests itself in a person’s desire to realize his inner potential in his life, to be and become himself, to realize his abilities.

A. Maslow relied on an analysis of the behavior of a mentally healthy, creative person (his teachers).

Personality structure – A. Maslow’s hierarchy of motives (Fig.).

Rice. A. Maslow's pyramid of needs

General characteristics of the motivational sphere according to Maslow:

1. All needs are inherent in a person by his nature, i.e. have an innate or instinctoid character.

2. All needs form a hierarchical structure based on the principle of dominance or priority, i.e. the lower the need is located in the general hierarchy. It is all the more important and priority for the individual.

3. The transition from one level of need to another occurs only if the underlying needs are satisfied. If the needs of a certain level are not met, then a return to lower levels is carried out. The hierarchy of needs is universal.

Later, A. Maslow introduced meta-needs into the pyramid, or needs that are built on top of the others. These are B-motives, existential motives or growth motives. Meta-needs include spiritual needs: truth (cognitive needs), beauty (aesthetic), goodness (ethical), justice, meaningfulness of life, perfection, self-sufficiency or autonomy, etc. Metaneeds are represented by 15 varieties.

Metaneeds, just like deficiency ones, are innate in nature. But unlike deficiency needs, they are non-hierarchized, i.e. have equal significance for a person. They are less conscious to humans. Satisfaction of deficiency needs is aimed at relieving (reducing) tension, and the desire to satisfy meta-needs makes a person’s life more stressful, because these needs are directed towards distant goals.

Mental maturity is achieved by those people who reach the level of meta-needs and self-actualization needs. Awareness of higher needs is hampered by defense mechanisms. Ion complex – refusal of the individual to self-actualize, conscious reduction of one’s own level of aspirations.

What is the cause of neuroses? Neurosis is a failure of personal growth. The cause of neurosis is not the suppression of lower needs, but the dissatisfaction of higher ones, i.e. their deprivation. Internal deprivation is associated with the ion complex.

A special type of neurosis is associated with the dissatisfaction of meta-needs - existential neurosis (this is a type of metapathology). Metapathologies arise when meta-needs are not met. Metapathology most often affects fairly prosperous people who have all their basic needs satisfied.

Types of metapathologies:

Apathy is indifference to everything;

Boredom, which is often combined with melancholy;

Persistent depression;

Alienation from other people;

Excessive selfishness;

A feeling of meaninglessness and uselessness of one’s own existence - loss of the meaning of life;

Death wish;

Loss of self and identity (the person feels constantly changing and anonymous).

Criteria for mental maturity(characteristics of a self-actualizing personality):

I.Creativity, i.e. creativity. Maslow understands creativity not as a new contribution to science or art, but as a person’s desire and ability to do exactly what he does, i.e. achieve mastery in your craft. This is the leading characteristic.

II.Direction centeredness– this is passion for one’s work, devotion to it. Self-actualizing individuals live in a sphere of complete competence; they are professionals. They live to work, not work to live.

III.Distinguishing between means and ends. Using only those means that comply with moral standards. A manifestation of this feature is a person’s passion for the process of activity itself, and not for the final result.

IV.Objective perception of reality– intellectual maturity, when a person, when assessing events, relies on facts, and not on his emotions generated by the event.

V.Acceptance of yourself and others just the way they are. Self-actualizing individuals are characterized by high tolerance and tolerance. This is the lack of psychological defense mechanisms.

VI.Spontaneity of behavior– simplicity and naturalness, absence of posturing, desire to “show off.” High need for privacy. They protect their inner world from outside interference, but loneliness does not bother them, because the motto of such a person is: I am my own best friend, and being alone, they are left alone with themselves.

VII.Autonomy. The individual is the master of his own destiny, he chooses who to be. This is a manifestation of a high level of self-sufficiency. Such people do not strive for honors, fame, external honor; internal growth and self-improvement, in which they rely on self-approval, are important for them.

VIII.Resistance to acculturation– non-conformism, low susceptibility to other people’s influence.

IX.Depth of interpersonal relationships. Such people are not prone to wide contacts; they are characterized by communication in a narrow circle of a deep nature. Communication is built on kinship of souls, unity of values ​​and interests. The circle of people is small and very limited.

X.Democratic character- respectful attitude towards other people. A mentally mature person shows respect towards everyone. Lack of authoritarian tendencies.

XI.Public interest. People are concerned not only with their own fate, but with the fate of their country and its citizens.

XII.Freshness of perception: Every event is perceived as if it were the first time.

XIII.Summit or mystical (peak) experiences– this is a state of ecstasy, peace, harmony, a special kind of bliss.

XIV.Sense of humor(philosophical).

Phenomenological theory of personality by C. Rogers (self theory)

The leading and only motive of behavior is the tendency to actualization, and all other motives are only the embodiment of this tendency.

Update– is to preserve and develop oneself, i.e. realize the qualities, abilities, and inner potential inherent in us by nature. Trend of actualization- This is the tendency inherent in the body to develop all its abilities in order to preserve and develop personality. That. Human behavior is motivated by the need to develop and improve. Man is governed by the process of growth.

Final goal, which the trend of actualization is aimed at, is achieving autonomy and self-sufficiency, i.e. self-actualization. The need for self-actualization (according to Maslow) is the main manifestation of the self-actualization tendency. To realize this need (i.e. realize one’s inner potential), a person needs to know himself well. The central concept of Rogers’ personality theory is the concept of I (self, self-concept) - this is a person’s generalized and consistent idea of ​​himself.

The concept of personality comes down to self-awareness or self-concept.

Personality(or Self) is a differentiated part of the phenomenal field (the entire human experience), which consists of conscious perception and assessments of Self, i.e. a person's awareness of himself and his experience.

The self-image includes ideas about what we can become, so the self-concept is divided into 2 types: the ideal self and the real self. For the harmonious development of personality, coordination between the real Self and the ideal Self is important. A sharp gap between them can give rise to neurosis or increase the need for self-improvement.

Rogers focuses on the issue of the formation of self-concept and its role in the life of each of us. Self-concept is a product of socialization and is formed under the influence of a person’s experience. To form a positive self-esteem, it is important for the child to receive approval from an adult.

Normal harmonious development of personality is possible only in the case of correspondence (congruent relationships) between experience and self-concept. If there is a contradiction between experience and the self-concept, a conflict arises and, as a consequence, a threat of destruction of the self-concept or self-esteem. This threat can be either conscious or unconscious. A perceived threat, when we understand that our behavior does not correspond to our image of ourselves, causes feelings of guilt, internal emotional discomfort and tension, and remorse. If a person is not aware of the discrepancy between experience and self-concept, then he is filled with anxiety.

Anxiety from Rogers’s position, it is a person’s emotional reaction to a threat that signals personality. That the formed self-concept is in danger of destruction (disorganization). Unlike guilt, anxiety occurs when a person feels threatened but is not aware of it. The frequent occurrence of anxiety associated with a mismatch between experience and self-concept leads to neurosis.

To get rid of anxiety, a person develops psychological defense mechanisms. Defenses are a behavioral response to a threat. The main goal is to preserve and support the existing self-concept.

Highlight 2 types of protection :

1. Distortion of perception(rationalization): the incongruent experience is allowed into consciousness, but in a form that makes it compatible with the self-concept. An interpretation of the event occurs that makes it possible to harmonize with the self-concept.

2. Denial is ignoring negative experiences.

The purpose of defense is to eliminate the conflict between experience and self-concept. If defense mechanisms turn out to be weak and ineffective, then neurosis begins.

The main condition for the harmonious development of personality and the achievement of mental health is the flexibility of the self-concept.

Criteria for mental health (fully functioning personality):

Openness to experience or experiences. This manifests itself in the fact that a person is subtly and deeply aware of his entire experience. Lack of psychological defense mechanisms.

The existential way of life is the desire to live fully and richly, to lead such a way of life when the Self-concept follows from experience, and not experience is transformed to please the Self-concept.

Flexibility of self-concept.

Organismic trust is the independence of the individual, the desire of a person to rely on himself in everything, trust in himself, autonomy.

Empirical freedom is freedom of choice, which is combined with ultimate responsibility.

Creativity or creativity combined with non-conformity and adaptability.

Abraham Maslow's (1908-1970) personality theory is based on a study of mentally mature, progressive, creative people who form the so-called “growing elite” of society.

The scientific environment that influenced Maslow's theory is significant and varied. Living in New York, he met and studied with such outstanding scientists as A. Adler, E. Erikson, E. Fromm, K. Goldstein, K. Horney, M. Mead, M. Wertheimer.

Maslow's scientific aspirations were multifaceted. He dealt with issues of primate behavior from the perspective of behaviorism, issues of female sexuality, and anthropological studies of Indians; led training groups.

A. Maslow was critical of the psychology of that time, which studied the human psyche mainly on pathological material. He intended to deal only with healthy people. Like many other humanistic psychologists, Maslow believes that the mental must be considered as a whole, avoiding “unit-by-unit analysis.” One of the central places in Maslow’s theory is the problem of motivation. Refusing the psychoanalytic interpretation of needs and motives, he formulates the position according to which sociality lies in the very nature of man and acts as his biologically determined property. The aggressive actions and behavior of people observed in society, the traits of cruelty, are caused not by nature, but by the inhumane conditions of the upbringing and life of the individual, and by some traditions inherent in society.

Motivation as the driving force of personality development was considered by him as a tendency that disrupts the mental balance of the individual. It is precisely this violation of homeostasis that leads to growth, development, and self-actualization of the individual, i.e. to desire, which Maslow defined as a person’s desire to be who he can be. The concept of self-actualization occupies a leading place in his concept.

Despite the fact that a person’s need to be who he can be is innate, it remains potential until special conditions arise for its actualization. This condition is the satisfaction of all other (basic) needs of the individual: physiological needs, needs for safety and protection, love and respect. “If all needs are unsatisfied, and physiological needs dominate in the body, then all others may simply become non-existent or be relegated to the background.” Failure to satisfy basal desires leads to neuroses and psychoses.

In later works, the position on the sequence of needs satisfaction was revised and supplemented with the following thesis: if in the past an individual’s needs for security, love and respect were fully satisfied, he gains the ability to endure hardships in this area and actualize himself despite unfavorable conditions. The main components of a person’s mental health are:

• 1) the desire to be everything a person can be,
• 2) the desire for humanistic values.

There are positive and negative sides of self-actualization, where the latter leads to extreme individualism and autonomy.. With the positive side of self-actualization, some relative independence from others inherent in a healthy person, of course, does not indicate a lack of interaction with them; it only means that in this kind of contact the goals of the individual and his own nature are the main determinants.

In general, he describes a healthy personality as autonomous, inclined to accept others, spontaneous, sensitive to beauty, to humor, and prone to creativity. Comparing a healthy person and a sick person, he wrote that a self-actualizing person is unusual not because something has been added to him, but rather because he has not lost anything in the process of his individual life.

In addition to personal qualities, he highlights the cognitive and perceptual characteristics of a self-actualizing personality - a clear and clear perception of the surrounding reality, its unconventional nature, the rare use of defense mechanisms, and high predictive ability. Such people feel most comfortable in a new, unknown, unstructured situation and are successful in scientific activities. They adequately assess themselves and their abilities. Special socio-psychological and communicative characteristics of a self-actualizing personality are also highlighted - the manifestation of positive emotions in communication with other people, democracy.

The need for self-actualization according to Maslow is an innate need. He considers detachment, detachment from the social environment, an important condition for the functioning of healthy people, when the assessment of one’s behavior is carried out on the basis of self-approval, which does not need external rewards and punishments.

Theoretical conclusions extend to understanding the role of psychotherapy. In his opinion, psychotherapeutic activity has unlimited possibilities, but can only be useful from the point of view of correction; it is not capable of returning what has been lost by a person for many years. He attributes great psychotherapeutic importance to self-actualization, extreme experiences, education and cultural factors. In the psychotherapeutic process itself, serious attention is paid to conscious aspects: education and voluntary regulation of one’s potential. Ideally, he saw the change in society as a process that occurs under the influence of specially organized psychotherapeutic education of the individual. He notes that if psychotherapists dealt with millions of people a year, society would undoubtedly change. In his latest works, his attitude towards the psychotherapeutic reconstruction of society changes. It becomes more skeptical. "I long ago gave up the possibility of improving the world or the entire human race through individual psychotherapy. It is not feasible. In fact, it is quantitatively impossible. Later, in order to achieve my utopian goals, I turned to education, which should be extended to the entire human race."

Abraham Maslow's concept influenced the development of psychological science, as well as criminology, management, psychotherapy and education. This influence was strengthened by the fact that his theory was perceived not just as a scientific concept, but as an ideology that advances humanity along the path of discovering its potential. Maslow's interest in self-actualization grew in the process of communicating with his teachers R. Benedict and M. Wertheimer. He realized that their personalities could be interpreted not just as individuals, but as a certain type of self-actualizing person [3, art. 254].

Self-actualization is a process that involves the healthy development of people's abilities so that they can become what they can become.

Self-actualizing people are people who have satisfied their deficiency needs and developed their potential to such an extent that they can be considered extremely healthy people.

American psychologist Abraham Harold and Maslow(1908-1 970) - one of the founders of humanistic psychology. His Jewish parents immigrated to the United States from Russia. Maslow received a psychological education, became a professor of psychology, was a member of a number of professional societies of psychologists, and was the founding editor of the Journal of Humanistic Psychology and the Journal of Transpersonal Psychology. Most of his books were written in the last 10 years of his life: “Towards the Psychology of Being” (1968), “Religions, Values ​​and Summit Experiences” (1964), “Motivation and Personality” (1987) and others.

A. Maslow believed that psychoanalysis is a good system for analyzing psychopathology, but psychoanalysis is completely unsuitable as a theory for explaining all human behavior. Maslow based his research not on the study of sick people, as Freud did, but on the study of the biographies of healthy, most mature, creative and outstanding individuals, believing that only by studying the best representatives of the human race can one approach the boundaries of human capabilities and explore them.

Maslow notes that although his sample of “the best of the best” did not include absolutely perfect and ideal people, they were all distinguished by one characteristic feature, which he designated as self-actualization (Self-Actualization).

The term "self-actualization" was first coined by Kurt Goldstein. His ideas differed significantly from Maslow's formulations. As a neurophysiologist who worked with brain-damaged patients, Goldstein viewed self-actualization as a fundamental process in every organism, which consists in the tendency to actualize all the individual abilities inherent in it, “its nature.” This process does not always have only positive consequences for the individual.

Maslow defines the concept of “self-actualization” as the desire for self-expression with the fullest use of one’s talents, abilities and capabilities. Maslow believes that this high

The humanoid need for self-actualization is always present in a healthy person. In other words, a person must realize what is inherent in him from birth, what he can. If he has the ability of a scientist or an actor, then he is obliged to realize it. If he does not do this, if living conditions interfere with self-realization, then the conflict of dissatisfaction begins, which lies at the basis of neuroses.

In personology, the most important question is the question of motivation. Maslow believes that people are motivated to find personal goals that make their lives meaningful. Human needs are organized into a hierarchical system of priority and dominance (“pyramid of needs”): physiological needs, needs for safety and protection, needs for belonging and love, needs for self-esteem, needs for self-actualization (personal improvement). Satisfaction of needs located at the bottom of the hierarchy makes it possible to recognize and participate in the motivation of behavior of higher order needs.

The concept of self-actualization is Maslow's most important contribution to psychology. To get closer to understanding it, he cites a number of “types of behavior” leading to self-actualization:

1. Freshness of perception. Usually we are small and superficial with
we know what is happening in us and around us. However, sometimes we have
there are brief moments of heightened awareness and interest in one's
to the inner and outer world, when we observe especially beautiful
great phenomena of nature, human creativity (sunset, car
tina artist) or experience emotional inspiration in
love - all these are “self-actualizing moments.” Self-actuals
tion means perception and experience complete, living, selfless
new, with maximum concentration and absorption. Self-actual
congestion people rarely complain about a boring, uninteresting life.

2. Personal growth and problem-centeredness.
Maslow believed that all the individuals he examined were
committed to some task, duty or calling. In other words
you, they were all not ego-centered, but oriented towards
tasks that are higher than their personal immediate needs
news If we think of life as a process of elections, then self-actualization
lization means a decision in favor of personal growth in each
choice. We often have to choose between growth and lack of
danger, between progress and regression. Each choice has
its negative and positive aspects. Choose safe -
means staying with the known and familiar, but risking becoming
outdated and funny. To choose growth is to discover yourself.

new, unexpected experiences, but risk being in the unknown.

3. Acceptance of yourself, others and nature. Self-actualizing
people can accept themselves as they are. They're not superkree
sensitive to their shortcomings and weaknesses. Self-actualization is
learning to tune into one's own inner nature
go, with your self. By self, Maslow understands the heart.
wine, a person's own nature, his unique tastes and prices
ness. A person must decide for himself whether he likes
yourself this or that food, movie, etc., regardless of
opinions and points of view of other people. To be updated means
become real, exist in fact, and not just in
potentiality. They accept other people in a similar way.
and humanity as a whole.

4. Spontaneity, simplicity and naturalness. In the story
in the behavior of self-actualizing people there is no artificiality or
desire to make an effect. But this does not mean that they are constantly
behave contrary to tradition. However, when the situation requires it,
they can be irreconcilable even under the threat of condemnation. Chas
integrity and acceptance of responsibility for one’s actions is essential
ny moments of self-actualization. Maslow recommends not posing
don't try to look good or satisfy your
the answers of others. You need to “dig the answers inside yourself, and every time,
when we do this, we come into contact with our self again.

5. Autonomy: independence from culture and environment. All
the previous one helps to develop in a person the ability to be independent
in their actions from their physical and social environment
marriage, he is capable of “better life choices” not only in
art, music, food, but also in serious problems of life, such
like marriage or profession. We learn to trust our judgments and
act in accordance with them.

6. Creativity. Self-actualization is also a constant and
a continuous process of developing your capabilities and talents.
Great talent or intelligence is not the same as self-actualization.
Many gifted people have failed to fully utilize their
opportunities, others, maybe even with average talent, did
incredibly much. Self-actualization is not a thing that
one can have or not have, not a single achievement, but a process without
end, way of living.

7. More effective perception of reality. Further
the step of self-actualization is the discovery of one’s “psychological
defenses" and work to abandon them. Psychological defenses are

mechanisms for distorting reality for the sake of self-conceit. We need to be aware of how we distort our self-image and the external world through repression, projection, and other defense mechanisms.

8. Summit, mystical experiences.“Peak experiences” are what Maslow calls particularly pronounced and fairly long self-actualizing moments lasting several minutes (rarely hours). They are caused by a strong feeling of love, experiences of the exceptional beauty of nature or the works of the human mind. At such moments we are more integrated into the world, we are more aware of it, we act and feel more clearly. The most significant "peak experiences" are rare. Poets described them as moments of ecstasy, and people of religion - as deep mystical experiences. According to Maslow, these peak experiences are not of a divine or supernatural nature - people simply feel greater harmony with the world, lose their sense of self or go beyond it, and lose their sense of time and place.

Unlike peak experiences, “plateau experiences” are more stable and lasting. Maslow describes it as a new, deeper way of seeing and experiencing the world. Maslow himself experienced a similar thing late in life, after a heart attack.

States similar to descriptions of “peak experiences” are often found in psychopathology in the form of peculiar altered states of consciousness - an aura before an epileptic seizure, during a migraine attack, when taking drugs, etc. Maslow finds similar states in healthy people and considers them an essential property self-actualization.

He found that some self-actualizing individuals tended to experience many peak experiences, while others experienced them only rarely. He calls the first "transcending the self-act of alizoralpG", and they often bring mysticism into what is happening, think more chaotically, are able to transcend (from the Latin transcendere - to step over) the categories of past, present and future, good and evil, perceive the unity behind the apparent complexity and contradictory nature of life. They are more innovators , than systematizers of the ideas of others, which are the other half of the self-actualizers from his sample.

Maslow considered humanistic psychology, the psychology of the “third force” (after psychoanalysis and behaviorism), transitional and preparatory to an even higher, fourth psychology - transpersonal psychology, centered on space rather than human interests and needs. It will go beyond the limits of human

th self-determination, self-actualization. Anthony Sutich, founder and first editor of the Journal of Transpersonal Psychology (founded in 1989 with the participation of A. Maslow) defined it as “the study of the ultimate abilities and possibilities” of a person. This psychology includes the study of religious experience, meditation and other methods of obtaining altered states of consciousness, parapsychological phenomena, etc. Theoretical sources of transpersonal psychology include the teachings of medieval mystics (especially Maister Eckhart, XIII-XIV centuries), Eastern philosophy (mainly Indian), and the analytical psychology of C. Jung. The modern representative of the direction is Stanislav Grof.

The essence of the theoretical concepts here comes down to the fact that the determinants of human behavior and the sources of psychological problems are beyond the limits of individual, lifetime experience. A person with his lifetime formed psyche, experience and qualities is traditionally designated as “persona”. In addition, there is something in a person outside his individual experience, outside his “persona,” i.e. transpersonal. This “something” is, according to the mystics’ concept, a particle of God; for C. Jung, it is archetypes.

Maslow believes that self-actualization is the highest human need, the implementation of which is possible after satisfying lower-order needs - respect, love and belonging, security, as well as physiological needs (the “pyramid” of needs). Neurosis, as Maslow understands it, is a “disease of deprivation” of satisfying fundamental needs, just as a lack of vitamins causes physical illness.

In the motivational sphere of personality, Maslow distinguishes motivation, which orients behavior towards eliminating deficit anything needed by the body, i.e. satisfaction of any need that is not satisfied or frustrated (D-motivation), and motivation for growth, being(B-motivation). Examples of motivation of the first group (deficient motivation) are hunger, pain, fear. But when the body does not experience hunger, pain, or fear, new motivations appear, such as curiosity or the desire to play. This activity can be satisfying in itself. It relates to the world of being, satisfaction and enjoyment in the present (existential motivation). In accordance with this, Maslow distinguishes between B- and D-cognition, B- and D-values, B- and D-love, and the like. For example, in D-cognition, objects are viewed solely as need-satisfiers. A hungry person notices food, and a beggar notices money. B-cognition is more accurate and effective, it distorts its perception less in accordance with

with a need or desire, it does not judge, evaluate, or compare. B-love of nature is expressed in the ability to appreciate flowers and observe their growth. D-love is more likely to be expressed in picking flowers and arranging bouquets of them. B-love is love for the essence, “being” and existence of another.

Psychological utopia: Eupsycheia. A. Maslow, like many other psychologists - the creators of psychological theories of personality, did not ignore the structure of social relations. He dreamed of a utopian society, which he called Eupsyche. In his opinion, a good person and a good society are one and the same. Society, Maslow believed, must find ways to realize the potential of its citizens: “enlightened management” assumes that workers want to be creative and productive, they just need support and approval, and not restrictions and control by the administration. Forcing oneself to act always indicates a certain conflict of motives, and ideally a person does what he should do because he wants to do it.

Carl Rogers (C. Rogers): phenomenological theory of personality

Carl Ransom Rogers (1902-1987) was an American psychologist whose work was widely recognized in the field of clinical psychology. His main work is the book "Client-Centered Therapy: Its Modern Practice, Meaning and History" (1951). It sets out a theory that most fully reflects phenomenological direction in the study of personality. Rogers is also the author of many books on psychological counseling.

The phenomenological school of psychology emphasizes the idea that human behavior can only be understood in terms of its subjective perception and knowledge of reality- from the point of view of his internal, subjective experience. The external world is only that reality that is consciously perceived and interpreted by a person at a given moment in time.

Another important idea of ​​the phenomenological direction is the recognition that people are free to decide their destiny. If people believe that they live under some forces that they cannot resist, then this is because they have lost faith in the freedom of self-determination that is inherent in their nature.

3 Sidorov P.I. and Ir. T. II 65

The last important thesis of the phenomenological direction is that man is by nature good and strives for perfection, realizing your internal capabilities.

Rogers' view of personality was shaped by his personal experiences working with people with emotional disorders. As a result of his clinical observations, in contrast to Freud, who saw the driving forces of personality in instincts, Rogers came to the conclusion that man, by his inner nature, is good and his essence is oriented and aimed primarily at moving forward towards positive goals. A person strives to realize himself if he is given the opportunity to reveal his innate potential. Of course, Rogers admitted that people sometimes have evil feelings and abnormal destructive impulses, but then the person does not behave in accordance with his inner nature. Rogers argues that his view of human nature is not naive optimism, but is based on 30 years of experience as a psychotherapist.

K. Rogers, like A. Maslow, considered the main life motive of human behavior to be his tendency to actualization, which is the desire to develop all his abilities in order to preserve and develop his personality. This fundamental tendency (the only one postulated by the author) can explain all other motives - hunger, sexual desire or the desire for security. All of them are only specific expressions of the main tendency - to preserve oneself for development, actualization.

What is real for a person, his thoughts and feelings, is only what exists within his internal coordinates or subjective world, which includes everything that is conscious at a given moment in time. Phenomenologically speaking, each person reacts to events in accordance with what he feels, subjectively perceives at the moment. Since different people can perceive the same situation in diametrically opposed ways, phenomenological psychology defends the doctrine that psychological reality phenomena is solely a function of how they are seen and perceived by specific people. Rogers is interested in psychology precisely in this psychological reality, and objective reality, in his opinion, is the destiny of the study of philosophers. If we want to explain why a person feels, thinks and behaves in a certain way, then we must understand his inner world, his subjective experience, i.e. psychological reality.

A person’s behavior is not determined by the past events of his life, but only by how a person perceives his environment here and now. Of course, past experience influences the perception of the present, but a person’s actions determine how this past is perceived now, in the present time. Moreover, Rogers believed that behavior is influenced to a greater extent not by a person’s past history, but by how he sees his future. And finally, he emphasized that the personality should be considered not only in the context of “present-future”, but also as a single, integral organism, and this unity cannot be reduced to the constituent parts of the personality. Rogers' commitment to holistic direction visible in almost every aspect of his theoretical system.

The most significant element of psychological reality, of a person’s individual experience, is his self, or Self-concept. Self-concept is a person’s system of views on his essence, on what he is. In addition to the true self (real self) and ideal self (ideal self), the self-concept can include a whole set of self-images: parent, spouse, student, musician, leader, etc.

The self-concept is a product of human socialization, and in the process of its formation, a child, and then an adult, always needs positive attention from his environment. This attention, according to Rogers, must be unconditional, i.e. without any ifs and buts. A person should be perceived as he really is. That's exactly what unconditional positive attention we see the love of a mother for her son, regardless of his misdeeds. Conditioned positive attention we see when a child is told that if he gets excellent grades for half a year at school, then they will buy him some kind of toy that is interesting to him. This kind of conditioned positive attention is also widespread in the everyday life of adults. Rogers argues that conditional positive attention causes damage to personal development, the child tries to meet the standards of others, rather than determine for himself who he wants to be and what to achieve.

Rogers believes that most human behavior is consistent (congruent) with the self-concept, or at least the person strives for this. All experiences that are consistent with the self-concept are well recognized and accurately perceived. And vice versa, experiences that are in conflict with the “I” are not allowed to be realized and accurately perceived. In Rogers' theory, anxiety and a threat to well-being begin to arise only when

people begin to realize the discrepancy between the self-concept and their actual real state. So, if a person considers himself honest, but commits a dishonest act, he will feel anxiety with confusion and guilt. It is also very likely that a person experiences anxiety, but is not aware of the reasons for it. An anxious person is a person who is vaguely aware that acknowledging or symbolizing certain experiences will lead to a violation of the integrity of his current self-image. Psychological personal defenses are called upon to preserve the integrity of the self-structure.

If a person’s experiences are completely inconsistent with the self-concept (incongruence), then severe anxiety appears and he develops a neurotic disorder. A “neurotic” person’s psychological defense is still quite strong and, although he needs the help of a psychotherapist, his self-structure is not significantly disturbed. When psychological defense is ineffective and there is significant destruction of the self-structure, a person develops psychosis and needs the help of a psychiatrist. Rogers suggests that personality disorders can arise either suddenly or gradually. In any case, as soon as a serious discrepancy between the Self and the experience appears, the person’s defenses cease to function adequately and the previously integral structure of the Self is destroyed.

Klien! - centered non-directive psychotherapy. In the therapy of personality disorders, according to Rogers, the following conditions are required to implement constructive personality changes:

1. The presence of psychological contact between the psychotherapist
and the client.

2. The client is incongruent, vulnerable and anxious, so he
asked for help.

3. The therapist must be congruent, harmonious and
sincere in relationships with your clients.

4. The therapist experiences unconditional positive attention
tion to your client. The atmosphere of the psychotherapy process should
create confidence in the client that he is fully understood and
accepted.

5. The therapist experiences empathic understanding of the inner
your client's early experiences. The psychotherapist feels inside
the patient's external world as if it were his own internal
early world.

6. Empathic understanding must be transferred to the client
attention and unconditional positive attention of the psychotherapist. Bess

It makes sense to have similar feelings for your client if the latter does not know about it. The psychotherapist must try to convey this attitude to the client with every word and gesture.

Rogers argues that it is the client, not the therapist, who is responsible for personal growth and the results of psychotherapy. The author's use of the concept "client" instead of "patient" emphasizes recognition of this. This approach is understandable to everyone who shares Rogers’ optimistic view of human nature - given the right conditions, a person himself strives to move towards personal growth, actualization and health. Person-centered psychotherapy is designed to resolve incongruence between experiences and the self.

Training groups. Training groups are created for training with healthy people. We are talking about using group forms of interaction between people not for therapeutic purposes, but for gaining life experience and personal growth. The emergence of this kind of psychocorrectional groups is due to the desire for self-expression, characteristic of the humanistic trend. Among such psychocorrectional groups, organizational development groups (solving certain problems) can be distinguished; leadership training groups, interpersonal skills training (socio-psychological training); personal growth groups and others. K. Rogers (1947) paid especially great attention to providing psychological assistance to personal growth using group methods. His concept of "encounter groups", focusing on the search for authenticity in the expression of feelings, thoughts and behavior, is closely related to his work in client-centered psychotherapy.

When conducting classes in training groups, it is believed that the group is the real world in miniature. It contains the same life problems of interpersonal relationships, behavior, decision making, conflict resolution, etc. The only difference from reality is that in this “laboratory” everyone can be both an experimenter and the subject of an experiment. First of all, the human relations training group (T-group) teaches how to learn. All group members are involved in a common process of mutual learning, and they learn to rely more on each other than on the leader. Learning how to learn involves first and foremost a process of self-discovery (expanding one's self-image). The most effective model for understanding this process is the Joghari window, named after its inventors Joseph Luft and Harry Ingram.

Joghari Window

IN compliance With Using the Jogari model, we can imagine that each person contains four personal zones:

1) “Arena” is what others know about me and I know myself, or
personal space open to everyone;

2) “Visible” is something that is known only to me (for example, my
fears or love affairs), I carefully hide it from others
vayu;

3) “Blind spot” is what those around me know about me, I
it is not visible (as in the proverb: “In someone else’s eye a sliver is visible, but in your own
the log doesn't notice");

4) “The unknown” is hidden from everyone (the subconscious zone), in
including latent reserve resources for personal growth.

The Joghari Window clearly demonstrates the need to expand contacts and expand the arena. At the beginning of classes, the “arena” is usually small, but as cohesion and mutual understanding in the group increases, it increases, and all the best personal resources are activated. By receiving feedback signals from each other, group members can adjust their own behavior and become more natural in expressing their feelings. An important condition for the group’s work is to focus on the “here and now” principle. What is relevant in a group is only what happens in it. The creation of various experimental group situations will allow you to apply the acquired knowledge and skills of social interaction in real life (in the family, at work).